BIOPHYSICS
BIOLOGICAL ELECTRIC PHENOMENA
BIOLOGICAL ELECTRIC PHENOMENA
BIOLOGICAL ELECTRIC PHENOMENA
❖ Introduction
• In nature, electricity can be generated from many different sources:
electromagnetic waves from underground minerals, celestial
bodies in the universe, electric sparks, etc. Notably, electricity also
exists in living organisms – this is called bioelectricity.
• Bioelectricity is a small part of the vast world of
electromagnetic waves, including: cell electricity,
electricity of tissues and organs, forming the electric
field of the entire body.
• Bioelectric currents reflect the
physicochemical characteristics of
metabolic processes and serve as
reliable indicators of physiological
functions in living organisms.
• Some species of fish living in rivers and seas have special
organs to generate electricity, such as electric catfish, electric
rays, and electric eels.
• A characteristic feature of animal cells is the constant presence
of an electric potential difference between the cell and its
external environment.
• When measuring the potential across different cell types, this
difference is around 0.1V. Particularly, some electric fish can
generate electric pulses as high as 600V, with a current of
several hundred mA.
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❖The Role of Bioelectricity
• Bioelectricity is a characteristic form of energy of living
beings. Without bioelectric currents, life cannot be
sustained.
• It plays important roles in:
– Conducting excitation in cells
– Ensuring the functional activity of cells
– Regulating the functions of organs in the body
• Faraday once said:
“However attractive physical electricity may be, it can never
match the miraculous allure of bioelectricity – the electricity
in our own bodies.”
CÁC HIỆN TƯỢNG ĐIỆN SINH VẬT
❖Significance of Studying Bioelectricity
• Understanding the electrical processes in the body has
significant implications, especially in medicine.
• In many cases, just by analyzing a few key characteristics,
one can determine whether a physiological function is
operating normally or is experiencing disorders.
❖ Objectives and Requirements in Studying Bioelectric
Phenomena
• Understand the nature of fundamental bioelectric potentials
such as resting potential, injury potential, action potential…
Also, one must grasp the methods of recording, experimental
conditions, and phases of appearance.
• Build suitable theoretical frameworks to explain the
formation of these potentials and interpret recorded results,
including their interrelationships.
• Explore biomedical applications of bioelectric phenomena in
diagnostics, functional assessment, and treatments.
❖ Research History
• Since the first discoveries recorded by scientists, humans
have yet to clearly explain the mechanisms underlying
bioelectric phenomena.
• In 1731, Gray (England) and Nollet (France) confirmed
the existence of electric charges in plants and animals.
• In 1751, Adanson observed the electric effects of electric
fish species.
• In 1773, Vels demonstrated the uniformity of these effects
and showed that the electric discharge of electric fish could
be transmitted through conductors and interrupted by
insulators.
❖ Research History
• In 1791, Galvani discovered a crucial characteristic of
living cells: a constant potential difference exists between a
living cell and its external environment.
• Many scientists continued this research, but even after
hundreds of years, the exact mechanism remained unclear.
• In recent decades, thanks to high-sensitivity, accurate
measuring devices and modern electronics, numerous rules
governing the formation of cellular electrical currents have
been discovered.
• Using various methods such as radioactive isotopes,
molecular kinetics, electron microscopy, and cytochemistry,
scientists have unveiled the true nature of bioelectric
currents.
❖ Limitations in Research
There are still many limitations in constructing theoretical
frameworks and explaining the mechanisms of bioelectric
current formation, due to:
• The signal changes in research subjects are too rapid,
while measurable values are often very small, requiring
highly sensitive and precise instruments.
• Research subjects are often extremely small in size (on
the scale of cells).
• Experimental conditions must be controlled to avoid
affecting the physiological state of the observed subjects.
Membrane Potential
• All animal cells are surrounded
by a membrane composed of a
lipid bilayer with embedded
proteins.
• This membrane acts as both
an insulator and a diffusion
barrier for ions, through ion
channels and ion pumps,
thereby generating a voltage
across the membrane known as
the membrane potential.
Basic factors related to the formation of membrane
bioelectric potential:
• Diffusion of ions across the membrane due to the
concentration difference of ions on both sides of the
membrane.
• Active transport of ions across the membrane creates a
new equilibrium – a special ion equilibrium.
Types of Membrane Potentials
Depending on the cause, measurement method,
and experimental conditions, membrane potentials
can be divided into:
❖ Resting potential
❖ Injury potential
❖ Action potential
Resting Potential – Definition
• Resting potential is the characteristic electrical potential in a
normal physiological state of the biological subject.
• It is the normal voltage difference across the membrane,
measured between the cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid.
Experiment:
To study the current changes and measure the membrane
potential of a living tissue or nerve fiber, the intracellular
microelectrode technique is commonly used.
Experimental results show:
• There is no voltage difference between the undamaged outer cell
surface and the external environment.
• However, a voltage difference always exists between the inside of the
cell and the external environment.
• This difference is called the resting potential or static membrane
potential.
Characteristics of Resting Potential
• The inside of a living cell always
has a negative electrical potential
compared to the outside. In other
words, the polarity of the resting
potential is constant.
• Normally, the resting potential
changes very slowly over time.
• With good recording techniques,
this electrical current can be
maintained for a long period. Its
magnitude only decreases when the
function of the cell or muscle fiber
starts to change.
Factors Affecting Resting Potential
• External electric currents.
• Changes in ion composition of the surrounding medium.
• Effects of certain toxins on the system.
• Oxygen concentration affecting tissue respiration.
Resting Potential Magnitude and Formation
Mechanism
• Resting potential values vary by
cell type: from 10mV to 100mV.
• It reflects the physiological
uniqueness of each organism.
Formation depends on:
1. Ion distribution across the
membrane
2. Selective membrane
permeability
3. Na⁺–K⁺ pump
Ion Distribution & Na⁺–K⁺ Pump
• High K⁺ inside, low Na⁺ inside.
• Selective K⁺ channels allow K⁺ out, leaving
negative charge inside.
• Na⁺–K⁺ pump brings K⁺ in, pushes Na⁺ out,
maintaining gradients.
Injury Potential
• Injury potential arises due to a voltage difference
between injured and uninjured regions.
• It occurs regardless of injury cause.
• Injured region is more negative.
• Value decreases slowly and diffuses over time.
The injury potential values of different cells and tissues
are also different.
Insect wing muscle 80−90 mV
Squid nerve axon 70−90 mV
Cotyledon leaf of Lupinus albus 120 mV
CÁC HIỆN TƯỢNG ĐIỆN SINH VẬT
Điện thế tổn thương
• Giá trị của hiệu điện thế giảm dần và biến đổi
chậm theo thời gian
• Có tính khuếch tán sang vùng lân cận
Factors affecting it include:
• Temperature
• Oxygen
• External fields
• Toxins
Action Potential
• Rapid oscillation in membrane potential.
• Seen in neurons, muscles when excited.
• When an excitation wave arrives,
the electrical charges on both
sides of the cell membrane are
completely reversed compared to
the initial resting potential value.
• At this moment, the potential
value on the outer surface
becomes more negative than the
potential on the inner surface.
• To determine the action potential,
intracellular microelectrode
recording techniques are
commonly used.
• The occurrence of an action potential can be examined
using the two-phase method as follows
• The experiment can be
conducted on a nerve fiber
stimulated at position (1),
with two electrodes placed
at positions (2) and (3) on
the surface of the nerve
fiber. The changes in their
potential values are
monitored through a
sensitive galvanometer G
connected between the
two electrodes.
By monitoring the characteristic changes over time, we obtain
the action potential waveform as shown in the figure.
Mechanism of action potential generation
1. When stimulated, the nerve cell
becomes excited (or fires) and an action
potential appears.
Na$^+$ gates (or channels) open, and
Na$^+$ diffuses from the outside to the
inside of the membrane, neutralizing the
negative charge inside.
The membrane potential rapidly
decreases from −70 mV to 0 mV.
Hyperpolarization
Positive Na+ ions rush
into the cell not only to
neutralize the negative
charge inside, but the
Na+ ions continue to
enter in excess.
→ The inside becomes
positively charged
(+35 mV) compared to
the outside, which
becomes negatively
charged.
Repolarization
1. Because there is a high
concentration of Na+ inside the
cell, the membrane's permeability
to Na+ decreases, and the Na+
gates (or channels) close.
2. The permeability to K+
increases, so the K+ gates open
wider, causing K+ to diffuse from
inside the cell to the outside.
3. The outside becomes positively
charged. The initial resting
potential (−70 mV) is restored.
Action Potential Graph & Permeability
Nature of the action potential
Change in membrane permeability
• Ions pass through the membrane depending on its
permeability
• Any membrane depolarization increases the
membrane permeability to Na⁺ ions.
When depolarization reaches a certain value
(depolarization threshold), the membrane permeability
to Na⁺ ions suddenly surges.
Correspondingly, the membrane conductivity to Na⁺
ions also increases thousands of times.
• As for K⁺ ions, when the membrane is at rest, the
conductivity of K⁺ ions is about 100 times greater
than that of Na⁺ ions.
• However, in the initial stage of action potential
formation, K⁺ ion conductivity increases only about
30 to 40 times, while Na⁺ ion conductivity increases
thousands of times. Because K⁺ ion permeability
occurs later and lasts longer compared to the Na⁺
ion increase.
Development of the depolarization phase
• In this phase, the conductivity of Na⁺ ions increases
thousands of times, while the conductivity of K⁺ ions
changes insignificantly.
The measured results show a reversed polarization
compared to the initial state.
At this time, the membrane permeability to Na⁺ ions is
now much greater than to K⁺ ions.
• Therefore, the membrane potential in this stage is
determined almost entirely by the diffusion of Na⁺ ions
rather than K⁺ ions.
Development of the depolarization phase
• Thus, when the cell is in an excited state, the
membrane becomes depolarized, leading to a
reduction in the resting potential.
The decrease in resting potential makes Na⁺ ions
move into the cell along the concentration gradient
more strongly than before.
The current generated by these ions causes
stronger depolarization, which is the over-
depolarization stage of the membrane.
Repolarization phase
• The membrane permeability to Na⁺ ions is inhibited,
while the permeability to K⁺ ions increases.
• At this time, the membrane potential is mainly
influenced by K⁺ ions.
The increase in K⁺ permeability occurs later but lasts
longer; the diffusion of K⁺ ions outward strongly makes
the inside of the cell more negative than the outside.
This accelerates the repolarization process, bringing
the membrane back to its initial resting state.
Living cells, tissues, and organs of the living system are
complex heterogeneous colloidal systems consisting of
many phases.
he effect of a constant external electric field causes
relative motion between the phases in the system.
If the phases have different solute compositions, the
mechanical movement of ions will create an electrical
potential in the system.
The electrical phenomena arising in this process are called
electrokinetic phenomena, divided into types such as:
electrophoresis, electro-osmosis, streaming potential,
sedimentation potential.
Excitation
Concept of excitation
Excitation is the transition from a resting state to an active
state.
Excitation includes two mechanisms:
• Mechanism of receiving stimuli by receptors
• Mechanism of converting stimulus signals into electrical
signals, transmitted to the brain for information processing
In living systems, from unicellular organisms to multicellular
organisms, although they differ greatly in evolutionary level,
excitability exists in all to adapt to changes in the living
environment.
Concept of excitation
Stimuli are diverse, but mainly physical signals (heat, light,
pressure, etc.) and chemical signals (hormones, odors,
tastes, etc.).
The function of converting stimulus signals into electrical
signals (i.e., excitation waves) and transmitting excitation
waves is performed by neurons.
The response can be carried out by organs, tissues, cells,
and even at the molecular level.
Mechanism of excitation wave conduction in nerve
fibers
Hodgkin and Katz demonstrated that the excitation current
appearing in nerve fibers upon stimulation is ionic in nature.
They also showed:
• K⁺ plays the main role in maintaining the resting potential
• Na⁺ plays the main role in forming the action potential
(excitation wave).
Mechanism of excitation wave conduction in nerve fibers
Depending on the nature of the nerve fiber (whether it has
a myelin sheath or not, axon diameter, neuron function), the
conduction speed of excitation waves differs.
Mechanism of excitation wave
conduction in nerve fibers
The axon is also an
electrical conductor.
If the axon is unmyelinated:
• Cytoplasm inside the axon
has resistance = Rt
• Neuron membrane has
resistance = Rm
For myelinated nerves (myelin is an excellent insulator), the
neuron only contacts the external environment at the nodes
of Ranvier.
Thus, stimulation and excitation current conduction occur
only at the nodes of Ranvier.
When stimulated, an action potential appears at the
stimulating electrode (cathode), denoted Vo.
Scientists calculated that in mammals:
• Axon radius = 15 μm
• Rm = 5000 Ω/cm²
• Rt = 50 Ω/cm³
An action potential Vo can propagate over 1 mm (distance
between two Ranvier nodes).
The remaining potential is calculated:
Vx = Vo × 0.5
If the stimulating electrode is at the first Ranvier node
(Ranvier 1), an action potential of Vo = 100 mV arises.
When transmitted to the second Ranvier node (Ranvier 2), it
becomes 50 mV (by formula).
Experimentally, the excitation threshold at Ranvier 2 is 20
mV.
Therefore, the 50 mV arriving at Ranvier 2 is sufficient to
trigger a new action potential of 100 mV.
This repeats, so excitation currents (100 mV) are transmitted
continuously along sensory neurons to the central nervous
system, then to motor neurons, and finally to effector
organs/tissues.
In unmyelinated nerves:
• When a region is stimulated, depolarization and polarity
reversal occur at that site.
• This excited region generates an excitation current,
which stimulates adjacent regions to produce new
excitation currents.
• The process repeats continuously along the entire nerve
fiber.
Thus, conduction in unmyelinated nerves is slower and
consumes more energy.
Mechanism of excitation transmission across synapses
A synapse is the contact region
between one neuron and another, or Mechanism of excitation
between a neuron and a different cell transmission across synapses
(e.g., muscle or gland cell).
Therefore, synapses are extremely
small and thin structures.
Mechanism of excitation transmission across synapses
Mechanism of excitation transmission across synapses
Between the presynaptic membrane and postsynaptic membrane is the
synaptic cleft.
The postsynaptic membrane contains specialized receptors for
neurotransmitters.
Mechanism of excitation transmission across synapses
Structure of a synapse includes:
• Presynaptic membrane
• Synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic membrane
Synaptic boutons (end bulbs of
axon branches) contain synaptic
vesicles.
Synaptic vesicles store
neurotransmitters.
Based on transmission type, synapses are divided
into:
Electrical synapses
Chemical synapses
Transmission across synapses by electrical
mechanism
For an excitation current to transmit from the presynaptic
neuron to the postsynaptic neuron, it must cross:
• Presynaptic membrane
• Synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic membrane
Scientists explained that these structures have very low
resistance, allowing easy passage of action potentials.
Therefore, the action potential easily passes through these
three structures.
When it reaches the postsynaptic membrane, although its
value decreases, it remains above the 20 mV excitation
threshold.
This stimulates depolarization and polarity reversal of the
postsynaptic membrane, generating a new action potential
that continues along the postsynaptic axon.
Transmission across synapses by chemical mechanism
First, the nerve impulse acts on the synaptic bouton,
allowing Ca²⁺ ions to enter.
Ca²⁺ ions cause vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse
with the presynaptic membrane and release
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
Next, neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane, generating new nerve impulses (action
potentials).
Thus, information is transmitted in the form of nerve impulses.
Finally, neurotransmitters are broken down into products and
recycled back to the synaptic bouton to regenerate
neurotransmitter substances for further transmission.
Transmission across synapses by chemical mechanism
Chất trung gian hóa học
Applications
❖ Application of potential measurement methods in
disease diagnosis and treatment.
❖ Electrokinetic phenomena are now widely used in
biomedicine: ECG, EEG, etc.
❖ Physiotherapy applies electrical currents to treat
bone and joint diseases, stimulate muscles and
nerves, and restore functions.
Mysterious phenomena of the body
❖ Telepathy phenomenon
❖ Special abilities of the human body: Causing
objects nearby to ignite
“Magnet” people (attracting metals)