Signal Encoding Techniques

Digital Signaling
◼ Data source g(t) : digital or analog
◼ Digital signal x(t) : depends on encoding
technique
◼ e.g. conserve power or minimize errors
Analog Signaling
◼ Carrier signal: a continuous constant-
frequency signal
◼ Compatible with transmission medium
◼ Modulation: encoding data onto a carrier
signal
◼ Amplitude, frequency, and phase
Key Data Transmission Terms
Signal Encoding Criteria
◼ What determines how successful a receiver will be
in interpreting an incoming signal?
◼ Signal-to-noise ratio
◼ Data rate
◼ Bandwidth
◼ An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
◼ An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
◼ An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate
Carrier signal
◼ In analog transmission, the sending device
produces a high-frequency signal that acts
as a basis for the information signal
◼ The base signal is called the carrier signal or
carrier frequency
◼ The receiver device is tuned to the
frequency of the carrier signal that it
expects from the sender
Carrier signal
◼ Digital information then modulates the
carrier signal by modifying one or more of
its characteristics
◼ Amplitude, Frequency, Phase
◼ This kind of modification is called
modulation or shift keying
◼ The information signal is called modulating
signal
Basic Encoding Techniques
◼ Digital data to analog signal
◼ Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
◼ Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
◼ Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
◼ Frequency difference near carrier frequency
◼ Phase-shift keying (PSK)
◼ Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
Amplitude-Shift Keying
◼ One binary digit represented by presence of carrier,
at constant amplitude
◼ Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier

 A cos(2f c t )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 0 binary 0


◼ where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)

Amplitude-Shift Keying
◼ Susceptible to noise interference
◼ The term noise refers to unintentional voltages
introduced onto a line or electromagnetic
induction created by other sources
◼ These unintentional voltages combine with the
signal to change the amplitude
◼ A 0 can be changed to 1 and a 1 can be changed
to 0
◼ High amount of energy is required
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
◼ Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency

 A cos(2f1t )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 A cos(2f 2t )
 binary 0

◼ where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but

opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
◼ Full-duplex FSK transmission
◼ In one direction, the frequencies for 1 and 0 are
centered on 1170 Hz, with a shift of 100 Hz on either
side.
◼ The effect of alternating between those two frequencies
is to produce a signal whose spectrum is indicated as
the shaded area
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
◼ Less susceptible to noise than ASK
◼ Because the receiving device is looking for
specific frequency changes over a given
number of periods, it can ignore voltage
spikes.
◼ The limiting factors of FSK are the physical
capabilities of the medium.
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
◼ More than two frequencies are used
◼ More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to
error

si (t ) = A cos 2f i t 1 i  M

◼ f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
◼ f c = the carrier frequency
◼ f d = the difference frequency
◼ M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
◼ L = number of bits per signal element
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
◼ To match data rate of input bit stream,
each output signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
◼ where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
◼ So, one signal element encodes L bits
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
◼ It can be shown that minimum frequency
separation required
2fd=1/Ts
◼ Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth
of
Wd=2Mfd=M/Ts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ Two-level PSK (BPSK)
◼ Uses two phases to represent binary digits

 A cos(2f c t )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 A cos(2f c t +  )
 binary 0

 A cos(2f c t )
 binary 1
=
− A cos(2f c t )
 binary 0
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ Differential PSK (DPSK)
◼ Phase shift with reference to previous bit
◼ Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as previous
signal burst
◼ Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to previous
signal burst
Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ Four-level PSK (QPSK)
◼ Each element represents more than one bit
 
A cos 2f c t + 
  4
11

 
A cos 2f c t +
3 

s(t ) = 
01
 4 
 3 
A cos 2f c t − 

00
 4 
 
A cos 2f c t − 
 10
 4
QPSK Constellation Diagration
◼ Each point shows the combination of
I(t) and Q(t) that are used for each
symbol
QPSK and OQPSK Modulators
Example
QPSK and OQPSK signal
◼ QPSK signal

◼ OQPSK signal
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ Multilevel PSK
◼ Using multiple phase angles with each angle
having more than one amplitude, multiple signals
elements can be achieved
R R
D= =
L log 2 M
◼ D = modulation rate, baud
◼ R = data rate, bps
◼ M = number of different signal elements = 2L
◼ L = number of bits per signal element
Bit Rate and Baud Rate
◼ Bit rate is the number of bits per second
◼ Baud rate is the number of signal symbols
per second
◼ Baud rate ≤Bit rate
 Bandwidth for ASK
◼ Although there is only one carrier frequency, the process of
modulation produces a complex signal that is a combination of
many simple signals, each with a different frequency.
◼ When we decompose an ASK-modulated signal, we get a
spectrum of many simple frequencies.
◼ However the most significant ones are those between f-Rbaud/2 and
f+Rbaud/2
◼ f as the carrier frequency and Rbaud as the baud rate.
Bandwidth for ASK
◼ Depends on a variety of factors
◼ Ex: the filtering techniques to create the
bandpass signal
◼ Here are some results from literature
◼ BT=(1+r)R
◼ BT:Bandwidth of modulated signal
◼ R = bit rate
◼ 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered and
the medium
Bandwidth for FSK
◼ Although there are only two carrier
frequencies, the process of modulation
produces a composite signal that is a
combination of many simple signals each
with a different frequency.
◼ We can say that the FSK spectrum is a
combination of two ASK spectra centered
on f1, and f2.
◼ BT=|f1 - f2|+(1+r)R
Bandwidth for PSK
◼ The bandwidth required for PSK is the same
as that for ASK
◼ BT=(1+r)R
Performance
◼ Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
◼ ASK, PSK BT=(1+r)R
◼ FSK BT=2DF+(1+r)R

◼ R = bit rate
◼ 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
◼ DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
◼ Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
1+ r   1+ r 
◼ MPSK BT =   R =   R
 L   log 2 M 
MFSK  (1 + r )M 
BT =   R
◼

 log 2 M 
◼ L = number of bits encoded per signal element
◼ M = number of different signal elements
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
◼ QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
◼ Two different signals sent simultaneously on
the same carrier frequency

s(t ) = d1 (t ) cos 2f c t + d 2 (t )sin 2f c t

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 16QAM Constellation Diagram
◼ 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
◼ Symbols 1010 and 1111 have the
same phase φ, but different
amplitude a.
◼ 1110 and 1101 have different phase,
but same amplitude.

➔ used in standard 9600 bit/s modems

3
7
Other Constellations of 16QAM

(a) 8 phases, 4 amplitudes (b) 8 phases, 2 amplitudes

Reasons for Analog Modulation
◼ Modulation of digital signals
◼ When only analog transmission facilities are
available, digital to analog conversion required
◼ Modulation of analog signals
◼ A higher frequency may be needed for effective
transmission. Otherwise, the required antennas
would be many kilometers in diameter
◼ Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing
Basic Encoding Techniques
◼ Analog data to analog signal
◼ Amplitude modulation (AM)
◼ Angle modulation
◼ Frequency modulation (FM)
◼ Phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation
◼ Amplitude Modulation
s (t ) = 1+ na x(t )cos 2f c t
◼ cos2fct = carrier
◼ x(t) = input signal
◼ na = modulation index
◼ Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
◼ The modulating signal is m(t)=nax(t)
◼ a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier
(DSBTC)
• m(t)=nax(t)
Spectrum of AM signal
◼ consider a voice signal
with a bandwidth that
extends from 300 to 3000
Hz being modulated on a
60-kHz carrier.
◼ The resulting signal
contains an upper
sideband of 60.3 to 63
kHz, a lower sideband of
57 to 59.7 kHz, and the
60-kHz carrier.
Amplitude Modulation
◼ Transmitted power

 na 2

Pt = Pc 1 + 

 2 
◼ Pt = total transmitted power in s(t)
◼ Pc = transmitted power in carrier

◼ We would like na as large as possible so that most

of the signal power is used to carry information.
◼ na<1
Single Sideband (SSB)
◼ Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
◼ Sends only one sideband
◼ Eliminates other sideband and carrier
◼ Advantages
◼ Only half the bandwidth is required
◼ Less power is required
Angle Modulation
◼ Angle modulation
s(t ) = Ac cos2f c t +  (t )

◼ Phase modulation
◼ Phase is proportional to modulating signal

 (t ) = n p m(t )
◼ np = phase modulation index
Angle Modulation
◼ Frequency modulation
◼ Derivative of the phase is proportional to modulating
signal

 ' (t ) = n f m(t )
◼ nf = frequency modulation index
◼ Frequency can be defined as the rate of change of
phase of a signal
2f i (t ) = 2f ct +  (t )
d
dt
f i (t ) = f c +  ' (t )
1
2
Angle Modulation
◼ Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a
signal whose bandwidth:
◼ is also centered at fc
◼ but has a magnitude that is much different
◼ Angle modulation includes cos(φ (t)) which will
produce a wide range of frequencies
◼ Thus, FM and PM require greater
bandwidth than AM
Angle Modulation
◼ AM: BT = 2B
◼ FM&PM: Carson’s rule
BT = 2( + 1)B
where
 n p Am
 for PM
 =  F n f Am
 B = 2B for FM

◼ The formula for FM becomes

BT = 2F + 2 B
Basic Encoding Techniques
◼ Analog data to digital signal
◼ Pulse code modulation (PCM)
◼ Delta modulation (DM)
Analog Data to Digital Signal
◼ Once analog data have been converted to
digital signals, the digital data:
◼ can be transmitted using NRZ-L
◼ can be encoded as a digital signal using a code
other than NRZ-L
◼ can be converted to an analog signal, using
previously discussed techniques
Pulse Code Modulation
◼ Based on the sampling theorem
◼ Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
◼ Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
◼ The digital signal consists of block of n bits,
where each n-bit number is the amplitude of
a PCM pulse
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
◼ By quantizing the PAM pulse, original
signal is only approximated
◼ Leads to quantizing noise
◼ Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNR dB = 20 log 2 n + 1.76 dB = 6.02n + 1.76 dB

◼ Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by

6 dB, or a factor of 4
Delta Modulation
◼ Analog input is approximated by staircase
function
◼ Moves up or down by one quantization level ()
at each sampling interval
◼ The bit stream approximates derivative of
analog signal (rather than amplitude)
◼ 1 is generated if function goes up
◼ 0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation
◼ Two important parameters
◼ Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
◼ Sampling rate
◼ Accuracy improved by increasing sampling
rate
◼ However, this increases the data rate
◼ Advantage of DM over PCM is the
simplicity of its implementation
Reasons for Growth of Digital
Techniques
◼ Growth in popularity of digital techniques
for sending analog data
◼ Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
◼ No additive noise
◼ TDM is used instead of FDM
◼ No intermodulation noise
◼ Conversion to digital signaling allows use of
more efficient digital switching techniques