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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION PROCESSING

DIKW Hierarchy

In Computer Science, Management Information Systems and in Librarianship, experts consider information
in terms of a data-information-knowledge–wisdom (DIKW) hierarchy or pyramid.
The hierarchy referred to variously as the ‘Knowledge Hierarchy’, the ‘Information Hierarchy’ and the
‘Knowledge Pyramid’ is one of the fundamental, widely recognized and ‘taken-for-granted’ models in the
information and knowledge literatures. It is often quoted, or used implicitly, in definitions of data,
information and knowledge in the information management, information systems and knowledge
management literatures. Wisdom is located at the top of a hierarchy of types …. Descending from wisdom
there are understanding, knowledge, information, and, at the bottom, data. Each of these includes the
categories that fall below it

Figure 1. The Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom hierarchy as a pyramid

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What is Data, Information, Knowledge, wisdom and Truth? Are they different or the same?

fact!=data!=information!=knowledge!=wisdom!=truth

• Data:
• Unorganized and unprocessed facts; static; a set of discrete facts about events
• Data are the things given to the analyst, investigator, or problem-solver; they may be
numbers, words, sentences, records, assumptions – just anything given, no matter what
form and of what origin. This used to be well known to scholars in most fields: some
wanted the word data to refer to facts, especially to instrument-readings; others to
assumptions. Scholars with a hypothetico-deductive bent wanted data to mean the
given set of assumptions; those with an empirical bent wanted data to mean the records,
or protocol statements, representing the findings of observation, qualitative or
quantitative
• Data are symbols that represent properties of objects, events and their environments.
They are products of observation. To observe is to sense. The technology of sensing,
instrumentation, is, of course, highly developed.
• Information:
• Aggregated data that makes decision making easier
• Information systems generate, store, retrieve, and process data. In many cases their
processing is statistical or arithmetical. In either case, information is inferred from
data
• What about information? Information can be, and has been, construed to be
• knowledge, personal or public,
• the physical manifestation of knowledge,
• a state or structure transformer,
• knowledge or belief new to subject,
• a member of the data-information-knowledge-(wisdom/understanding)
hierarchy,

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• a construct in thermodynamics,
• entropy or negentropy,
• reduction in uncertainty,
• signal information,
• content or semantic information,
• truthlike information,
• Knowledge
• is derived from information in the same way information is derived from data; it is a
person’s range of information.
• Knowledge is know-how, for example, how a system works. It is what makes possible
the transformation of information into instructions. It makes control of a system
possible.
• Knowledge includes facts about the real-world entities and the relationship between
them. It is an understanding gained through experience, familiarity with the way to
perform a task, and an accumulation of facts, procedural rules, or heuristics

• Knowledge has these Characteristics: It is voluminous in nature and requires proper

structuring, It may be incomplete and imprecise and It may keep on changing
(dynamic).

• Wisdom is not just one type of knowledge, but diverse. What a wise person needs to know and
understand constitutes a varied list: the most important goals and values of life – the ultimate
goal, if there is one; what means will reach these goals without too great a cost; what kinds of
dangers threaten the achieving of these goals; how to recognize and avoid or minimize these
dangers; what different types of human beings are like in their actions and motives (as this
presents dangers or opportunities); what is not possible or feasible to achieve (or avoid); how
to tell what is appropriate when; knowing when certain goals are sufficiently achieved; what
limitations are unavoidable and how to accept them; how to improve oneself and one's
relationships with others or society; knowing what the true and unapparent value of various

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things is; when to take a long-term view; knowing the variety and obduracy of facts,
institutions, and human nature; understanding what one's real motives are; how to cope and
deal with the major tragedies and dilemmas of life, and with the major good things too.

Data Vs information

Most of the time while defining information people thinks that it as similar with data, it is not.
Therefore, what is information? How does it differ from "data"? And what kind of valuable
information does a business require? The following section briefly discusses Data and information.

Data

Data is the factual material used as a basis for discussion or decision, calculating or measuring.
Data alone tells no story. It is raw facts, figures, and observations about physical phenomena or
business transactions. It can be any measurement value that we can get from the real world and
which use as a row material for having an information. It is facts represented by either numeric
values (0-9), alphabetic characters (a-z/A-Z), or special symbols ($, %, @, etc). Data is often
meaningless. For instance, conceder the number 250299. We could interpret in a number of ways.
For example it might be:
• Your ID number
• The date e.g. 25th February 1999
• The number of students in a given college.

Information

Information is considered as one critical material for development. Information can be defined as
the collection of meaningful facts and figures that can be used as a base for guidance and decision
making. Information is data that has been rearranged, processed, organized into a form perceived
as useful by the recipient. Since data is a row material, in order to get information we must
combine, add to or process data in some way to make it meaningful or to change it to information.

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Therefore the meaning we attach to a data can be considered as information. For instance, the red
traffic light is a form of data, the meaning we attach to this data (i.e. STOP) is the information.

Data is raw unprocessed facts and figures Information is a processed data that has
that have no context or purposeful meaning. meaning and is presented in a context.

Data processing

A given data to be information it should have to be processed and have to get a meaning. Therefore
what is data processing? Data processing is the manipulation and transformation of data in to
more meaningful form (or information). It is the process of converting data in to information.
Data (input) processing Output (Information)
Processing may include: -Calculating, Sorting, Summarizing, Merging etc.
E.g. think of the data that is created when you buy a product from a retailer. This includes:
➢ Time and date of transaction (e.g. 10:05 Tuesday 23 December 2003)
➢ Transaction value (e.g. £55.00)
➢ Facts about what was bought (e.g. hairdryer, cosmetics pack, shaving foam) and how much
was bought (quantities)
➢ How payment was made (e.g. credit card, credit card number and code)

At its simplest, this data needs processing at the point of sale in order for the customer to receive
a valid receipt. So the data about the transaction is processed to create "information" - in this case
a receipt. You can imagine that the same data would also be useful to the manager of the retail
store. For example, a report showing totals sales in the day, or which are the best-selling products.
So the data concerning all shop transactions in the day needs to be captured, and then processed
into a management report.

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Therefore in general: Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be
meaningful to the person who receives it.

Characteristics of valuable information

Information is the processed data, on which decision is taken and the subsequent actions are
performed thereafter. For decision to be meaningful and useful the information must fulfill the
following attributes shown bellow.

➢ Accuracy: Information needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it is going to be
put. To obtain information that is 100% accurate is usually unrealistic as it is likely to be
too expensive to produce on time. Accuracy is important. As an example, if government
statistics based on the last census wrongly show an increase in births within an area, plans
may be made to build schools and construction companies may invest in new housing
developments. In these cases any investment may not be recouped.
➢ Reliability: Reliability deals with the truth of information. You can only really use
information confidently if you are sure of its reliability. When researching for an essay in
any subject, we might make straight for the library to find a suitable book. We are
reasonably confident that the information found in a book, especially one that the library
has purchased, is reliable.
➢ Relevance: Information should be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It must
be suitable. What is relevant for one manager may not be relevant for another. The user
will become frustrated if information contains data irrelevant to the task in hand.
For example, a market research company may give information on users’ perceptions of
the quality of a product. This is not relevant for the manager who wants to know opinions
on relative prices of the product and its rivals. The information gained would not be
relevant to the purpose.
➢ Accessibility: Information should be easy to obtain or access. Information kept in a book
of some kind is only available and easy to access if you have the book to hand. A good
example of availability is a telephone directory, as every home has one for its local area.
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➢ Completeness: Information should contain all the details required by the user. Otherwise,
it may not be useful as the basis for making a decision. To meet all the needs of the
situation, you often have to collect it from a variety of sources.
➢ Timely: Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required. Information
received too late will be irrelevant. For example, if you receive a brochure from a theatre
and notice there was a concert by your favorite band yesterday, then the information is too
late to be of use.
➢ Economical: Information should be available within set cost levels that may vary
dependent on situation. If costs are too high to obtain information an organization may
decide to seek slightly less comprehensive information elsewhere. For example, an
organization wants to commission a market survey on a new product. The survey could
cost more than the forecast initial profit from the product. In that situation, the organization
would probably decide that a less costly source of information should be used, even if it
may give inferior information.
➢ Conciseness/ Level of detail: Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow
for its examination and use. There should be no extraneous information. For example, it
is very common practice to summarize financial data and present this information, both in
the form of figures and by using a chart or graph. We would say that the graph is more
concise than the tables of figures as there is little or no extraneous information in the graph
or chart.

ICT/IT

What is ICT?

ICT is an acronym which stands for information and communication technology/or technologies.
However, apart from explaining an acronym, there isn’t a universally accepted definition of ICT?
Why? Because the concepts, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on
an almost daily basis. It’s difficult to keep up with the changes - they happen so fast. A good way

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to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital technology that already exist to help
individuals, businesses and organizations use information.
ICT (information and communications technology - or technologies) is an umbrella term that
includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular
phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the
various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance
learning.
In more general form an ICT can be defined as the use of electronic devices and
telecommunication network for creating, storing, processing, sending, and receiving
information.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the use of computers and
telecommunication facilities for the purpose of gathering, storing, and disseminating information
globally.

What is IT?

Information technology (IT) is the study, design, development, implementation, support or

management of computer-based information systems, particularly computer applications and
computer hardware. IT encompasses all forms of technology used to create, store, exchange, and
use information in its various forms.
IT can be considered as the use of modern technologies for capturing, processing, processing,
storing, retrieval and communication of information whether in the form of numerical data,
text, sound, or image.
➢ It refer to a wide variety of items and abilities used in the creation storage and dispersal of
information
➢ It is the study of information handling and its use in sacristy by means of modern technology
(i.e. do not include the traditional method information handling such as paper and pencil). This
includes the acquitting processing storage and communication of information in any form by

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appropriate means IT, as (computer science) the collection of technologies that deal specifically
with processing, storing, and communicating information, including all types of computer and
communication systems as well as reprographics methodologies.

Component of IT

While dealing with the concepts of IT there are three components that we should have know in
order to use the concept of IT effectively and productively. These are:
➢ Computer
➢ Communications networks, and
➢ Know-how
The ways in which these elements are combined determine the organizations to be productive,
effective and successful

I. Computers

➢ Computer in simple terms, is an electronic machine that can be instructed to accept, process,
store and present data and information
➢ Computer is a device which is used for creating, storing, processing, sending, and receiving
information automatically.
➢ Computer is an electronic machine which is guided by an internally stored program so as to
perform different kind of operation as per the instruction which resides in the system.

II. Communications Network

➢ An integral part of IT is the ability to communicate to send and receive data and information
over a communication network.
➢ A communications network is an interconnection of stations (or devices) at different locations
through a medium that enables people to send and receive data and information and to share
resources.

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➢ Telephone wires and cables are common communication media.

Data communication is the transmission of data and information over a communications medium.

III. Know-how

➢ Other critical part of IT is the ability to draw on the power of IT to solve problems and to take
advantages of the opportunities it creates offered by IT. Therefore IT require or implies know-
how, knowing how to do something well.
➢ Know-how includes
• Familiarity with the tools of IT
• The skills needed to use these tools
• Understanding when to use IT to solve a problem or capitalize on an opportunity..

Data processing life cycle

Data processing life cycle shows the steps involved while processing data in to information.
Information processing (manual or computerized) requires
1. Input data
2. Processing
3. Output and
4. Storage and retrieval
The figure below shows the information processing cycle.

Storage & Retrieval

Input Process Output

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1. Input

➢ Input is the data given to the system in order to be processed

➢ Activities include:-
• Collecting & recording data: in hard copy or soft copy form.
• Classifying & coding input data: - the task of identify one kind of data &
distinguishing it one from the other kind by means of code number or letter
(alphanumeric system) to speeds up processing.
2. Process

➢ Processing includes different operations which are used to convert the input data to
information.
➢ The operations include:-
• Calculating operations: - arithmetic or logical operations
• Summarizing:- reducing the volume of data
• Sorting: - putting in a definite order (either in ascending or descending)
• Merging: - combining a data.
3. Storing and retrieving

Storing: - saving data for future use.

Retrieving: - searching for & finding data which resides in the storage device.

4. Output

➢ Output is the final result of data processing.

➢ Output is the information that we get after the data is processed.
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➢ Output can be in different format, this includes: -

• Hard copy- printed form
• Soft copy-(magnetic form)
• Audio format
• Visual format.

Manual Vs Automated Information Processing

Information processing can be either manual or computerized (automated).

➢ Manual information processing is processing of information using paper, pencil, and brain.
➢ Automated information processing is processing of information with the help of computers
this means that when the above cycles are done with the help of computers. This is much more
flexible than the manual one and a lot faster.

End of Chapter one

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CHAPTER TWO

OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER

2.1 What is a computer?

The word “Computer” comes from Latin word “compute” which means to compute, to
calculate, to think.

Computer is electronic machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or electronic

communication, under the control of an internally stored set of instructions called as program.
Programs usually reside within the computer and are retrieved and processed by the computer
electronically. The program results are stored or routed to output devices, such as video display
monitors or printers. Computers perform a wide variety of activities reliably, accurately, and
quickly.

2.2 Characteristics of COMPUTERS

Computers are meant for processing information. They are capable of taking inputs in different
formats, processing the input data and providing outputs in different formats. In addition to this
there are also additional characteristics that make them so powerful and essential, this include:-

Storage capacity

Computers help to save space and economy by storing very large amount of data. Data stored on
paper that filled the shelves of a registrar office can be stored in a single computer with larger
storage capacity. This saves space, money to buy paper, ink, and shelves. This also helps to have
backup (copy) of the data and put it somewhere else for security purpose. Now day computers can
store data in multiples of tens of Giga bytes. You can also put multiples of hard disks in a computer
to increase its storage capacity.

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Speed

These days Computers process tasks in very short period of time. They can accomplish tasks in
Nanoseconds or less. So they can perform very repetitive activities in slice of time. Computers can
process millions of instruction within a single second. The speed of the computer can be measured
MHz (Megahertz). One MHz is 1 million instructions per second.

Accuracy

Once well programmed, computers accomplish tasks accurately. The perfectness of the set of
instruction that drives the system determines the accuracy of their activities. Faulty instructions
for data processing may lead to faulty result. This can be described by the term known as garbage
in garbage out (GIGO).

Reliability

Reliability is the measure of performance of computers against some predetermined

standard for operation without any failure. Now a day’s computers are used in sensitive areas
that need very high reliability. For example hospitals are using computers in patient diagnosis,
monitoring patient operations. They are also monitoring activities in industries that may cause
failure or success of the company. Computers are also used in nuclear plants that need very high
care and its failure may cause the destruction of a continent or the whole world. In general
computers are becoming reliable devices even in life and death situations.

Versatility/Flexibility

Computers are quite versatile in nature. Versatility, literally, means .with many uses... It can
perform multiple tasks simultaneously at equal ease. For example, you can listen to music while
you are writing some text. Computers can be used for transaction processing, computers can be
used for designing, they can be used for communication, etc. In general, computers can perform
many tasks as per the program (or set of instruction) which reside in the system.
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Diligence and Consistency

Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. It is able to carry repetitive and voluminous tasks. If one million calculations have
to be performed, then the computer will perform the last one-millionth calculation with the same
accuracy and speed as the first calculation.

Resource sharing

Initially computers used to be isolated machines. With tremendous growth of technologies,

computers to day have the capability to connect to each other. This is to mean that computers are
able to connect to each other by establishing a network so as to share data, information as well as
resources like printers. By sharing data and information computer enables one to create large
knowledge base.

2.3 LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Even if computer is powerful device which have the ability to perform tremendous activities, it
also has some drawbacks, this includes:-
➢ Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always persons or humans that are
responsible for programming the computers.
➢ Computer is not intelligent device therefore it can only perform what it is instructed to do,
nothing more and nothing less.
➢ Computers do not provide their own inputs unless people provide it with the inputs.
➢ Computer can not foresee, i.e. it can make plans based on information but it can’t predict for
its success.
➢ Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left for humans.

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2.4 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

In the earliest times peoples use their fingers or pebbles for simple counting or adding. With the
growing need of commerce, people start to develop a device that can replace pebbles and sands.
The history of computer start from the time people needs to have a device that can be used to
calculate. As the name computer, which is a Latin driven word to mean to think, compute, or
recon, implies in earliest time computer is recognized as a device which is associated with
calculation or computation.

2.4.1 Prehistory
Here will discuss some of the devices in which lead to the development computers

Abacus

➢ Is the first concept of calculation

➢ Used by Asian merchants before 5000 BC
➢ Is a manual data processing machine capable of performing addition
➢ It consists of rows of beads in rectangular frame
➢ Beads represent place holders and performs arithmetic operations
➢ It worked on the principle of place value notation

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Figure 1.1Chinese abacus

Napier Bone

➢ Invented in 1614 by Scottish mathematician, Joho Napier

➢ Is a more sophisticated computing machine.
➢ It was the interpretation of Abacus

Figure 1.2 Napier's bones

Pascaline

➢ Invented by a French mathematician Blasé Pascal, in 1642.

➢ Is the first functional automatic calculator
➢ Is also the first mechanical calculating machine that can perform only addition and
subtraction, up to 8 - digit long.

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Figure 1.3 Pascaline

Stepped reconer

➢ Invented by German mathematician Gottfried Whelm Von Leibniz, in 1694

➢ Is a calculator similar to pascaline but it uses stepped cylinders like a music box
➢ Extends the pascaline to perform multiplication and division and to find the square root.
➢ Is the first mass product calculating device
➢ Lack mechanical precision in its construction.

Figure 1.4 a replica of the Stepped Reckoner of Leibniz

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Difference engine

➢ Designed by Charles Babbage in 1822

➢ It is the first commercial calculator.
➢ Is the real beginning of computer
➢ Is a mechanical calculating machine powered by steam, which is fully automatic.

Analytical engine

➢ Designed by Charles Babbage in 1833.

➢ Basic design of the engine includes
• Input device in the form of perforated card containing operating instruction.
• Control unit to allow process instruction in any sequence.
• Output device to produce printed result.
➢ Use punch card to encode the machine instruction.
➢ Store 1000 number up to 50 decimal digits long.
➢ Out line the basic elements of modern computer.

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Figure 1.5 Analytical engine

2.4.2 Modern Computer

The start of the World War II produces a substantial need in the growth of computers capacity,
particularly for military purpose. The modern history of computers development, i.e. the time after
1940, is often discussed with reference to different generation.
Depending on the type of technological achievement or the type of devices used like:-
➢ Basic electronic component
➢ Secondary storage device
➢ Operating system
➢ Access time of the computer and
➢ Computer language used
There are five generations of computer which are discussed below.

First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

➢ Used Vacuum tubes or thermionic valve as a circuitry.

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➢ Have small internal memory based on magnetic drums or relays.

➢ Input device was based on punch card or paper tape.
➢ Output is displayed on printouts.
➢ Use Machine (or low level) language.
➢ Access time measured in milliseconds (thousands of a second).
➢ Consists about 1,000 circuits per cubic foot.
➢ Require extreme conditioning system.
Examples: Harvard Mark I (electromechanical), Whirlwind, ENIAC, EDSAC UNIVAC & IBM
650, UNIVAC I, UNIVAC II, UNIVAC 1101, IBM models 604 etc.

Figure 1.6 First Generation computers: Vacuum Tubes

Figure 1.7 Punch cards

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Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)

➢ used transistors (discrete electronic components)

➢ Use magnetic core or tape as storage device.
➢ Input device was on punch card.
➢ Output was displayed on printout.
➢ Use assembly language like COROL and FORTRAN
➢ Consists of about 100,000 circuits per foot.
➢ Access time measured in microseconds
Examples: -UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC III, NCR 300 series, IBM 7030 Stretch, Honeywell 800,
400 series, General Electric GE 635, LARC, Burroughs B5000 etc.

Figure 1.8 Transistors and Magnetic Drums

Third Generation computers (1964 - early 1970.s)

➢ Use Integrated circuits in place of transistors.

➢ A number of transistors is integrated on a small size silicon chip.
➢ Use IC based (magnetic disk) storage device.
➢ 10 million circuits per square foot
➢ New input/ output devices, like the keyboard and visual displaying unit, were developed.
➢ Access time in 100 nanoseconds (100 times that of second generation computer.)

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➢ Cheaper and made commercial production easier.

Examples: Burroughs 6700, Control Data 3300, Honeywell 200, IBM System/360,
System 3, System 7, NCR Century Series, RCA Spectra 70 series, UNIVAC 9000 series, General
Electric GE 600 series, GE 235 etc.

Figure 1.9 IC’s (Integrated Circuits)

Fourth generation computers (1970.s to present)

➢ Are extension of the fourth generation computers

➢ Introduce very large scale integration circuit or VLSI technology.
➢ Widely known for the use microprocessors.
➢ Circuit density approached 100,000 components per chip and above
➢ billions of circuits per cubic foot
➢ Access time approached nanoseconds
➢ Programming task were simplified
➢ Virtual operating systems were introduced for multiple uses
➢ Are versatile in nature and are also able to form a network.
Examples: IBM System 3090, IBM RISC 6000, IBM RT, ILLIAC IV Cray 2 XMP, HP 9000,
Pentium I, Pentium II. Etc.

Fifth Generation (future generation) computers

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One major behavior of computers which exist in the present day is that they perform what they
instructed to do. This raises the question why? This means;
• Why they learn from their mistakes?
• Why they do not possess the skill of experts?
Therefore, future generation computers are expected to have:-
• Logical decision making capability
• Reasoning capability.
➢ Use super large scale integration circuit (SLSI)
➢ parallel processing will be used
➢ high speed logic and memory chips
➢ Voice/data integration, knowledge-based platforms.
➢ they are called as artificial intelligent (or expert systems)
➢ Generally expected to understand and processes human natural language accordingly.

2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers also differ based on their data processing capabilities. There are different types of
computers which are classified based on different categories of characteristics and are disrobed
below:-

2.5.1 Classification based on purpose

According to the purpose or application it provides, computer can be classified in to two: General
purpose and special purpose computers

General purpose

Design to perform a wide range of tasks. These computers have the ability to perform a range of
tasks. The computers have the ability to store numerous programs. These machines can be used

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for various applications, ranging from scientific as well as business applications. Computers that
you use home and school s are general purpose computers.

Special purpose

Design to handle a specific problem or to perform a single task built into the machine. They lacked
versatility .However, being designed for specific tasks; they can be providing the result very
quickly and effectively. These computers are used for airline reservation, satellite tracking, and air
traffic control.

2.5.2 Classification based on method of operation

Based on the way they process data computers are classified in to three:

Analog computers

Are devices which operate by measuring. They deal with continues variable. They do not compete
directly with numbers; rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure
temperature, voltage, current and etc. It is continuous fluctuation of voltage over time.
E.g. Thermometer, voltmeter, speedometer
Generally, they are computers designed for specific purpose.

Digital Computers

They operate by counting rather than measuring. Deal with discrete variables. They operate
directly upon numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols. Digital
computer is a computing device in which data is represented by discrete numerical quantities. It is
represented by discrete voltage states (0s and 1s). They have very high accuracy and speed than
analog ones.

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E.g. Personal Computers

Hybrid Computers

The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a
hybrid computer. It processes the information by collecting input data with analog method,
converts it into digital quantities, processes the digital values and provides the output in analog
form.

2.5.3 Classification based on functionality

Depending on the functionality (size, speed, cost and performance) computer can be dividing in to
four categories as described below:

Microcomputers

Microcomputer (often called personal computers or PCs for short) is the smallest but most
important and most frequently used type of computer particularly for end users. They are relatively
small or compact. Basically they can be grouped into three: Laptop, Palmtop and Desktop
computers.
Desktop: Desktop computer is the most widely used type of personal computer (microcomputers).
Desktop computers have detachable parts. However, since its size is larger than the other types of
personal computers, it is not easily portable.
Laptop: laptop computers are smaller versions of microcomputers about the size of a briefcase
designed for portability. People can easily carry these personal computers with them in their car,

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on airplane, or when walking from one location to another. Unlike desktop PCs that have mostly
detachable components, laptops include all their components (except their printer) on a single unit.
Palmtop: Palmtop computer is the smallest version of microcomputer which has the same size of
a pocket calculator. It is the most portable computer and is growing in popularity among the latest
entries in the microcomputer market. Palmtops are typically used for a limited number of
functions, such as maintaining personal calendar, name and address files, or electronic worksheets.

Minicomputer

Minicomputer is midrange computer which is able to process and store more data than most
microcomputers but is smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer system. It is designed
to meet the computing needs for several people simultaneously in a small to medium sized business
environment.
➢ Since it is about the size of a two drawer fine cabinet, its size prevents it from being easily
portable as compared to microcomputers.
➢ Minicomputers cost less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers.
➢ Is a multi-user system (carries out a processing task for multiple users working on terminals).
➢ It is capable of supporting 4 to 400 simultaneous users
➢ Since it is multi-user system it is widely used in interactive application in industries, scientific
laboratories, research organizations, universities and colleges etc.
➢ It is also used for real time control and engineering design work.
Some widely used minicomputer are PDP 11, IBM (8000 series), and VAX 7500.

Mainframes

A mainframe is an ultra-high performance computer made for high volume, processor-intensive

computing task. It consists of a high-end computer processor, with related peripheral devices,
capable of supporting large volume of data processing, high performance online transaction
processing system, and extensive data storage and retrieval.

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➢ It is physically larger than micros and minis and usually has processors with faster instruction
processing speeds.
➢ A mainframe computer is generally placed in a special computer room where environmental
factors, such as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions are closely monitored. And also
because of the computer’s cost and the value of the information stored there, the rooms have
security systems allowing only authorized personnel to enter.
➢ It is capable of supporting around 1000 multiple users working at time. Therefore, it is
designed to handle the information processing need of organization with many employees and
customers or with complex computational problems.
➢ They are also used as the center of computer networking. These computers are used by
organizations that have enormous and complex data processing assignments.
➢ Widely used in business or government organization to provide a centralized
Control, storage, processing and management.
Some example of mainframe computers are IBM.s ES000, VAX 8000, and CDC 6600.

Supercomputer

The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful computer
designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the
fastest, most powerful, which can resolve a complex mathematical equation in a few hours, which
would take a scientist a life time with paper and pencil.
➢ Is the most expansive computer designed for an intensive tasking.
➢ As many as sixty miles of wiring are closely packed inside supercomputers and tremendous
amounts of heat are generated. Because of this, supercomputers demand special cooling
requirement and the room itself should be air-conditioned.
➢ In addition, highly trained data processing professionals are required to operate
supercomputers.

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➢ Typically, supper computer used to solve multi-variant mathematical problems of existent

physical process, such as aerodynamics, metrology, and plasma physics.
➢ These computers can take inputs from over 10,000 individual computers and users at the same
time.
➢ Super computers are largely used by research organizations, military defense systems,
national weather forecasting agencies, large corporations, aircraft manufacturer, etc.
CRAY-3, Cyber 205, PARAM are some well known super computers.

2.6 USE OF COMPUTERS

For the last few decades, computer technology has revolutionized the businesses and other aspects
of human life all over the world. People use computers in many ways. Some application areas of
computers are listed below.
Science: scientists have been using computers to develop theories, to analysis, and test the date.
The fast speed and the accuracy of the computer allow different scientific analyses to be carried
out. E.g. detail study of how earth quakes affect buildings or population affect weather pattern,
satellite based application.
Education: computers have also revolutionized the whole process of education. Currently, the
classroom, libraries, and museums are effectively utilizing computers to make the education much
more interesting.
Medicine and health care: now doctors are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to
monitoring a patient’s status during complex surgery.
Engineering /architectures: the architects and engineering are extremely using computers in
designing and drawings. By using the techniques like virtual reality, architects can explore houses
that have been designed
Entertainment: computers are used to control the images and sounds. The special effects, which
mesmerize the audience, would not have been possible without the computer. In addition,
computerized animation and color full graphics have modernized the film industry.

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Communication: E-Mail or Electronic Mail is one of the communication media in which computer
is used. Through e-mail the message and report are passed from one person to one or more person
by the aid of computer and the telephone line. The advantage of this service is that while
transferring the message it save time, avoids wastage of paper, and so on.
Business application: There are various concern for which computer is used such as in business
applications (like at the sale counter) that require immediate response from computer. There are
various concerns from which computers are used such as in business forecasting, to prepare pay
bills and personal record, in banking operation and data storage, in the various types of Life
Insurance Business, and as an aid to management.
Publishing: Computers have created a filed known as DTP or Desk top publishing. In
DTP, with the help of computer and a laser printer one can perform the publishing job all by
oneself.

End of Chapter Two

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CHAPTER THREE

Organization of a Computer System

Computer has visible structure known as architecture. The computer architecture is

the science of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create a
computer that meant functional performance and coast goal. Therefore, computer
organization is grouping the components together to achieve a common objective or
goal.

3.1 Computer system

A computer is a data processing machine which consists of interrelated components that

work together as a single unit. Computer is not a single system rather it is an
interconnection of various subsystems connected to it. The computer system refers to the
computer itself and all the components interconnected to it. Basically the computer
system is categorized into two components:
➢ Hardware component
➢ Software component

3.1.1 Computer Hardware

The computer hardware is the physical part of the computer that you see, you use to and
the parts you can touch. It includes electronic devices, which have the potential for
performing the task of solving a problem. The computer hardware is composed of three
main components namely:
➢ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
➢ Memory unit (Storage devices)
➢ Input /Output devices

I. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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The CPU is the collection of electronic circuits made up of millions of transistors placed
onto integrated circuits (chip) that performs Arithmetic and Logical operations and
controls the operations of the other elements of the system. The CPU may be a single
chip or a series of chips The CPU follows the instructions of the software to manipulate
data into information. CPU also called as microprocessor, executes program instructions
and performs the computer’s processing activity. The computer CPU Clock speed is
measured in MHz (megahertz) millions of instructions per second. Clock speed is the rate
at which the processor processes information
▪ It is the part of a computer hardware that executes program instructions.
▪ It is the result of VLSI technology.
In general the CPU has two major functions
▪ Performing arithmetic and logical operation and
▪ Controlling every activity of the computer like:-
• Controlling internal and external devices
• Controlling memory usage for storing data and instruction.
• Controlling sequence of operation.

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figure 3.1. CPU in relation to memory and input output devices

Steps for CPU tasks

• Fetch instruction: The CPU read instruction from the memory
• Interpret instruction: the instruction must be decoded to determine what action
is required
• Fetch data: the execution of an instruction may require reading of data from
memory or an I/O module.
• Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing some
arithmetic or logical operation on data.
• Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an
I/O module.

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figure3. 2. shows four operation of the CPU machine cycle

In order to able to do these the CPU needs

- To temporarily store some data (RAM).
- To remember the location of the last instruction. (Cache memory)
- To store instruction and data temporarily while execution the CPU needs a small
internal memory called registers.

➢ System bus transports data and instruction from RAM to processor and vice versa
The CPU has three major components
The Control Unit
The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
Register

figure 3.3 shows how CPU interacted with primary memories through system bus

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

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Is the component of the CPU which contains the electronic circuitry that executes
arithmetic and logical operations.
• Arithmetic unit: - perform actual computing and calculations on are the
Fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
• Logical unit: - based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical comparison
between data items. The comparison determines whether one information is
greater than, less than or equal to the other. That is, A = B, A > B, A < B, A>=B,
A<=B

Control unit

The control unit is like the human brain and it controls all of the activities of the computer.
It directs the entire computer system to carry out every activity. That is, it regulates the
operations of the entire computer system, reads instruction from a memory and translates
it into an activity; and regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may
consume.
• All computer activities are carried out according to instructions that the control unit
receives.
• The control unit does not actually execute the instructions (just as the brain does
not do the walking or the talking); rather it instructs or directs other processing
elements to do so.
• The control unit tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program's
instructions. It directs the movement of electronic signals between:
▪ Main memory and the arithmetic/logic unit
▪ Main memory and the input and output devices

Registers

Registers are special high-speed circuitry areas that temporarily hold data, keep track of
instructions, and hold the location & results of operations.
• Are thought of as the CPU’s working memory

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• Registers are contained in the processor and hold data to be processed

immediately.
• Data and program instructions are loaded from main memory into the registers just
before processing. Depending on the processor type, a register may typically store
8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.

Coprocessors

• When certain task is performed again and again, special purpose chips can be
designed to handle it quickly and efficiently.
• These chips, called coprocessor chips are mounted on the processor board and
function simultaneously with the primary processor chip
• By taking a frequently processing work away from the main processor, they free
the central processing unit to focus on general processing needs.
For example, Math coprocessor chips are used frequently by scientist and engineers
who need to do large amount of intensive calculations i.e. does all calculations involving
floating point (decimal) numbers such as scientific calculations and algebra.
Graphic coprocessor is another example of coprocessor that used in the manipulation
of graphics and images.
Multi-core processors
• A multi-core processor is a chip with two or more separate processors
• A dual-core processor is a single chip that contains two separate
processors
• A quad-core processor is a single chip that contains four separate
processors
• Each processor on a multi-core chip generally runs at a slower clock
speed, but increases overall performance
II. Storage devices

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figure 3.4 Different types of storage devices

Computer systems need to store data and instruction internally or external to the system.

Memory size (Storage capacity)

In a digital system, every piece of information is stored in a bit (or multiple collections of
bits).
• Data represented as a combination of on or off circuit states (bits), to be stored in
the memory.
• The size of memory is measured by the number of storage locations it contains.
Each storage location or byte has a predetermined capacity
• A bit is a basic unit of memory. It is also a variable that can have only one of two
values: it can either be a 1, or be a 0. A byte is the amount of memory required
to store one digit, letter or character. A byte is equal to eight bits.

Table 3. 1 Memory Unit

Unit Symbol Bytes
Byte B 23= 1 byte
Kilobyte KB 210= 1024 byte
Megabyte MB 220 = 1.048,576 byte / 1024 KB

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Gigabyte GB 230=1,073,741,824 byte / 1024 MB

Terabyte TB 240=1,099,511,627,776 byte / 1024 GB
Petta Byte PB 250=1,125,899,906,842,624 byte/1020
TB
Exa Byte EB 260=1,152,921,504,606,846,976
byte/1020 PB
Zetta Byte ZB 270=1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
byte/ ZB

There are two categories of memories:

➢ Primary memory/storage
➢ Secondary memory/storage

A. Primary Memory Device (Main /Internal Memory)

Main memory is part of the computer that holds data and instruction for processing. It is
an internal storage area which is physically located close to the CPU, to decrease access
time. The CPU interacts closely with memory referring to it both for instructions, data and
information. Memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for program
instructions and data. In general it can be used:
• To hold data and instruction temporarily receiving from input devices and sending
them to output devices during processing
• To store data necessary while execution
• To provide additional space for programs in execution.
• To hold the computers operating system program
• To hold application programs word processing, spreadsheet, etc.

Main Memory is divided into two:

➢ Read Only Memory (ROM)
➢ Random Access Memory (RAM).

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a) Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a kind of read only memory which is used to store initial start-up instruction and
routines in BIOS (basic input/output system), which can only read by the CPU, each time
switched on. The contents of ROM are not lost even in case of sudden power failure, thus
making it non-volatile in nature. One important reason that a computer needs ROM is
that it must know what to do when the power is first turned on. ROM is random access in
nature which means the CPU can randomly access the any location within ROM.
Improvement in technology for constructing flexible ROM comes in various types, namely,
PROM (programmable read only memory), EPROM (electrically programmable read only
memory), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory).

b) Random-Access Memory (RAM)

A kind of memory that can be instantly changed is called read-write memory or

random-access memory (RAM). RAM is a computers temporary data storage area and
can be defined as a block of sequential memory location, each of which has a unique
address determining the location and those locations containing the data element.

A memory address is a number that indicates a location on the memory chips, just as a
post office box number indicates a slot into which mail is placed. This type of memory is
referred to as random-access memory because of its ability to access every byte of data
directly.
Remember that the data in ROM is permanent while the data in RAM changes constantly
(i.e. it is volatile in nature). The electronic circuits used to construct RAM can be classified
as dynamic RAM (DRAM), synchronized dynamic RAM (SDRAM), or static RAM (SRAM).
DRAM, SDRAM, and SRAM all involve different ways of using transistors and capacitors
to store data.
Cache memory
• Cache memory is special form of memory that holds frequently accessed data or
program instructions to improve the computer system's performance.
• A special form of high-speed memory that eliminates the need to move data to and
from main memory repeatedly.
• A cache consists of ultra fast static random-access memory (SRAM) chips, which
rapidly move data to CPU.
• Cache memory acts as a temporary holding/processing cell.
• It is a bridge between a slow device and a fast device.

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As data requests pass between the CPU and main memory, they travel through cache
memory and are copied there. Subsequent requests for the same data are recognized
and captured by the cache memory cell. The cache cell then fulfills the data request to
the CPU.

B. Secondary Storage (External/Auxiliary memory)

Secondary memories are a kind of memory which are external to the main circuit board
and connected through a cable. They have high capacity than primary memory. Unlike
RAM, is a part of the computer that retains data permanently after the power is turned off.
Unlike ROM, it is possible to write to the secondary storage anytime. Secondary storage’s
can be categorized as:
➢ Magnetic storage and
➢ Optical storage
a. Magnetic storage devices

These are storage devices which are made up of iron oxide particle mixed with a binding
agent. They use a magnetic technology to read and write data from and to the
surface of storage area. The most common types of secondary storage are:
❖ Magnetic tape
❖ Magnetic disc
❖ Magnetic tape: - are kinds of storage device which look like with a video tape (VHS).
Magnetic tape is approximately one - half inch wide is made of magnetized plastic
film. Data are stored on a magnetic tape by running the tape over the electromagnetic
read/write head known as tape dive or streamer, which magnetizes small spots on the
tape. It stores data sequentially. And also the data accessing mechanism is
sequential. So to get to the data you are looking for, a computer must read every
record (data) preceding it, for this reason it has slows access time. It is mostly used
as a backup (to keep data) in different organization.

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figure3.5. magnetic tape VHS

❖ Magnetic disk: - These devices store data as charges on a magnetically sensitive
medium such as a disk coated with a fine layer of metallic particles. Magnetic disks
allow to store and access information randomly and overcome the slow access time
commonly found in tape files. The most common magnetic disk includes floppy, flash
, hard disks, and external hard disks.
• Floppy Disk/Diskette: is storage medium which is made up of flexible plastic
covered with magnetic material. It uses a floppy drive, which use to write or
read data from surface of floppy. It used to store programs and data for a
longer period outside the computer system. Have low access time and low
storage capacity about 1.44MB. now a day floppy disk seems out of use and
counted as outdated technology.

figure 3.6 Floppy Disk/Diskette

• The Hard Disk: it is mass storage media found mostly inside the system unit. It
uses a spinning magnetic platter(s), to store bits. Hard disks can store enormous
amounts of data, but it HAS lower access time than RAM. But accessing data
from hard disk is faster than accessing data from floppy disk. They also don't
lose their content when the power is turned off.

figure 3.7 magnetic disk/hard disk

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• External Hard Disk: is a type of huge memory which carries equivalent or more
amount of data storage with the internal hard disk up to 1TB or more. this type
of memory storage connected via cable which uses USB port , moreover ; it is
very important to back up the user's data separately outside the internal system.
• Removable Flash Memory:
✓ Memory Card
Used in Mobile phones / game consoles / cameras etc. They are available
in different size eg. 2GB up to 32GB and more
Eg. SD card
✓ USB Flash Drives
✓ PC Card / Express Card
Adds memory, storage, sound, communications and other capabilities

figure3.8 different types of removable flash memories, SD card, flash disk etc..

b. Optical disk/storage:
Optical storage devices use the principle of light (laser technology) to store information.
The data is actually recorded by burning on a tiny hole which is called pitch to store
0.s/1.s. Optical disks are storage medium from which data is read and written by lasers.
The two common types are:
➢ CD and
➢ DVD.

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• Compact disk (CD): is a form of data storage device that uses optical material rather
than magnetic material. The term compact disk is used because it uses exactly the
same format as the audio compact disc. Have three variation, these are CD-ROM,
CD-R and CD-RW.
▪ CD-R (CD Recordable, record/write once but read many times).
▪ CD-RW (CD rewritable, read/write many times).
▪ CD-ROM (CD read only memory).
• Digital Video Disk (DVD): DVD is a type of optical disc storage technology. A digital
video disc (DVD), also known as digital versatile disk, looks like a CD-ROM disc, but
it can store greater amounts of data. Thus, DVDs are often used to store full-length
movies and other multimedia content that requires large amounts of storage space. It
requires appropriate DVD deriver to read/write this type of media.

figure 3.9 Optical Disk/CD/DVD

Virtual memory

Most modern operating systems employ a method of extending RAM capacity, known as
"virtual memory". If your computer lacks the random access memory (RAM) needed to
run a program or operation, Windows uses virtual memory to compensate.

Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your hard disk.
When RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a space called a paging
file. Moving data to and from the paging file frees up RAM to complete its work.

The more RAM your computer has, the faster your programs will generally run. If a lack
of RAM is slowing your computer, you might be tempted to increase virtual memory to
compensate. However, your computer can read data from RAM much more quickly than
from a hard disk, so adding RAM is a better solution.

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Computers processing speed can be increased by the following factors:-

a) Cache memory
b) Coprocessors
c) Increased chip density and integration
• Chip density is the number of circuits on a single chip.
• Reducing the distance traveled, even a little, makes a tremendous difference in
the computer’s speed.
• This fundamental principle underlies the continual emphasis on miniaturization of
circuits and having greater chip density.
• Trends in lithography and process technology indicate that billion-transistor
computer chips will be possible well before the end of the decade. Such a large
number of transistors could be used to implement dynamic learning techniques to
improve the performance of a processor for many applications. However, the
efficiency of use of transistors in this manner is not high. A more attractive use of
the available transistors is to bring more of the entire system onto the chip.
Other Major System Unit Components

1. The Motherboard:

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figure 3.10 The Mother/System board

The motherboard, also called the system board, is the main circuit board in the system
unit. The motherboard acts as a container for the different components in the system unit:
• Microprocessor
• Any coprocessor chips
• RAM chips
• ROM chips
• Other memory types
• Expansion slots where additional circuit boards (called expansion boards) may be
plugged in.
• Power supply unit
• Hard disk, floppy drive, DVD RW drive,

2. Computer Bus:

The system bus is a metallic conductor through which information travels within a PC. It
links the computer’s main components, CPU, memory, control logic and I/O devices. In
other words, it is simply a pathway through which data travels from one place to another

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inside the system unit. A bus that connects CPU, memory, and I/O components is known
as system bus. System bus has three main variations:
➢ Data bus
➢ Address bus
➢ Control bus

a. The data bus: is used to transfer data from memory to CPU or vice versa. In other
words, it is responsible for transferring data between the processor and the slower main
memory. The greater the number of wires, the greater the number of bits you can send
and receive at the same time. The size of a data bus is typically 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits.

b. The Address bus: is a set of wires carrying the addressing information used to
describe the memory location to which the data is being sent or from which the data is
being retrieved. Used to supply the address of a particular location for the CPU, while
reading or writing operation is done by the CPU. For the CPU to read or write data, it must
be able to specify the precise location of the data in system memory. Such locations are
identified through the use of an address bus.

c. The Control bus: carries signal that tell the computer to read or write Data to or from
a given memory address, input device or output device. In other words, it synchronizes
and co-ordinates the operation of a CPU with other devices in the computer. Controls the
access to data and address bus and also used to transfer commands and timing signals.

3. Power supply Unit:

A power supply unit (PSU) is an integral part of a computer, is located inside the system
unit. A power cord connects the power supply to an electrical outlet. The power supply
converts AC current to DC and provides electricity to all the built-in/internal components
of a system. Additional peripherals such as monitors, printers, and modems have their
own power supplies and need individual electrical connections.

Modern personal computers universally use a switched-mode power supply. Some

power supplies have a manual selector for input voltage, while others automatically
adapt to the supply voltage.

Most modern desktop personal computer power supplies conform to the ATX form factor.
ATX power supplies are turned on and off by a signal from the motherboard. They also
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provide a signal to the motherboard to indicate when the DC power lines are correct so
that the computer is able to boot up

figure 3.11 power supply unit

4. Fans

The processor of a computer generates heat. For this reason, computers are equipped
with internal fans that circulate air to keep the CPU at the proper operating temperature.
The absence of this cooler or fan around the CPU will cause damage from overheating. .

figure 3.12 CPU fan

III. Input/ Output Devices

Input/ Output (I/O) devices are the part of the hardware through which the users
communicate with the machine.

A. Input devices

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Input device are electro mechanical devices that use to feed information to the computer.
These devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and program instruction
into the computer system.
Examples of common input devices include:
➢ Keyboard
➢ Pointing devices
o Mice, trackballs, joysticks, touch pads, and Light pens
➢ microphones
➢ Scanning devices
➢ Digital cameras
➢ Optical data reader

Keyboard
Is the most common input device which used to enter data and instruction. It consists of
a set of typewriter-like keys that enable one to enter data into a computer. Consists of five
types of keys:

figure 3.13 keyboard

 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number,
punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
 Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform
certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo
key, and Esc.

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 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled
as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from
program to program.
 Navigation keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or web pages
and editing text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page Down,
Delete, and Insert.
 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The
keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding
machine.(0 to 9, +, - *, /)

Pointing Devices

They use the screen pointer to point on the screen. The principal pointing tools used with
microcomputers are the mouse, the trackball, the joystick, and the touch pad, all of which
have variations.

a. Mouse:
Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on
a display screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface so that
the movement of the device is translated on to a screen pointer.
Types of mouse
• Mechanical: has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions
and mechanical sensors to detect the direction to which the ball is rolling, and
move the screen pointer accordingly.
• Opto-mechanical: same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect
motion of the ball.
• Optical- uses a laser to detect the mouse’s movement.
• Laser mouse :
• Air mouse :
• Wireless mouse:

b. Joystick:

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figure 3.14 Joystick

A joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle, like a gearshift lever,
mounted on a base with one or two buttons. Joysticks are principally used in video games,
in some computer-aided design systems, and in computerized robot systems. Special
joysticks do exist for people who are unable to use a mouse or trackball.

c. Trackballs

figure 3.15 Track ball

A trackball is used for the same purposes as a mouse and is popular on laptop computers.
A trackball is like an upside down mouse. A mouse moved over a pad. A trackball
remains stationary, and the user moves the ball with his or her fingers or palm. One
or more buttons for choosing options are incorporated into the design of the trackball.
d. Touch pad
Touch pads let you control the cursor/pointer with your finger i.e. the user simply moves
a finger on the pad. Touch pads are flat, rectangular devices that use a very weak
electrical field to sense your touch. As you move your fingertip, the cursor follows the
movement. Touch pads most found on many portable computer keyboards and on a
system with a built- in screen sensor.

f. Light pen:

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figure 3.17 some examples of Digital Pen

Light pen is used to point at a monitor, serving a similar function to a mouse. A touch
sensitive screen is a method of input based on touching a specially designed screen in
particular places. It is typically used in an application such as a tourist information system,
where information can be obtained by touching menu options displayed on the screen.

g. Voice Input:

• The process of entering input by speaking into a microphone

• Voice recognition is the computer’s capability of distinguishing spoken words
Microphone
These use to capture and enter voice or sounds in to computer system for processing.
Converts a person’s (speech) input into digital form. It is often used in multimedia
systems.

h. Video input:

• Process of entering full-motion images into computer

• Video capture card is adapter card that converts analog video signal into digital signal that
computer can use
• Digital video (DV) camera records video as digital signals
Web cam

Web cam is used to capture video and still images, send e-mail messages with
video attachments, add live images to instant messages, broadcast live images
over the Internet, and to make video telephone calls on Internet e.g. Skype

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figure 3. 18 Video Chat using web cam technology

Video conferencing
• Two or more geographically separated people who use network or Internet to
transmit audio and video data using this technology people can attend meeting
or conference without traveling to the actual place.

Scanners: Are input devices that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and
translate the information into a form that a computer can use.

figure 3. 19 Scanner

Optical data reader

This includes a different variation of input devices read and input data using light. One
example is Bar code scanners, which used read computer readable code (bar code).

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figure 3.20 Barcode reader

Terminals
Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
• Self-service banking machine that connects to a host computer through a network
• basically it used to withdraw money, to know the balance etc...
Eg. CBE and Dashen Bank are providing this service even here in ASTU.
Biometric
Authenticates person’s identity by verifying personal characteristic
• Fingerprint reader captures curves and indentations of fingerprint
• Hand geometry system measures shape and size of person’s hand
• Iris recognition system reads patterns in blood vessels in back of retina

B. Output Devices
Are devices which used to convert a machine readable code in to human readable by
processing (converting) in to graphical, alphanumeric, or audiovisual form. In general they
are a kind of peripheral device that enables a computer to communicate (send out)
information to the user. Common types of output devices are:
➢ Monitor (visual displaying unit)
➢ Printer
➢ Speaker, Ear/head phone
➢ LCD Projector
➢ Fax Machine

A. monitor:

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A monitor or visual displaying unit is the common output for text and graphics. Allow to
have a visual output, which means output produced by a computer system appears
visually on the display screen. There are two types of monitors LCD and CRT

LCD monitor Uses liquid crystal display

• Has a small footprint
• Mobile devices that contain LCD displays include Notebook computer, Tablet
PC, ultra personal computer, portable media player, smart phone, and PDA

Quality of LCD
• Resolution, Response time, Dot Pitch, and Contrast Ratio

figure 3. 22 LCD monitor

CRT monitor uses Cathode-Ray Display

• Contains cathode-ray tube (CRT)
• Screen coated with tiny dots of phosphor material
• Each dot consists of a red, blue, and green phosphor
• Common sizes are 15, 17, 19, 21, and 22 inches
• Viewable size is diagonal measurement of actual viewing area

figure 3.23 CRT monitor

B. Printer

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Printers are devices used for producing permanent output on paper. Such output is
sometimes referred to as hard copy. Printers can be classified according to their printing
speed, the quality of output produced, & the printing method. Accordingly, they are
classified as:
➢ Impact
➢ Non-impact

figure 3. 24 Printers

I. Impact printers:
Use a pin or a hammer that strikes a paper and an inked ribbon to form a character. Work
like a typewriter. There are three types of impact printers:
➢ dot-matrix printer
➢ Daisy wheel printers and
➢ Line printers

ii. Non-impact printers:

Non-impact printers are faster printers than impact printers. Non-impact printers form
characters and images without direct physical contact between the printing machine and
the paper. They use spry or tonner powder than a ribbon. There are three types of
nonimpact printers:
➢ Ink-jet printer
➢ thermal printer and
➢ laser printer

C. Speaker
• This are devises specially used by the computer for providing audio output
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• Computer component that produces music, speech, or other sounds

D. LCD Projector
• Device that takes text, images and video from computer screen and projects them onto
larger screen usually on clean wall boards.
• DLP projector
• LCD projector

figure 3. 25 LCD projector

E. Fax Machine
• Device that transmits and receives documents over telephone lines
• Converts an original document into a digitized image

figure 3.26 Fax Machine

3.1.2. Computer Software

Software is a generic term given for an organized collection of computer data and
instruction. It is a finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a
given job. The set of instruction is also known as programs. Software is a collection of
programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task using a computer.
Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software
makes the interface between the user and the electronic components of the computer.
Generally Computer software is classified into two:
➢ System software and
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➢ Application software

Based on ownership software’s are classified into two

Proprietary/commercial software: - is computer software licensed under

exclusive legal right of the copy right holder.
E.g.:- Window family OS, Microsoft office Packages, AVG antivirus.
Free and open source software: - is a software that have partially or fully freedom
of usage, making copies, and modifying some or all of the components.
E.g.:- Linux OS, Ubuntu OS, ……
I. System software

System software consist several programs which are directly responsible for controlling,
integrating, and managing the individual hardware component of the computer system.
System software is a generic term for referring to any computer program whose purpose
is to help the user to run the computer and able to make the computer functional. System
software is the low-level software required to manage computer resources and support the
production or execution of application programs. They usually interact either with the
hardware or the application.
Function of system software
• It organizes and manages the machine’s resources
• It handles the input/output devices.
• It controls the hardware
• It makes complex hardware more users friendly.
• It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
In general, system software is classified in to:
➢ Operating system
➢ Language software

Operating system

It’s a program that acts as an interface between the user, the computer software and the
hardware resources. It provides a software platform on top of which other program can
run. Operating system is the first layer of software loaded in to the computer working
memory.
Basic function of the operating system is

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▪ Process management
▪ Memory management
▪ Device management
▪ File management
▪ Security management
▪ User interfacing
▪ Coordination of communication on the network.

Examples: - Windows filmily OS (Window XP, vista, 7), Linux, Mac OS, UNIX, Ms-DOS

Language software

Language software is also called as programming software (development software).

Language software enables to develop an application or even the operating system
software. These categories of software enable to write a set of instruction so as to develop
software.
Examples includes
• Software testing tools and testing software
• Program development tools
• Programming languages software

II. Application Software

Is software program that performs a specific function directly for the end user. It is developed
using language software and includes a set of related programs designed to carry certain
task. It usually called as an application packages as they may include a number of
programs along with operating instruction, documentation and so forth. Depending on
their function or task they are categorized in to the following.

a. Word Processors

Word-processing, Is a computerized typewriter that is used for creating and editing text
based documents, from simple memos to full-color illustrated reports, brochures – and
even books. The most widely-used word processor is Microsoft Word.
E.g.: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word

b. Spreadsheet

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▪ Is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU, which is manly, used for accounting
purpose, such as preparing payroll, financial analysis and other mathematical
calculation.
▪ You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels,
numbers & formulas.
E.g.: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel

c. Database management system.

▪ Allow you to store information on a computer in organized way, retrieve it when
you need it and update it when necessary.
▪ Database has four basic elements
1. Tables: has columns used to specify field name and rows contains different
column's data accordingly
2. Forms: another way to insert data in to the tables
3. Queries: used to retrieve selected data requested by the user
4. Reports: provides summarized information based on the query the user
request Eg Student's grade report.
▪ Student database can store all students data in structured way this database helps
to store,update, edit and also delete the student's data. This database also used
to calculate and generate student's grade report each semester. The student
database can comprises tables E.g. Student, course, Instructor etc..
▪ There are number of database management systems applications.
E.g.: MySql, Oracle, and Microsoft Access.

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CHAPTER FOUR

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORK

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Network is a system in which a number of independent devices are linked together through cable,
microwave or satellite in order to share data or resources. It is a collection of computers and
peripheral devices connected by communication links that allow the network components to work
together.

4.2. Data communication

Data communication is the transmission of data between a transmission medium. It is the process
of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in a particular time and place. It is exchange
of data between two or more parties.

Forms of data can be Text, Image, Audio or Video

For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental characteristics should be
considered:

• Delivery: the system should deliver data to the correct or intended destination.
• Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error free).
• Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

The basic components of data communications include

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▪ Sender: the device that used to send a message.

▪ Receiver: the device that receive the message.
▪ Message: a set of information or data that is going to be communicated.
▪ Medium: a communication channel over which the data is passed from sender to receiver.
▪ Protocol: a set of rules that coordinate the exchange of information.

4.2.1. Modes of Data Transmission

Modes of data transmission mean the direction of data exchange between the sender and receiver.

Simplex

In this mode of data transmission, one device is always sender and the other is always receiver.
Thus data is transmitted in one direction only from the sender to the receiver. This type of
connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions (for example, from your
computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...).

An example of a simplex transmission is a television or radio broadcast. The main transmitter

sends out a signal (broadcast), but it does not expect a reply, as the receiving devices like TV
Antenna cannot send a reply back to the transmitter

Sender Receiver

Half Duplex (Semi-duplex)

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In this mode, data can be transmitted in both directions, but in only one direction at a time. In this way
of communication first a sender sends data and the receiver acknowledges it and sends the response
back to the previous sender at different time. At one time one device can be a sender and at another
time it can be a receiver. This half duplex is transmission of data in both directions at different
time.

A common example of a half- duplex communication is a citizens band (CB) radio or wireless
handsets (generally used by military personnel) where the user talks at a time and another listens.

Sender or Receiver or

Receiver Sender

Full Duplex

In this mode of transmission data can be transmitted in both directions at the same time. The two
devices can send data the each other simultaneously. This mode of transmission is important when
fast data transfer is required.

An example of a full-duplex communication is a telephone. A person using a telephone can either

be sender or receiver at the same time i.e. person can hear and talk at the same time. All the new
network cards are full duplex.

4.3. Computer Network

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Computer network is a collection of two or more computers, which are connected to each other to
share information and resources. Network users are able to share files, printers, and other
resources; send electronic messages; and run programs on other computers. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

In most cases, this connection is made via electrical cables that carry the information in the form
of electrical signals. But in some cases, other types of connections are used. For example, fiber-
optic cables let computers communicate at extremely high speeds by using impulses of light.
Wireless networks let computers communicate by using radio signals, so the computers are not
restricted by physical cables.

A network is nothing more than two or more computers and collection of hardware components
connected to each other by communication channels so that they can exchange information such
as email messages or documents, or share resources, such as disk storage or printers.

A network also consists of communication channels that are responsible for connecting devices
with each other and transmitting information...

Some of the most important advantages of a computer network system are:

• Data sharing between different users of computers with certain amount of data security and
access control.
• Sharing of software application systems.
• Distribution of computing load on computers at distributed locations to reduce peak load.
• Sharing or high power computing resources situated at a central location on a need basis.
• Sharing of costly special devices by several computer users.

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• Facilitate communications: Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and

easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video
conferencing.

Based on the way computers interact to each other in the network, network is divided in to two:

➢ Peer-to-peer network
➢ Client server network

A. client-server network

In client server network, the client computers send request for information or requests to use
resources to other computers, called servers that control data and applications. This is to mean that,
to complete a particular task, there is a centralized host computer known as server and users who
present request to servers known as clients.

The clients are individual computer which provide request to the server where as the server is the
computer which interact by responding to the request.

The advantages of client-server over peer-to-peer include:

• A Client-server configuration is preferable to peer-to-peer, especially in a small

business environment where there is an expectation of growth.
• user workstations to function as unburdened clients
• can provide sophisticated system-wide services
• is configurable for maximum security

Disadvantages
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• higher initial capital investment to establish

• A greater level of technology expertise required to configure and manage

B. Peer-to-peer network

In a peer-to-peer network, computers send messages and requests directly to one another without
a server intermediary. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.

Because peer-to-peer PCs have their own hard disk drives that are accessible by all computers,
each PC acts as both a client (information requestor) and a server (information provider) and there
is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer
determines what data on that computer is shared on the network.

The advantages of peer-to-peer over client-server include:

• No need for a network administrator

• Network is fast/inexpensive/simple to setup & maintain
• Each PC can make backup copies of its data to other PCs for security.
• Easiest type of network to build, peer-to-peer is perfect for both home and office use.

Disadvantage of using Peer-to-peer network

• in extensibility, tends to overburden user workstations by having them play the role
of server to other users
• is largely unsecured

• Is typically unable to provide system-wide services since the typical workstation

will run a standard desktop operating system incapable of hosting any major service
(e.g., a post office).

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Usually business organizations own their private internetworks used for internal purposes. There
are two types of internetworks.

Intranet
An intranet is a network open only for internal employees of a company. The employees should
use the network for inter-organization procedures - may be to communicate with a remote branch.
Extranet
Extranet is another type of internetwork owned by a single enterprise. Instead of inside-usage, an
extranet will offer services to the outside world - mainly to the customers and suppliers of the
venture. (E.g. ATM network)

4.4. Network Topology/ Physical Topology

The physical topology is the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables and other
components on the network. Network Topology refers to layout of a network and how different
nodes in a network are connected to each other and how they communicate. There are five common
types of topologies:

➢ Bus topology
➢ Star topology
➢ Ring topology
➢ Mesh topology
➢ Hybrid topology

A. Bus topology
Bus topology uses a common bus or backbone (a single cable) to connect all devices with
terminators at both ends.

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In a Bus Topology, as the message passes each station, the stations check the message’s destination
address. If the address in the message matches the station’s address, the station receives the
message. If the address does not match, the bus carries the message to the next station, and so on.

To avoid collisions that occur when two or more nodes try to use the line at the same time, bus
networks commonly rely on collision detection or Token Passing to regulate traffic. The end points
of cables in bus topology should be terminated with terminators. Otherwise signal bounce will
occur and affects the whole network. In bus topology only one device can send data at the same
time. Thus as the number of devices increase the performance of the network will fall.

Workstation Workstation Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Bus Topology Network

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

• Requires less cable length (inexpensive) than a star topology.

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Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

B. Star Topology

Star Network topology is a local area network in which each device (node) is connected to a
central device in a star-shaped configuration (topology) called Hub. The hub acts as a signal
repeater. Commonly, a network consisting of a central device (hub or switch) surrounded by
terminals/ computers is considered as star topology. In a star network, messages pass directly
from a node to the central device, which handles any further routing (as to another node) that
might be necessary. A star network is reliable in the sense that a node can fail without affecting
any other node on the network. Its weakness, however, is that failure of the central computer
results in a shutdown of the entire network. And because each node is individually wired to
the hub, cabling costs can be high.

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Workstation

Workstation

Central Server

Workstation
Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Workstation

Star Topology Network

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.

• Simplicity of adding additional nodes.
• No disruptions to the network (one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of the
network).
• The hub represents a single point of failure.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

• If the central hub fails, the entire network shuts down.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the central hubs.

C. Ring Topology

Ring topology, is a topology in a local area network in which devices (nodes) are connected in a
closed loop, or ring. Messages in a ring network pass in one direction, from node to node.

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As a message travels around the ring, each node examines the destination address attached to the
message. If the address is the same as the address assigned to the node, the node accepts the
message; otherwise, it regenerates the signal and passes the message along to the next node in the
circle. Such regeneration allows a ring network to cover larger distances than star and bus
networks.

Because of the closed loop, however, new nodes can be difficult to add. And if a node goes down
in token ring the whole network will cease functioning.

Workstation

Laser printer

Token-ring

Workstation Server

ASCII Printer

Workstation

Ring Topology Network

Advantages of a Ring Topology

• It can span larger distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks, such as bus
networks, because each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.

Disadvantages of a Ring Topology

• Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and can shut down the entire network.
• New nodes can be difficult to add because of the closed loop.
• Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited.

D. Mesh topology

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In a mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network. Mesh topology
is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from interruption of service. For
example, a nuclear power plant might use a mesh topology in the networked control systems. In
mesh topology, each host has its own connections to all other hosts.

Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion (overcrowding).

• If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire system.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• The amount of required cable is very large which makes it expensive.

• As every node is connected to the other, installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.

E. Hybrid /Tree

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). A hybrid
topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two
common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network

• A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation
access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.

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• A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk
(the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

4.5. Types of Networks

Based on the geographical span or coverage, computer network broadly classified in to three major
categories:

➢ Local area network (LAN)

➢ Metropolitan area network (MAN)
➢ Wide area network (WAN)
I. Local Area Network

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or across university campuses of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to
connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources
(e.g., printers) and exchange information, covering small geographic area.

A LAN enables the fast and effective transfer of information within a group of users and reduces
operational costs. LAN is the basic building blocks of other types of larger networks. To establish
a LAN you need the minimum of two computers.

Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, and make very few errors. Newer LANs
operate at up to 10 Gbps.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and
managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity
technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring. (E.g. Network within your office)

II. Metropolitan Area Network

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This type of network covers a larger geographic area than LAN. A metropolitan area network
covers a metropolitan/ city or a municipality area. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network available in many cities. The media of communication in MAN can be cable or
wireless.

III. Wide Area Network

Wide area networks (WANs) are networks that span large geographical areas such as a country or
continent, even the whole world. Computers can connect to these networks to use facilities in
another city or country. For example, a person in Adama can browse through the computerized
archives of the Library of Congress in Washington DC. The largest WAN is the Internet, The
Internet is a network of networks which consists tens of thousands of separate computer networks,
all interlinked.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router

connects LANs to a WAN.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not
owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity
over the longer distances.

WANs often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or metro area
networks (MANs).

4.6. Media of Networks

Network media refers to the media through which communication signal are transmitted.

There are two broad categories of network media: cables and wireless.
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Cables are the devices that use to connect the computers physically. There are three types of cables:

➢ Twisted pair cable

➢ Coaxial cable
➢ Fiber optics cable
a) Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable is a common type of cable for networks. The central copper wire helps to transfer
data. The wire mesh helps to protect data from the external electromagnetic interference. And the
insulator between the central copper wire and the mesh helps to separate the two conductors. And
the external plastic sheath helps to protect the cable from physical damage. Coaxial is cheaper type
of cable. There are two types of coaxial cables:

Thin net (10 base 2)

This type of coaxial cable has thinner central copper wire. And it can transmit data with 10mega
bits per second for 185 meters. And it is rounded to 200 meters. That is why it is called 10 base
2.10 refers 10mb/s and 2 for 200 meters. This is more flexible and easy to use.

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Thick net (10 base 5)

This has thicker central copper wire. And it has the ability to transfer data up to 500 meters with
the speed of 10 mega bits per second. This cable is somewhat difficult to bend. And hence it is less
easy to work with.

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The
most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of multiple
megahertz.

b) Twisted pair cable

Pairs of cables are twisted and bundled in a plastic jacket to form the twisted pair cable. The
twisting helps to reduce electromagnetic interference by increasing the probability of
electromagnetic web canceling. One problem commonly seen in twisted pair cable is the problem
of cross talk. The mixing of data from two cables due to the removal of insulator between is called
cross talk. There are two types of twisted pair cables:

Shielded Twisted pair cable (STP)

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This type of twisted pair cable has additional wire mesh beneath the external plastic sheath. This
helps to reduce electromagnetic interference. And hence it can transfer data for longer distance.

Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. The use of two wires
twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction.

Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to install.
In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly grounded, the
shield acts like an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its cost and difficulty with
termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. STP is primarily used in Europe.

Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)

Like the shielded one, UTP do not have wire mesh to reduce interference. This is more susceptible
for interference. And hence it can transmit data for shorter distance than the shielded one. This is
also called 10 base T. T stands for [Link] it can transmit data with speed of 10mb/sec for about
100 meters.

Although UTP was once considered to be slower at transmitting data than other types of cable, this
is no longer true. In fact, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based medium today.

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c. Fiber-Optic Cables (FO)

Fiber-optic cables use specially treated glass that can transmit signals in the form of pulsed beams
of laser light. Fiber-optic cables carry many times more information than copper wires can, and
they can transmit several television channels or thousands of telephone conversations at the same
time. Fiber-optic technology has replaced copper wires for most transoceanic routes and in areas
where large amounts of data are sent.

This technology uses laser transmitters to send pulses of light via hair-thin strands of specially
prepared glass fibers. New improvements promise cables that can transmit millions of telephone
calls over a single fiber. Already fiber optic cables provide the high capacity, "backbone" links
necessary to carry the enormous and growing volume of telecommunications and Internet traffic.
Fiber optic cable can transmit data for about 60 miles in gaga bits per second bandwidth and it is
totally free from electromagnetic interferences.

• It uses pulses of light to transmit data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires
are less transmission loss, immunity from electromagnetic radiation, and very fast
transmission speed, up to trillions of bits per second. One can use different colors of lights
to increase the number of messages being sent over a fiber optic cable.
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Wireless Communication

Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to transmit data
between devices on a LAN. For wireless LANs, a key component is the wireless hub, or access
point, used for signal distribution.

To receive the signals from the access point, a PC or laptop must install a wireless adapter card
(wireless NIC). Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of
outer space and through a medium such as air. Therefore, no physical medium is necessary for
wireless signals, making them a very versatile way to build a network. Wireless signals use
portions of the RF spectrum to transmit voice, video, and data. Wireless frequencies range from 3
kilohertz (kHz) to 300 gigahertz (GHz). The data-transmission rates range from 9 kilobits per
second (kbps) to as high as 54 Mbps.

4.7. The Internet and its application

The Internet is a network of networks which consists tens of thousands of separate computer
networks or subnets, all interlinked. It connects nearly 5 million computers each year. The

Internet is defined as a loosely-organized international collaboration of autonomous,

interconnected networks.

❖ Loosely-organized: No single organization has authority over the Internet. Anyone can
upload any kind of content or software and no one controls that. No one guarantees the
accuracy of the information that you find on the Internet.
❖ International: More than 100 countries are represented on the Internet.
❖ Collaboration: Many organizations cooperate to provide the services and support needed
to sustain it. For example, much of the software that drives the Internet is open-source
software developed collaboratively by programmers throughout the world, who constantly
work to improve the code.

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❖ Autonomous: Organizations that join the Internet are free to make their own decisions
about how they configure and operate their networks.
❖ Interconnected: There are standard protocols to enable different networks communicate
with each other. Without the interconnection provided by TCP/IP protocol, the Internet
would not exist.
❖ Networks: The Internet is .network of networks, i.e. most of individual users who are on
the Internet don’t access the Internet directly. Instead they access the Internet indirectly
through another network, like LAN or dial up or broadband network provided by an
Internet Services Provider (ISP). Otherwise, the Internet would be completely
unmanageable if it consisted of 171 million individual users, all interconnected. The
Internet is composed of several distinct types of networks: Government agencies, military
sites, educational institutions, businesses, ISPs, commercial online services etc.

TYPES OF CONNECTIONS TO THE INTERNET (INTERNET ACCESS)

To be connected to the internet, you need an Internet Service Provider (ISP) at your area, and the
two most common connection types (categories) that you can subscribe from an ISP to get an
Internet access are dial-up connection or dedicated line connection.

Dial-up Internet access

Dial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN) to establish a dialed connection to an Internet service provider (ISP)
via telephone lines. The user's computer or router uses an attached modem to encode and decode
Internet Protocol packets and control information into and from analogue audio frequency signals,
respectively.

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A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode

digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted
information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce
the original digital data. The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the digital
data of a personal computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a
telephone channel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by
another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

Dedicated connection

Dedicated connection: With dedicated access, a subscriber’s computer remains directly connected
to the Internet at all times through a permanent, physical connection. Most large businesses have
high-capacity dedicated connections; small businesses or individuals that desire dedicated access
choose among various technologies such as asynchronous digital subscriber line (ADSL), a
technology providing a bandwidth of 64 kbps.

Internet Address

An IP address, short for Internet Protocol Address, is a number that uniquely identifies each
computer or device connected to the internet. The IP address usually consists of four groups of
numbers, each separated by a period. For example the numbers [Link] are an IP address. In
general, the first portion of each IP address identifies the network and the last portion identifies
the specific computer.

These all numeric IP address is difficult to remember and use. Thus, the internet supports the use
of a text name that represents one or more IP addresses. A Domain name is the text version of an
IP address.

DNS (Domain Name System) is a method that the internet users to store domain names and their
corresponding IP address. When you specify a domain name, a DNS server translates the domain

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server to its associated IP address data can be routed to the correct computer. A DNS server is an
internet server that usually associated with an internet access provider.

IP address [Link]

Domain Name [Link]

4.7.1. The internet concept

What is World Wide Web (The “Web”)?

World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of information resources accessed primarily through the
Internet. It is a set of internet protocols and software that present information in a hypertext format.
WWW is computer-based network of information resources that combines text and multimedia.
These data are extensively cross-indexed, enabling users to browse (transfer their attention from
one information site to another) via buttons, highlighted text, or sophisticated searching software
known as search engines. The World Wide Web is often referred to simply as the Web.

The Internet is the highway system over which Web traffic and traffic from other applications
move. The Web consists of programs running on many computers that allow a user to find and
display multimedia documents (documents that contain a combination of text, photographs,
graphics, audio, and video).

Two Pieces Of Software Are Needed To Access The Web:

(1) Basic communication software that a computer uses to transfer data across the Internet
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And

(2) A Web application program known as a browser that can contact a Web site to obtain

And display information.

Basic communication software, which is usually built into the computer's operating system, allows
the computer to interact with the Internet. The software follows a set of protocol standards that are
collectively known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Because it
is built into the computer's operating system, TCP/IP software remains hidden from users.
Application programs that use the Internet invoke the software automatically.

The second piece of software needed for Web access consists of an application program known as
a Web browser. A web browser, or browser, is application software that allows users to access and
view web pages. Unlike basic communication software, a browser is directly visible to the user.
To access the Web, the user must invoke the browser and enter a request.

The browser then acts as a client. The browser contacts a Web server, obtains the requested
information, and displays the information for the user.

A browser, such as Microsoft Corporation’s Internet Explorer, allows a computer to display

documents containing text, graphics, photographs, sounds, videos, and animations.

Most browsers are used to view information on the World Wide Web or on intranets of companies
or organizations. Browsers have various buttons that allow users to print out the contents of a Web
site, move backward or forward between sites already accessed, and use a search engine to find
information.

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A browser is a program that allows a computer to display multimedia documents (documents

containing text, graphics, photographs, sounds, videos, and animations).

Most browsers, (such as, internet explorer), are used to view information on the World Wide Web
or on intranets of companies or organizations. Browsers have various buttons that allow users to
print out the contents of a Web site, move backward or forward between sites already accessed,
and use a search engine to find information.

What is website?

Web Site, file or information located on a server connected to the World Wide Web (WWW). The
WWW is a set of protocols and software that allows the global computer network called the
Internet to display multimedia documents. Web sites may include text, photographs, illustrations,
video, music, or computer programs. They also often include links to other sites in the form of
hypertext, highlighted or colored text that the user can click on with their mouse, instructing their
computer to jump to the new site.

Every web site has a specific address on the WWW, called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
These addresses end in extensions that indicate the type of organization sponsoring the web site,
for example, .gov for government agencies, .edu for academic institutions, and .com for
commercial enterprises. The user’s computer must be connected to the Internet and have a special
software program called a browser to retrieve and read information from a web site. Examples of
browsers include Mozilla, Explorer, Netscape, Opera and Safari.

The content presented on a web site usually contains hypertext and icons, pictures that also serve
as links to other sites. By clicking on the hypertext or icons with their mouse, users instruct their
browser program to connect to the web site specified by the
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URL contained in the hypertext link. These links are embedded in the web site through the use of
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a special language that encodes the links with the correct
URL.

Web sites generally offer an appearance that resembles the graphical user interfaces (GUI) of
Microsoft’s Windows operating system, Apple’s Macintosh operating system, and other graphics
based operating systems. They may include scroll bars, menus, buttons, icons, and toolbars, all of
which can be activated by a mouse or other input device.

To find a web site, a user can consult an Internet reference guide or directory, or use one of the
many freely available search engines, such as Google. These engines are search and retrieval
programs, of varying sophistication, that ask the user to fill out a form before executing a search
of the WWW for the requested information. The user can also create a list of the URLs of
frequently visited web sites. Such a list helps a user recall a URL and easily access the desired web
site. Web sites are easily modified and updated, so the content of many sites changes frequently.
A single website consists of several pages. The first page of the website is called home page. You
can click on the hyperlinks to display other pages or give their address in the URL.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Introduction to Computer Security

INTRODUCTION

Computer Security is technique developed to safeguard information and information systems

stored on computers. Potential threats include the destruction of computer hardware and software
and the loss, modification, theft, unauthorized use, observation, or disclosure of computer data.

Computers and the information they contain are often considered confidential systems because
their use is typically restricted to a limited number of users. This confidentiality can be
compromised in a variety of ways. For example, people who spread computer viruses and worms
can harm computers and computer data.

4.1 Malicious codes

4.1.1 Viruses

Virus is self-duplicating computer program that interferes with a computer's hardware or operating
system. Viruses are designed to duplicate or replicate them to avoid detection. Like any other
computer program, a virus must be executed for it to function. That is, it must be located in the
computer's memory, and the computer must then follow the virus's instructions. These instructions
are called the payload of the virus. The payload may disrupt or change data files, display an
irrelevant or unwanted message, or cause the operating system to malfunction.

How Infections Occur

Computer viruses activate when the instructions or executable code that run programs are opened.
Once a virus is active, it may replicate by various means and tries to infect the computer’s files or
the operating system. For example, it may copy parts of itself to floppy disks, to the computer’s
hard drive, into legitimate computer programs, or it may attach itself to e-mail messages and spread
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across computer networks by infecting other shared drives. Infection is much more frequent in PCs
than in professional mainframe systems because programs on PCs are exchanged primarily by
means of floppy disks, email, or over unregulated computer networks.

Viruses operate, replicate, and deliver their payloads only when they run. Therefore, if a
computer is simply attached to an infected computer network or downloading an infected program,
it will not necessarily become infected. Typically a computer user is not likely to knowingly run
potentially harmful computer code. However, viruses often trick the computer's operating system
or the computer user into running the viral program.

Some viruses have the ability to attach themselves to others legitimate programs. This attachment
may occur when the legitimate program is created, opened, or modified.

When that program runs, so is the virus. Viruses can also reside on portions of the hard disk or
floppy disk that load and run the operating system when the computer is started, and such viruses
there by run automatically. In computer networks, some viruses hide in the software that allows
the user to log on (gain access to) the system.

Types of Viruses

There are five categories of viruses: parasitic or file viruses, bootstrap sector, multipartite, macro,
and script viruses.

Parasitic or file viruses: infect executable files or programs in the computer. These files are often
identified by the extension .exe in the name of the computer file. File viruses leave the contents of
the host program unchanged but attach to the host in such a way that the virus code is run first.
These viruses can be either direct-action or resident. A direct-action virus selects one or more
programs to infect each time it is executed. A resident virus hides in the computer's memory and
infects a particular program when that program is executed.

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Bootstrap-sector viruses: reside on the first portion of the hard disk or floppy disk, known as the
boot sector. These viruses replace either the programs that store information about the disk's
contents or the programs that use to start the computer. Typically, these viruses spread by means
of the physical exchange of floppy disks.

Multi-partite viruses: combine the abilities of the parasitic and the bootstrap-sector viruses, and
so are able to infect either files or boot sectors. These types of viruses can spread if a computer
user boots from an infected diskette or accesses infected files.

Other viruses infect programs that contain powerful macro languages (programming languages
that let the user create new features and utilities). These viruses, called macro viruses, are written
in macro languages and automatically execute when the legitimate program is opened.

Script viruses: are written in script programming languages, such as VBScript (Visual Basic
Script) and JavaScript. These script languages can be seen as a special kind of

Macro language and are even more powerful because most are closely related to the operating
system environment. The "ILOVEYOU" virus, which appeared in 2000 and infected an estimated
1 in 5 personal computers, is a famous example of a script virus.

4.1.2 Worms

Worm is a program that propagates itself across computers, usually by spawning copies of itself
in each computer's memory. A worm might duplicate itself in one computer so often that it causes
the computer to crash. Sometimes written in separate segments, a worm is introduced
surreptitiously into a host system either for fun or with intent to damage or destroy information.
Worms can form segments across a network and damage the network by using its resources
(memory space) highly. The segments of worms across a network can communicate strengthen
their damage.

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4.1.3 Trojan Horses

A Trojan horse is a program that pretends to be something else. A Trojan horse may appear to be
something interesting and harmless, such as a game, but when it runs it may have harmful effects.
The term comes from the classic Greek story of the Trojan horse found in Homer’s Iliad.

4.1.4 Bombs

A bomb infects a computer’s memory, but unlike a virus, it does not replicate itself. A logic bomb
delivers its instructions when it is triggered by a specific condition, such as when a particular date
or time is reached or when a combination of letters is typed on a keyboard. A logic bomb has the
ability to erase a hard drive or delete certain files.

4.2 Techniques to Reduce Security problems

4.2.1 Backup

A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disc that can be used if the original is lost, damaged
or destroyed. Thus, to back up a file means to make a copy of it. Storing copies of software and
data, and having backup computer and communication capabilities are important basic safeguards,
because the data can then be restored if it was altered or destroyed by a computer crime or accident.
Computer data should be backed up frequently and should be stored nearby in secure locations in
case of damage at the primary site. Transporting sensitive data to storage locations should also be
done securely.

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4.2.2 Encryption

Another technique to protect confidential information is encryption (Encryption, process of

converting messages or data into a form that cannot be read without decrypting or deciphering it.
The root of the word encryption crypt comes from the Greek word kryptos, meaning .hidden or
secret...)

Computer users can scramble information to prevent unauthorized users from accessing it.
Authorized users can unscramble the information when needed by using a secret code called a key.
Without the key the scrambled information would be impossible or very difficult to unscramble.
A more complex form of encryption uses two keys, called the public key and the private key, and
a system of double encryption. Each participant possesses a secret, private key and a public key
that is known to potential recipients. Both keys are used to encrypt, and matching keys are used to
decrypt the message. However, the advantage over the single-key method lies with the private
keys, which are never shared and so cannot be intercepted. The public key verifies that the sender
is the one who transmitted it. The keys are modified periodically, further hampering unauthorized
users.

4.2.3 Approved users

Another technique to help prevent abuse and misuse of computer data is to limit the use of
computers and data to approved users. Security software can be used to verify the identity of
computer users and limit their privileges to use, view, and alter files. The software also securely
records their actions to establish accountability. Military organizations give access rights to
classified, confidential, secret, or top-secret information according to the corresponding security
clearance level of the user. Other types of organizations also classify information and specify
different degrees of protection.

4.2.4 Password
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Passwords are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make use of
specified computers, software, or information. To be effective, passwords must be difficult to
guess and should not be found in dictionaries. Effective passwords contain a variety of characters
and symbols that are not part of the alphabet. To thwart imposters, computer systems usually limit
the number of attempts and restrict the time it takes to enter the correct password.

A more secure method is to require possession and use of tamper-resistant plastic cards with
microprocessor chips, known as smart cards, which contain a stored password that automatically
changes after each use. When a user logs on, the computer reads the card's password, as well as
another password entered by the user, and matches these two respectively to an identical card
password generated by the computer and the user's password stored in the computer in encrypted
form. Use of passwords and "smart cards" is beginning to be reinforced by biometrics,
identification methods that use unique personal characteristics, such as fingerprints, retinal
patterns, facial characteristics, or voice recordings.

4.2.5 FIREWALLS

Computers connected to communication networks, such as the Internet, are particularly vulnerable
to electronic attack because so many people have access to them.

Firewall is a hardware and/or software that protect a network’s resource from intrusion such as
the internet. Using firewall computers or software placed between the networked computers and
the network can protect these computers. The firewall examines, filters, and reports on all
information passing through the network to ensure its appropriateness. These functions help
to prevent saturation of input capabilities that otherwise might deny usage to legitimate users, and
they ensure that information received from an outside source is expected and does not contain
computer viruses.
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4.2.6 Intrusion detection Systems

Security software called intrusion detection systems may be used in computers to detect unusual
and suspicious activity and, in some cases, stop a variety of harmful actions by authorized or
unauthorized persons. Abuse and misuse of sensitive system and application programs and data
such as password, inventory, financial, engineering, and personnel files can be detected by these
systems

4.2.7 Application Safeguards

The most serious threats to the integrity and authenticity of computer information come from those
who have been entrusted with usage privileges and yet commit computer fraud. For example,
authorized persons may secretly transfer money in financial networks, alter credit histories,
sabotage information, or commit bill payment or payroll fraud. Modifying, removing, or
misrepresenting existing data threatens the integrity and authenticity of computer information. For
example, omitting sections of a bad credit history so that only the good credit history remains
violates the integrity of the document. Entering false data to complete a fraudulent transfer or
withdrawal of money violates the authenticity of banking information. Using a variety of
techniques can prevent these crimes. One such technique is check summing.

Check summing sums the numerically coded word contents of a file before and after it is used. If
the sums are different, then the file has been altered.

Other techniques include authenticating the sources of messages, confirming transactions with
those who initiate them, segregating and limiting job assignments to make it necessary for more
than one person to be involved in committing a crime, and limiting the amount of money that can
be transferred through a computer. This application safeguard is anticorruption software.

4.2.8 Disaster Recovery Plans

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A disaster recovery plan is a written plan describing the steps a company would take to restore
computer operations in the event of a disaster. Organizations and businesses that rely on computers
need to institute disaster recovery plans that are periodically tested and upgraded. This is because
computers and storage components such as diskettes or hard disks are easy to damage. A
computer's memory can be erased or flooding, fire, or other forms of destruction can damage the
computer’s hardware. Computers, computer data, and components should be installed in safe and
locked facilities.

4.2.9 Anti-viral Tactics

Preparation and Prevention

Computer users can prepare for a viral infection by creating backups of legitimate original software
and data files regularly so that the computer system can be restored if necessary. However, the
best prevention may be the installation of current and well-designed antiviral software. Such
software can prevent a viral infection and thereby help stop its spread.

Virus Detection

Several types of antiviral software can be used to detect the presence of a virus.

Scanning software can recognize the characteristics of a virus's computer code and look for these
characteristics in the computer's files. Because new viruses must be analyzed as they appear,
scanning software must be updated periodically to be effective. Other scanners search for common
features of viral programs and are usually less reliable. Most antiviral software uses both on-
demand and on-access scanners. On-demand scanners are launched only when the user activates
them. On-access scanners, on the other hand, are constantly monitoring the computer for viruses
but are always in the background and are not visible to the user. The on-access scanners are seen
as the proactive part of an antivirus package and the on-demand scanners are seen as reactive. On-

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demand scanners usually detect a virus only after the infection has occurred and that is why they
are considered reactive.

Antivirus software is usually sold as packages containing many different software programs that
are independent of one another and perform different functions. When installed or packaged
together, antiviral packages provide complete protection against viruses. Within most antiviral
packages, several methods are used to detect viruses.

Check summing, for example, uses mathematical calculations to compare the state of executable
programs before and after they are run. If the checksum has not changed, then the system is
uninfected. Check summing software can detect an infection only after it has occurred, however.
As this technology is dated and some viruses can evade it, check summing is rarely used today.

Most antivirus packages also use heuristics (problem-solving by trial and error) to detect new
viruses. This technology observes a program’s behavior and evaluates how closely it resembles a
virus. It relies on experience with previous viruses to predict the likelihood that a suspicious file
is an as-yet unidentified or unclassified new virus.

Containment and Recovery

Once a viral infection has been detected, it can be contained by immediately isolating computers
on networks, halting the exchange of files, and using only write-protected disks. In order for a
computer system to recover from a viral infection, the virus must first be eliminated. Some
antivirus software attempts to remove detected viruses, but sometimes with unsatisfactory results.
More reliable results are obtained by turning off the infected computer; restarting it from a write-
protected floppy disk; deleting infected files and replacing them with legitimate files from backup
disks; and erasing any viruses on the boot sector.

Viral strategies used by virus authors

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The authors of viruses have several strategies to circumvent antivirus software and to propagate
their creations more effectively. So-called polymorphic viruses make variations in the copies of
themselves to elude detection by scanning software. A stealth virus hides from the operating
system when the system checks the location where the virus resides, by forging results that would
be expected from an uninfected system. A so called fast-infector virus infects not only programs
that are executed but also those that are merely accessed. As a result, running antiviral scanning
software on a computer infected by such a virus can infect every program on the computer. A so-
called slow infector virus infects files only when the files are modified, so that it appears to check
summing software that the modification was legitimate. A so-called sparse-infector virus infects
only on certain occasions. For example, it may infect every tenth program executed. This strategy
makes it more difficult to detect the virus.

End of Chapter Five

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