Unit – II

STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Quality assurance for concrete – strength, Durability –- Cracks, different types, causes - Effects
due to climate, temperature, Sustained elevated temperature, Corrosion

2.1 Quality assurance for concrete construction

Quality management ensures that every component of the structure keeps performing throughout
its life span. In fact, quality is a measure of the degree of excellence and is indeed related to fulfillment
enjoyed by the user. In concrete construction, even if rigid quality is not followed, the material performs
for a short while without loss of strength. On account of this forgiving property of concrete, many in the
construction industry have been operating under the illusion that rigid quality management, which is
essential for mechanical industries, is not so important for concrete manufacture. This is not correct. The
quality management in the current day context is based on the fact that the probability of failure of
structure must be as low as possible and definitely lower than a prefixed accepted limit. Hence, quality
management in essence is the management of uncertainties inherent in the construction industry.

Need for Quality Assurance

 All involved with the construction and use of a concrete structure are concerned that the quality
is necessary to give good performance and appearance throughout its intended life.
 The client requires it in promoting his next engineering scheme.
 The designer depends on it for his reputation and professional satisfaction.
 The material producer is influenced by the quality of work in his future sales.
 The building contractor also relies on it to promote his organization in procuring future contracts,
but his task is often considerably complicated by the problems of time scheduling and costs.
 Finally the user is rewarded by a functionally efficient structure of good appearance. It would
seem to follow therefore that since all responsible parties gain by quality it should be
automatically achieved.
 Yet this is not so, and a considerable positive effort must be employed to achieve it.
 This effort can best be expanded by instituting a quality assurance scheme which involves each
of the above parties.

The quality management system in a true sense should have the following three components
(1) Quality assurance plan (QAP)
(2) Quality control process (QC)
(3) Quality audit (QA)

2.1.1 Quality assurance plan

The following aspects should be addressed by any QAP:
– Organizational Set-up
– Responsibilities of personnel
– Coordinating personnel
– Quality control measure
– Control norms and limit
– Acceptance/rejection criteria
– Inspection program
– Sampling, testing and documentation
– Material specification and qualification
– Corrective measure for noncompliance
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 – Resolution of disputed/difficulties
– Preparation of maintenance record

The quality assurance plan starts right from the planning and design stage itself, and it can be
defined as a procedure for selecting a level of quality required for a project.

2.1.2 Quality Control Plan

 It is a system of procedures and standards by which the contractor, the product manufacture, and
the engineer monitor the properties of the product.
 Generally the contracting agency is responsible for the QC process.
 A contractor responsible for quality control incurs a cost for it, which is less than the
uncontrolled cost for correcting the defective workmanship or replacing the defective material.
 Hence it is prudent to introduce effective quality control.

2.1.2 Quality Audit

 This is the system of tracing and documentation of quality assurance and quality control
program.
 It is the responsibility of the process owner.
 Both design and construction processes come under this process.
 The concept of QA encompasses the project as a whole.
 Each element of the project comes under the preview of quality audit.

2.2 Concrete Properties

2.2.1 Strength
Strength of concrete is one of the most important factors. Concrete is used as a structural
element, and all structural uses are associated with its compressive strength. Strength of concrete is
defined as the resistance that concrete provides against load so as so to avoid failure. It depends on the
water-cement ratio, quality of aggregates, compaction, curing etc. The primary factor that affects the
strength of concrete is the quality of cement paste, which in turn, depends on the quantity of water and
cement used.
Sometimes it is economical to add pozzolana or use Portland pozzolana cement instead of
ordinary cement concrete. Pozzolanas are materials that have little cementing value but react with
calcium hydroxide to form compounds that are cementitious. This reaction contributes to the ultimate
strength and watertightness of concrete. Pozzolanas also increases the plasticity and workability of
concrete. Excessive addition of pozzolanas affects durability. So it should be used along with cement as
a partial replacement or in small percentage.
Generally construction industry needs faster development of strength in concrete so that the
projects can be completed in time or before time. This demand is catered by high early strength cement,
use of very low W/C ratio through the use of increased cement concrete and reduced water content. But
this result in higher thermal shrinkage, drying shrinkage, modulus of elasticity and lower creep
coefficients. With higher quantity of cement content, the concrete exhibits greater cracking tendencies
because of increase thermal and drying shrinkage. As the creep coefficient is low in such concrete there
will not be much slope for relaxation of stresses. Therefore high early strength concretes are more prone
to cracking than moderate or low strength concrete.
Of course, the structural cracks in high strength concrete can be controlled by use of sufficient
steel reinforcement. But this practice does not help the concrete durability, as provision of more steel
reinforcement; will only results in conversion of the bigger cracks to smaller cracks. And these smaller
cracks are sufficient to allow oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture get into the concrete to affect the
long term durability of concrete.
Field experience have also corroborated that high early strength concrete are more cracks-prone.
According to a recent report, the cracks in pier caps have been attributed to use of high cement content
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in concrete. Contractors apparently thought that a higher than the desired strength would speed up the
construction time, and therefore used high cement content.
Similarly, report submitted by National Cooperative Highway Research Programme (NCHPR) of
USA during 1995, based on their survey, showed that more than, 100000 concrete bridge decks in USA
showed full depth transverse cracks even before structures were less than one month old. The reasons
given are that combination of thermal shrinkage and drying shrinkage caused most of the cracks. It is to
be noted that deck concrete is made of high strength concrete. These concrete have a high elastic
modulus at an early age. Therefore, they develop high stresses for a given temperature change or amount
of drying shrinkage. The most important point is that such concrete creeps little to relieve the stresses.

It is interesting to see that the above point of view is not fully convincing when seen from
many other consideration.

Firstly, the high strength concrete has high cement content and low water content. On account
of low water content, only surface hydration of cement particle will have taken place leaving
considerable amount of unhydrated core of cement grains. This unhydrated core of cement grains has
strength in reserve. When micro cracks have developed, the unhydrated core gets hydrated, getting
moisture through micro cracks. The hydration products so generated seal the cracks and restore the
integrity of concrete for long term durability.
Secondly, as per aiticin, the quality of products of hydration formed in the case of low W/C ratio
is superior to the quality of gel formed in the case of high W/C ratio.
Again as per aiticin, in low W/C ratio concrete the weak transition zone between aggregate and
hydrated cement paste does not exist at all. Unhydrated cement particles are also available in such low
W/C ratio concrete for any eventual healing of micro cracks.
Thirdly, the micro structure of concrete with low W/C ratio is much stronger and less
permeable. The interconnected networks of capillaries are so fine that water cannot flow any more
through them. It is reported that when tested for chloride ion permeability, it showed 10-50 times slower
penetration than low strength concrete.

Determination of Strength of Concrete

The strength is usually specified as characteristic strength which is the strength determined by testing at
a fixed age samples of concrete.
[Link] Strength:
Three types of test specimen
Cube: 150mm X 150mm or 100mm X 100mm
Cylinder: 150mm dia and 300mm ht
Prism: 100mmX100mmX500mm
Test specimen are cast, cured & tested as per standards.
Compressive strengths given by different specimens for the same concrete mix are different
(fck)cy = 0.8(fck) cube
Ft = t/(a+bt) * f28
a=4.7,b=0.833

[Link] Strength
• Determination of this test is essential to estimate the load at which the concrete member may crack.
• Specimen size:150X150X700mm over 600mm span
100X100X500mm over 400mm span
Flexural Strength=0.7(fck)1/2
Results are affected by
• Size of the specimen
• Casting
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• Curing
• Moisture conditions
• Rate of loading
• Manner of loading

[Link] strength:
Splitting tensile strength:
Direct compressive force is applied to a concrete specimen in such a way that the specimen fails due to
tensile stresses induced in the specimen.
σsp = 2P/(П*d*l)
Factors affecting strength of concrete
• Size of the test specimen
• Size of aggregate & type of aggregate
• Support conditions of the specimen
• Moisture conditions
Types of testing machine
• Type of cement
• Degree of compaction
• Type of curing & temp of curing
• Nature of loading

2.2.2 Durability:
Definition: Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. Different concretes
require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and properties desired.

For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than an indoor
concrete floor. Concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions between them, placing and curing
practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and life of concrete.

Some important degradation mechanisms in concrete structures include the following:

1. Freeze-thaw damage (physical effects, weathering).
2. Alkali-aggregate reactions (chemical effects).
3. Sulphate attack (chemical effects).
4. Microbiological induced attack (chemical effects).
5. Corrosion of reinforcing steel embedded in concrete (chemical effects).
a) carbonation of concrete
b) chloride induced
6. Abrasion (physical effects).
7. Mechanical loads (physical effects).

2.2.1 Effect of freezing and thawing:

 The most severe climatic attack on concrete occurs when concrete containing moisture is
subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing.
 The capillary pores in the cement are of such a size that water in them will freeze when the
ambient temperature is below 0oC.
 The gel pores are so small that water in them does not freeze at normal winter temperatures.
 As water when freezing expands by 9% of its volume, excess water in the capillaries has to
move.

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  Since the cement paste is relatively impermeable, high pressures are necessary to move the
excess water even over quite small distance.
 For normal strength concrete it has been found that movement of the order of 0.2mm is sufficient
to require pressures which approach the tensile strength of the paste.
 Concrete can be protected from freeze – thaw damage, by the entrainment of appropriate
quantities of air distributed through the cement paste with spacing between bubbles of not more
than about 0.4mm.
 The air bubbles must remain partially empty so that they can accommodate the excess water
moved to them.
 This will generally be the case since the bubbles constitute the coarsest pore system and are
therefore the first to lose moisture as the concrete dries.
 Fully saturated concrete, if permanently submerged, will not need protection against freezing,
but concrete which as been saturated and is exposed to freezing, as for example in the tidal
range, may not be effectively protected by air-entrainment.

2.2.2 Effect of Temperature:

 The temperature difference within a concrete structure, result in differential volume change.
 When the tensile strain due to differential volume change exceeds the tensile strain capacity of
concrete, it will crack.
 The temperature differentials associated with the hydration of cement, affect the mass concrete
such as in large columns, piers, footings, dams etc. Whereas the temperature differentials due to
changes in the ambient temperature can affect the whole structure.
 The liberation of the heat of hydration of cement causes the internal temperature of concrete to
rise during the initial curing period, so that it is usually slightly warmer than its surroundings.
 In thick sections and with rich mixes the temperature differential may be considerable. As the
concrete cools it will try to contract.
 Any restraint on the free contraction during cooling will result in tensile stresses which are
proportional to the temperature change, coefficient of thermal expansion, effective modulus of
elasticity and degree of restraint.
 The more massive the structure, the greater is the potential for temperature differential and
degree of restraint.
 Thermally induced cracking can be reduced by controlling the maximum internal temperature,
delaying the onset of cooling by insulating the formwork and exposed surfaces, controlling the
rate of cooling, and increasing the tensile strain capacity of the concrete.
 Special precautions need to be taken in the design of structures in which some portions are
exposed to temperature changes while the other portions of structures are either partially or
completely protected.
 A drop in temperature may result in the cracking of the exposed element while increase in
temperature may cause cracking in the protected portion of the structure.
 Temperature gradients cause deflection and rotation in structural members; if these are restrained
serious stresses can result.
 Allowing for movement by using properly designed contraction joints and correct detailing will
help alleviate these problems. If the cracks do form.
 Remedial measures are similar to those for cracks that form after a structure in service.

2.2.3 Effect of chemical:

 The most important constituent of concrete namely cement is alkaline; so it will react with acids
or acidic compounds in presence of moisture, and in consequence the matrix becomes weakened
and its constituents may be leached out. The concrete may crack, as a result of expansive
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 reactions between aggregate containing active silica and alkalies derived from cement hydration,
admixture or external sources (e.g. curing water, ground water, alkaline solutions stored). The
alkali – silica reaction results in the formation of a swelling gel, which tends to draw water from
other portions of concrete. This causes local expansion and accompanying tensile stresses which
if large may eventually result in the complete deterioration of the structure. Control measures
include proper selection of aggregate, use of low-alkali cement and use of pozzolana. Typical
symptoms in unreinforced and highly reinforced concrete are map cracking, usually in a rough
hexagonal mesh pattern and gel excluding from cracks.

 The alkali-carbonate reaction occurs with certain limestone aggregate and usually results in the
formation of alkali-silica product between aggregate particles and the surrounding cement paste.
The problem may be minimized by avoiding reactive aggregate, use of smaller size aggregate
and use of low-alkali cement.

 When the sulphate bearing waters come in contact with the concrete, the sulphate penetrates the
hydrated paste and reacts with hydrated calcium aluminate to form calcium suphoaluminate with
a subsequent large increase in volume, resulting in high tensile stresses causing the deterioration
of concrete. The blended or pozzolana cements impart additional resistance to sulphate attacks.

 The calcium hydroxide in hydrated cement paste will combine with carbon dioxide in the air to
form calcium carbonate which occupies smaller volume than the calcium hydroxide resulting
called carbonation shrinkage. This situation may result in significant surface grazing and ay be
especially serious on freshly placed concrete surface kept warm during winter by improperly
vented combustion heaters.

Factors which increase concrete vulnerability to external chemical attacks are,

1. High porosity.
2. High permeability and absorption resulting from too high W/C ratio.
3. Unsatisfactory grading of aggregate.
4. Cement compaction.
5. Improper choice of cement type for condition of exposure.
6. Inadequate curing period.
7. Exposure to alternate cycles of wetting and drying and to the lesser extended of heating and
cooling.
8. Increased fluid velocity which may bring about both replenishment of the aggressive species and
increases in the rate of leaching.
9. Suction forces which may be caused by drying on one or more faces of a section.
10. Unsatisfactory choice of shape and surface to volume ratio of concrete structure.

2.2.3 Concrete at high temperature:

 In some industrial application such as aluminum plants and brick works the cone may be
occasionally or frequently subjected to temperatures. These temperatures are likely to be applied
linearly.
 Generally with and rather a long period.
 Similarly jet aircraft and vertical take aircraft may subject the payment to very high temperature.
 Heat may affect concrete and as a result of,
 The removal of evaporable water.
 The removal of combined water.
 Alteration of cement paste.
 Disruption (of beam) from disparity of expansion and resulting thermal stresses.
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  Alteration of aggregate.
 Change of the bond bet aggregate and paste.
 Other effects on cone due to temperature.
 Cycles of temperature can have a progressive effect on the reduction of strength even longer
curing did not improve the loss.
 Tensile strength of cone is more effect by heat than its com strength.
 During rapid rise and fall of temperature the response of cone is affected by the interaction of
thermal expansion, drying thermal incompatibility and enhanced every at high temperature.
 If the heating is sufficiently rapid, high stresses can be included; hence failure and instability
may result.

2.2.4 Effects of steel at high temperature:

 The influence of temperature on steel appears as a change in yield stress, ultimate strength and
modules of elasticity.
 The changes depend on the type of steel and are greater in cold-weathered steel.
 The strength of hot-rolled steel bars are not reduced if the temperature does not reach to 300ºC.
But at temperature of 500-600ºC the yield stress is reduced to the order of the working stress and
the elastic modules is reduced by one-third.
 Bars heated to this temperature virtually recover their normal temperature.
 Bars heated to 800ºC have a lower residual strength after cooling to room temperature.
 Pre-stressing wire and stand starts to lose strength at 150ºC and may have only 50% of its room
temperature strength when heated to about 400ºC

2.3 Cracking
Cracking will occur whenever the tensile strain, to which concrete is subjected, exceeds the tensile strain
capacity of the concrete. The tensile strain capacity of concrete varies with age and with the rate of
application of strain.

Classification of cracks
It may be classified in terms of their effects:
 Those cracks which indicate immediate structural distress
 Those cracks which may lead in the long run to a reduction of safety, through corrosion of steel
 Cracks which lead to malfunction of the structure, as evidenced by leakage, sound transfer,
damage to finishes and unsatisfactory operation of windows and doors
 Cracks which are aesthetically unacceptable

Class I-Cracks leading to Structural Failure

Little difficulty arises in relation to this class. Those cracks that indicate that failure is near and that
margin of safety are seriously reduced, may have formed in concrete, which was expected by the
designer, to carry load in its un cracked condition .Such cracks are necessarily wide, and may lead to the
detachment of parts of the structure.

Class II Cracks causing Corrosion

There is no unique relationship between crack width and the onset of corrosion. Part of the difficulty
arises from the nature of cracks themselves. For flexural members, many cracks taper from a certain
width at the surface of the concrete, the near zero width at the steel-concrete interface. However,
flexural cracks that are controlled by the overall depth of the beam are not of the tapered shape, and it is
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likely that cracks due to temperature and shrinkage are nearer to being parallel sided. It has been
assumed for many years that, since wider cracks would give easier access to aggressive substances,
corrosion could be controlled by controlling crack widths and that permissible widths should be a
function of how aggressive the environment was many complicated formulas for the calculation of crack
widths in flexural members have been devised with the object of controlling corrosion. But extensive
tests on beams in which the cracks are normal to the axis of the bars show evidence of any relationship
between corrosion damage and crack width.

When cracks run along a bar, much more of the bar is in an exposed position, and it might be expected
that there would be a closer relationship between crack width and corrosion in this situation. There is a
little evidence however, that cracks whether transverse to the bars or running along the bars, pose any
create risk of increased corrosion, if they are less than 0.3mm in width.

Some cracks, which are parallel to a bar, may have been caused by the corrosion of that bar. These
cracks will widen as corrosion proceeds, and will eventually lead to spalling and exposure of the
corroded bar. A crack of any width, which is judged to be brought about by corrosion, is an indication of
a deteriorating structure, and therefore no minimum width, below which the crack is not significant, can
be set. A crack that indicates the corrosion of the bar is actually showing that the corrosion will
continue, unless positive measures are taken. Merely filling the crack will not achieve the result.

Class III-cracks affecting Function

The cracks in this class, which have the most serious consequences are those that allow liquid-retailing
structures to leak, or that occur in roofs or other structures, intended to be waterproof. BS 8007
prescribes limiting crack widths and details methods of predicting the widths. The maximum design
surface crack width, for direct tension and flexure or restrained temperature and moisture effects are:

Severe or very severe exposure-0.2mm

There are only limited test data available on what constitutes the limiting crack, for preventing leakage.
Flow through a parallel-sided smooth crack, can be calculated in terms of head, crack width, crack
length and fluid viscosity. The difficulty with concrete is that the cracks are not smooth or parallel-sided.

Class IV-cracks affecting appearance

For class 4cracks,it has been suggested that crack widths up to 0.3mm in width are acceptable
aesthetically, but there are no good guidelines. Various attempts have been made to establish what
constitutes an acceptable crack on an aesthetic basis, but in the end, there is no rational basis for
aesthetic decisions. The aesthetic objection to cracks may be summarized as:

 Cracks cause alarm about the safety of the structure

 Cracks lower the visual acceptance of the structure (a) by modifying surface textures and
damaging the visual effect intended by the designer and (b) by giving an appearance of
cheapness or bad building.
Causes of cracking:

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Other types of cracks due to:

Delayed curing
Formwork movement
Excess vibration
Sub grade settlement
Finishing
Early frost damage
Unsound materials
Long-term drying shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage cracks

Water from fresh concrete can be lost by evaporation, absorption of subgrade, formwork and in
hydration process. When the loss of water from surface of concrete is faster than the migration of water
from interior to the surface, the surface dries up. This creates moisture gradient which results in surface
cracking while concrete is still in plastic condition. The magnitude of plastic shrinkage and plastic
shrinkage cracks are depending upon ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity.
Rate of evaporation of water in excess of 1 kg/m2per hour is considered critical. In such a
situation the following measures could be taken to reduce or eliminate plastic shrinkage cracks.
 Moisten the subgrade and formwork
 Erect temporary wind breakers to reduce the wind velocity over concrete.
 Erect temporary roof to protect green concrete from hot sun.

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Fig 2.1 Various Types and Causes of cracks in Concrete

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Fig 2.2 Types and Causes of concrete cracks

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Fig2.3 Other Properties, types and causes of concrete cracking

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  Reduce the time between placing and finishing. If there is delay cover the concrete with
polyethylene sheets.
 Minimize evaporation by covering concrete with burlap, fog spray and curing compound.

Plastic shrinkage cracks are very common in hot weather conditions in pavements floor and roof
slab concrete.
Once they are forms it’s difficult to rectify. In case of prefabricated units, they can be heated by
controlled revibration, if the concrete is in plastic condition. In roof and floor slab it is difficult to repair.
However, sometimes, thick slurry is poured over the cracks and well worked by trowel after striking
each side of the cracks to seal the same. The best way is to take all precautions to prevent evaporation of
water from the wet concrete, finish it fast, and cure it as early as feasible.
In Mumbai – Pune express highway, the fresh concrete is protected by 100 meter long low tent
erected on wheel to break the wind and also to protect the green concrete from hot sun. In addition
curing compound is sprayed immediately after finishing operations.
Plastic shrinkage cracks, if care is not taken, will affect the durability of concrete in many ways.

Settlement Cracks
If the concrete is free to settle uniformly, then there is no crack. If there is any obstruction to
uniform settlement by way of reinforcement or larger piece of aggregate, then it creates some voids or
cracks. This is called settlement cracks. This generally happens in a deep beam.
Concrete should be poured in layers and each layer should be properly compacted. Building up
of large quantity of concrete over a beam should be avoided.
Sometimes, the settlement cracks and voids are so severe it needs grouting operators to seal them
off. Revibration, if possible is an effective step. Otherwise they affect the structural integrity of the beam
or any other member and badly affect the durability.

Bleeding
Shrinkage of concrete is one of the important factors contributing to lack of durability of
concrete. Shrinkage is mainly responsible for causing cracks of larger magnitude or minor micro cracks.
The aspect of cracking in concrete is very complex, involving many factors such as magnitude of
shrinkage, degree of restraint, extensibility of concrete, extent of stress relaxation by creep and at what
age the shrinkage is appearing etc. Cracks can be avoided only if the stress induced by shrinkage strain,
after relaxation by creep, is at all time less than the tensile strength of concrete. The above situation is
not happening in most of the cases and as such generally shrinkage causes cracks in concrete.

Effect of Cracking
The formation of cracks is dangerous for protection against corrosion. Once concrete cracks, the
external depassivating agents can penetrate deep into concrete and set off the process of corrosion.
Cracks running transversely to the reinforcement are less harmful than the longitudinal cracks along the
reinforcement.
Thus in order to induce the process of corrosion and to keep it going, at least one of the
following conditions must exist in any RC structure.
 Chloride ion concentration in excess of the threshold value at the interface of the reinforcement
and concrete or sufficient advancement of the carbonation front to destroy the passivity of the
ferric oxide surface layer on the reinforcement.
 Adequate moisture in the concrete to facilitate the movement of chloride ions and provide a
conduction path between the anodic and the cathodic areas on the steel.
 Sufficient oxygen supply to the cathodic areas in order to maintain such areas in a depolarized
condition.
 Difference in electrochemical potentials at the surface of the reinforcement.
 Low values of electrical resistivity of concrete.
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  Relative humidity in the range 50 – 70%
 Higher ambient temperature.

2.4 Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as the process of deterioration (or destruction) and consequent loss of a solid
metallic material, through an unwanted (or unintentional) chemical or electro-chemical attack by its
environment, starting at its surface, is called Corrosion. Thus corrosion is a process of 'reverse of
extraction of metals'.

Corrosion Mechanism - Wet or Electro-Chemical Corrosion

Corrosion of steel concrete is an electro-chemical process. When there is a difference in electrical
potential, along the reinforcement in concrete, an electro-chemical cell is set up. In the steel, one part
becomes anode (an electrode with a +ve charge) and other part becomes cathode, (an electrode with a -
ve charge) connected by electrolyte in the form of pore water, in the hardened cement paste. The +vely
charged ferrous ions Fe+ at the anode pass into solution, while the -vely charged free electrons -pass
through the steel into cathode, where they are absorbed by the constituents of the electrolyte, and
combine with water and oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (OH).

These travel through the electrolyte and combine with the ferrous ions to form ferric hydroxide, which
is converted by further oxidation to rust.

The reactions are described below:

Anodic Reactions:
Fe - - > Fe+++ 2e-
Fe+++ 2(OH)2 - - > Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)2.2H2O +O2 -- > 4Fe(OH)3

Cathodic Reaction
4e- +O2+H2O -- - > 4(OH)

Corrosion Mechanism

It can be noted that no corrosion takes place if the concrete is dry probably below relative humidity of
60%, because enough water is not there to promote corrosion. it can also be noted that corrosion does
not take place, id concrete is fully immersed in water, because diffusion of oxygen does not take place
into the concrete. Probably the optimum relative humidity for corrosion is 70-80%

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The products of corrosion occupy a volume as much as 6 times the original volume of steel, depending
upon the oxidation state. Figure below shows the increase in volume of steel, depending upon the
oxidation state.

it may be pointed out that though the 2 reactions Fe2 and OH originate iron the anode and cathode
respectively, their combination occurs more commonly at the cathode, because the Sn. alert Fe2+ ions
diffuse more rapidly than the larger OH ions. So, corrosion occurs at the anode, but rust is deposited at
or near the cathode.

Increase the oxygen content has 2 effects:

(i) It forces the cathode reaction to the right, producing more OH- ions and
(ii) It removes more electrons and therefore, accelerates the corrosion at the anode.

Each of these effects, in turn, supplies more reactants for the forming reaction. Obviously, presence of
oxygen greatly accelerates both corrosion and rust formation, with the corrosion occurring the entire
anode, but the rust forming at the cathode.
2.4 Effect of Corrosion:
2.4.1 Formation of white patches
CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 in the cement paste to form CaCO3. The free movement of water
carries the unstable CaCO3 towards the surface and forms white patches. It indicates the occurrence of
carbonation.

2.4.2 Brown patches along reinforcement

When reinforcement starts corroding, a layer a ferric oxide is formed. This brown product
resulting from corrosion may permeate along with moisture to the concrete surface without cracking of
the concrete.

2.4.3 Occurrence of cracks

The increase in volume exerts considerable bursting pressure on the surrounding concrete
resulting in cracking. The hair line crack in the concrete surface lying directly above the reinforcement
and running parallel to it is the positive visible indication that reinforcement is corroding. These cracks
indicate that the expanding rust had grown enough to split the concrete.

2.4.4 Formation of multiple cracks

As corrosion progresses, formation of multiple layers of rust on the reinforcement which in turn
exert considerable pressure on the surrounding concrete resulting in widening of hair cracks. In addition,
a number of new hair cracks are also formed. The bond between concrete and the reinforcement is
considerably reduced. There will be a hollow sound when the concrete is tapped at the surface with a
light hammer.

2.4.5 Snapping of bars

The continued reduction in the size of bars results in snapping of the bars. This will occur in ties/
stirrups first. At this stage, size of the main bars is reduced.

2.4.6 Buckling of bars and bulging of concrete

The spalling of the cover concrete and snapping of ties causes the main bars to buckle. This
results in bulging of concrete in that region. This follows collapse of the structure. When corrosion of
reinforcement starts, the deterioration is usually slow but advances in geometrical progression.
Corrosion can also cause structural failure due to reduced C/S and hence reduced load carrying capacity.

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It is possible to arrest the process of corrosion at any stage by altering the corrosive environment in the
vicinity of the reinforcement.

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