ASTU Strength of Materials 2025

CHAPTER ONE: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.1. Introduction
Statics is the study of forces acting in equilibrium on rigid bodies. “Bodies” are solid objects,
“rigid” means the bodies do not stretch, bend, or twist; and “equilibrium” means the rigid
bodies are not accelerating.
In Strength of Materials, we keep the assumptions of bodies in equilibrium, but we drop the
“rigid” assumption. Real cables stretch under tension, real floor bend under load, and real
axle shafts twist under torsional load. Strength of Materials is a difficult course because the
topics are cumulative and highly interconnected.
Strength of Material is the resistance by which the material opposes the deformation that
can occur due to an external force which acts on a body. Mechanics of materials (strength of
materials) deals with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. The
solid bodies considered in forces include bars with axial loads, shafts in torsion, beams in
bending, and columns in compression.
The main objective of studying mechanics of materials is to help the engineer to analyse and
design load-bearing structures. Analysis and design involves the determination of stresses and
deformations. If we can find these quantities for all values of the loads up to the loads that
cause failure, we will have a complete picture of the mechanical behavior of these structures.
Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles in mechanics of
materials.

1.2. Stress, Strain, Stress- Strain relationship

1.2.1. Normal stress and strain
The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and strain. Simple
stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the resisting area or
𝝈 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 / 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
Stress is the lead to accurately describe and predict the elastic deformation of a body. Simple
stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress.
Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of
the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile stress and
compressive stress develops when the material is being compressed by two opposing forces.
A sign convention for normal stresses is tensile stresses is taken as positive and compressive
stresses is taken as negative.

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𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
 Shear stress is developed if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area. Example
is the bolt that holds the tension rod in its anchor. Another condition of shearing is
when we twist a bar along its longitudinal axis.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
 Bearing stress:- is the contact pressure between two bodies.
𝑃𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏
Strain (𝜀)
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the
applied force, to the original length.
𝛥𝐿 𝛿
𝜀= =
𝐿 𝐿
Normal Strain
A straight bar will change in length when loaded axially, becoming longer when in tension
and shorter when in compression. The elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided
by the total length L and multiplied by the total elongation 𝛿. Therefore, a unit length of the
bar will have an elongation equal to 1/L times δ. A change in length when loaded axially is
called the elongation per unit length, or strain, and is denoted by the Greek letter 𝜀 (epsilon).
𝛿
𝜀=
𝐿
If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain, representing an elongation or
stretching of the material. If the bar is in compression, the strain is a compressive strain and
the bar shortens. Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and compressive strain as
negative. The strain 𝜀 is called a normal strain because it is associated with normal stresses.
Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimension less quantity, that is, it has
no units. Therefore, strain is expressed simply as a number, independent of any system of
units. Numerical values of strain are usually very small, because bars made of structural
materials undergo only small changes in length when loaded.

Example 1:
A 6 inch long copper wire is stretched to a total length of 6.05 inches. What is the strain?
Solution

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The change in anything is the final dimension minus the initial dimension. Here, the change
in length is the final length minus the initial length: Δ L=Lf−Lo=6.05in.−6.0 in. =0.05 in.
Strain is ε=Δ L/L =0.05 in/6.0 in. =0.0083
Example 2:
A 6 foot long aluminum rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.08 in.2. How much does the rod
stretch under an axial tensile load of 400𝑙𝑏.? Report the answer in inches.
Solution
Aluminum has a Young’s modulus of 𝐸 = 10 ∗ 106𝑝𝑠𝑖.

Deflection

Example 3:
A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100𝑚𝑚 must carry a tensile load of 400𝑘𝑁.
Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120𝑀𝑁/𝑚2.
Solution

Example 4:
A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as shown in Fig. below.
Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and
120 MPa in steel.

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Solution

Example 5:
The homogeneous bar shown in Fig. below is supported by a smooth pin at C and a cable that
runs from A to B around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the cable if its diameter is 0.6
inch and the bar weighs 6000𝑙𝑏.

Solution

Example 6:
A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached between steel and bronze
sections, as shown in Fig. below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. If 𝑃 =
3000𝑙𝑏 and the cross sectional area of the rod is 0.5𝑖𝑛2 , determine the stress in each section.

Solution

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Example 7:
An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze rod as shown in Fig.
below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the maximum value of P that
will not exceed a stress in steel of 140𝑀𝑃𝑎, in aluminum of 90𝑀𝑃𝑎, or in bronze of
100𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Solution

Example 8:

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A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies between an 8-inches diameter wooden post and a
concrete footing as shown in Fig. below. Determine the maximum value of the load P if the
stress in wood is limited to 1800𝑝𝑠𝑖 and that in concrete to 650𝑝𝑠𝑖.

Solution

Example 9:
The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in Fig. below, is horizontal before
the load P is applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50𝑘𝑁.

Solution

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Example 10: A steel pipe of length 𝐿 = 4.0𝑓𝑡, outside diameter 𝑑2 = 6.0𝑖𝑛., and inside
diameter 𝑑1 = 4.5𝑖𝑛. is compressed by an axial force 𝑃 = 140𝑘. The material has modulus of
elasticity 𝐸 = 30,000𝑘𝑠𝑖 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.30. Determine the following quantities for
the pipe: (a) the shortening , (b) the lateral strain , (c) the increase in the outer diameter
and the increase in the inner diameter, and (d) the increase in the wall thickness.
Solution
The cross-sectional area A and longitudinal stress is determined as follows:

Because the stress is well below the yield stress the material behaves linearly elastically
and the axial strain may be found from Hooke’s law

The minus sign for the strain indicates that the pipe shortens.
(a) Knowing the axial strain, we can now find the change in length of the pipe

(b) The lateral strain is obtained from Poisson’s ratio

The positive sign for indicates an increase in the lateral dimensions.

(c) The increase in outer diameter equals the lateral strain times the diameter:

Similarly, the increase in inner diameter is

(d) The increase in wall thickness is found in the same manner as the increases in
the diameters; thus,

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Example 11: An aluminum rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.19635𝑖𝑛2 . An axial tensile
load of 6000𝑙𝑏. causes the rod to stretch along its length, and shrink across its diameter.
What is the diameter before and after loading?
Solution The rod has a circular cross section, so the cross-sectional area before the rod is
𝜋
loaded is 𝐴 = 4 𝑑2

1.2.2. Shear Stress and Strain

Shearing Stress:
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. Shearing stress is also
known as tangential stress.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
Where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area A being
sheared.
Regarding shear stresses acting on a rectangular element:
1. Shear stresses on opposite (and parallel) faces of an element are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.
2. Shear stresses on adjacent (and perpendicular) faces of an element are equal in magnitude and
have directions such that both stresses point toward, and both point away from, the line of
intersection of the faces.

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These observations were obtained for an element subjected only to shear stresses (no normal
stresses). This state of stress is called pure shear.
Shearing Deformation
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain
and is expressed as:
𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿
Shear strain is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element. Because shear
strain is an angle, it is usually measured in degrees or radians.
For the linearly elastic region, the shear stress and shear strain are proportional. Therefore
applying Hooke’s law in shear the ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called
the modulus of elasticity in shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾
The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is:
𝑉𝐿 𝜏𝐿
𝛿𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑠 𝐺 𝐺
Where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.
The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following equation:

Sign Conventions for Shear Stresses and Strains

We may state the sign convention for shear stresses in the following manner:
“Shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is positive if it acts in the positive direction
of one of the coordinate axes and negative if it acts in the negative direction of an axis. Shear
stress acting on a negative face of an element is positive if it acts in the negative direction of an
axis and negative if it acts in a positive direction.”

The sign convention for shear strains is as follows:

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“Shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces (or two
negative faces) is reduced. The strain is negative when the angle between two positive (or two
negative) faces is increased.”
Example 1: What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm
thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.
Solution

The resisting area is the shaded area along

the perimeter and the shear forces V is equal
to the punching force P.
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
𝑃 = 350[𝜋(20)(25)]
= 549778.7 𝑁
= 549.8 𝑘𝑁

Example 2: As in Fig. below, a hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing

strength of 40𝑘𝑠𝑖. The compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50𝑘𝑠𝑖.
(a) Compute the maximum thickness of plate in which a hole 2.5 inches in diameter can be
punched.
(b) If the plate is 0.25inch thick, determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be
punched.

Solution
a) Maximum thickness of plate:
Based on puncher strength:
1
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴 = 50 [4 𝜋(2.5)2 ]

= 78.125𝜋 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 → 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

Based on shear strength of plate:

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𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
78.125𝜋 = 40[𝜋(2.5𝑡)]
𝑡 = 0.781 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
b) Diameter of smallest hole:
Based on compression of puncher:
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴
1
= 50(4 𝜋𝑑2 )

= 12.5𝜋𝑑 2 → Equivalent shear force for plate

Based on shearing of plate:
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴 → 𝑉 = 𝑃
12.5𝜋𝑑2 = 40[𝜋𝑑(0.25)]
𝑑 = 0.8 𝑖𝑛
Example 3: Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in Fig.
below if 𝑃 = 400𝑘𝑁. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Solution
The bolt is subjected to double shear.
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
1
400(1000) = 300[2 ( 𝜋𝑑 2 )]
4
𝑑 = 29.13 𝑚𝑚
1.2.3. Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.

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Example 1: In Fig. below, assume that a 20𝑚𝑚 diameter rivet joins the plates that are each
110𝑚𝑚 wide. The allowable stresses are 120𝑀𝑃𝑎 for bearing in the plate material and
60𝑀𝑃𝑎 for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the
largest average tensile stress in the plates.

Solution

Example 2: In the clevis shown in Fig. below, find the minimum bolt diameter and the
minimum thickness of each yoke that will support a load 𝑃 = 14𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 without exceeding a
shearing stress of 12𝑘𝑠𝑖 and a bearing stress of 20𝑘𝑠𝑖.

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Solution

1.2.4. Stress due to thermal effects

External loads are not the only sources of stresses and strains in a structure. Other sources
include thermal effects arising from temperature changes. Changes in temperature produce
expansion or contraction of structural materials, resulting in thermal strains and thermal
stresses.
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in
the structure. In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal
stress is created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.
Thermal strain is proportional to the temperature change. That is:

Where:
𝜖 𝑇 is thermal strain
𝛼 is coefficient of thermal expansion
∆𝑇 is temperature change
The axial stress that produces the same strain as does the temperature change is expressed as:

The amount that temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract is given by:

Example 1:

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A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25𝑖𝑛2 is stretched between two fixed points. The
tensile load at 70°𝐹 is1200𝑙𝑏. What will be the stress at 0°𝐹? At what temperature will the
stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and 𝐸 = 29 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖.
Solution

Example 2:
A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in Fig. below. If 𝑊 = 80𝑘𝑁, compute
the temperature change that will cause the stress in the steel rod to be 55𝑀𝑃𝑎. Assume the
coefficients of linear expansion are 11.7𝜇𝑚/(𝑚 · °𝐶) for steel and 18.9𝜇𝑚/(𝑚 · °𝐶) for
bronze.

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Solution

1.2.5. Stress-Strain Relationship

Many structural materials, behave both elastically and linearly when first loaded.
Consequently, their stress-strain curves begin with a straight line passing through the origin.
An example is the stress-strain curve for structural steel shown in Fig. below where the
region from the origin O to the proportional limit (point A) is both linear and elastic. When a
material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress and strain, it
is said to be linearly elastic. This type of behavior is extremely important in engineering for
an obvious reason by designing structures and machines to function in this region, we avoid
permanent deformations due to yielding.
Two stress values are important in engineering design. The yield strength, 𝜎𝑦𝑆 is the limit of
elastic deformation; beyond this point, the material “yields,” or permanently deforms.

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The ultimate tensile strength, (also called tensile strength,) is the highest stress value on the
stress-strain curve. The rupture strength is the stress at final fracture; this value is not
particularly useful, because once the tensile strength is

Fig.1: Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (not to scale)
Elastic Limit/Proportional Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic ranges
The region in stress-strain diagram from O to B is called the elastic range. The region from B
to E is called the plastic range.
Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression is
expressed by the equation
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

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In which 𝜎 is the axial stress, 𝜀 is the axial strain, and E is a constant of proportionality
known as the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) for the material. The modulus of
elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region. Since strain is
dimensionless, the units of E are the same as the units of stress. The modulus of elasticity has
relatively large values for materials that are very stiff, such as structural metals. Steel has a
modulus of approximately 30,000𝑘𝑠𝑖 (210𝐺𝑃𝑎); for aluminum, values around
10,600𝑘𝑠𝑖 (73𝐺𝑃𝑎) are typical. More flexible materials have a lower modulus—values for
plastics range from 100 to 2,000𝑘𝑠𝑖 (0.7 to14𝐺𝑃𝑎).
Poisson’s Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral
contraction (that is, contraction normal to the direction of the applied load).
The lateral strain 𝜀 ′ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain 𝜀 at that same point
if the material is linearly elastic. The ratio of these strains is a property of the material known
as Poisson’s ratio. This dimensionless ratio, usually denoted by the Greek letter 𝜐 (nu), can be
expressed by the equation
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀′
𝜐=− =−
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
The minus sign is inserted in the equation to compensate for the fact that the lateral and axial
strains normally have opposite signs. For instance, the axial strain in a bar in tension is
positive and the lateral strain is negative (because the width of the bar decreases). For
compression we have the opposite situation, with the bar becoming shorter (negative axial
strain) and wider (positive lateral strain).
1.3. Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The
maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The
allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However,
since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as
either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this
strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

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Example 1: The two-bar truss ABC shown in Fig. below has pin supports at points A and C,
which are 2.0𝑚 apart. Members AB and BC are steel bars, pin connected at joint B. The length
of bar BC is 3.0𝑚. A sign weighing 5.4𝑘𝑁 is suspended from bar BC at points D and E, which
are located 0.8𝑚 and 0.4𝑚, respectively, from the ends of the bar.
Determine the required cross-sectional area of bar AB and the required diameter of the pin at
support C if the allowable stresses in tension and shear are 125𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 45𝑀𝑃𝑎, respectively.
(Note: The pins at the supports are in double shear. Also, disregard the weights of members AB
and BC.)

Solution
The objectives of this example are to determine the required sizes of bar AB and the pin at
support C.

Solving,

Next,

To obtain the vertical component of the reaction at support C:

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Fig.: Free-body diagrams

Similarly, the reaction at point C:

Tensile force in bar AB:

Because we are disregarding the weight of bar AB, the tensile force F AB in this bar is equal to
the reaction at A:

Shear force acting on the pin at C: This shear force is equal to the reaction RC therefore,

Required area of bar:

Bar AB must be designed with a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than 44.1𝑚𝑚2 in order
to support the weight of the sign, which is the only load we considered.

Required diameter of pin: The required cross-sectional area of the pin at C, which is in double
shear, is

From which we can calculate the required diameter:

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A pin of at least this diameter is needed to support the weight of the sign without exceeding the
allowable shear stress.

Example 2: The ultimate stress for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 1.9𝑀𝑁
is 480 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2. If the external diameter of the column is 200𝑚𝑚, determine the internal
diameter. Take the factor of safety as 4.
Solution
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
480
4=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
480 𝑁
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 120
4 𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜎 = 120
𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 𝑁 1900000 𝑁
Now, 𝜎 = 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 120 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋 → 𝑑 = 140.85 𝑚𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
(2002 −𝑑2 )
4

1.4. Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members

Structural components subjected only to tension or compression is known as axially loaded
members. Examples: Solid bars with straight longitudinal axes, cables and coil springs, truss
members, columns in buildings, and struts in aircraft engine mounts.
Example 1:
A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300𝑚𝑚2 and a length of 150𝑚 is suspended
vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20𝑘𝑁 at the lower end. If the unit mass
of steel is 7850 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 and 𝐸 = 200 ∗ 103 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , find the total elongation of the rod.
Solution

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Example 2: A steel wire 30𝑓𝑡 long, hanging vertically, supports a load of 500𝑙𝑏. Neglecting
the weight of the wire, determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20𝑘𝑠𝑖
and the total elongation is not to exceed 0.20𝑖𝑛. Assume 𝐸 = 29 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖.
Solution

Example 3: An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5𝑖𝑛2 carries the axial loads
applied at the positions shown in Fig. below. Compute the total change in length of the bar if
𝐸 = 10 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

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Solution

Example 4: A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in
Fig. below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that
will not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0𝑚𝑚, or the following stresses: 140𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the
steel, 120𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the bronze, and 80𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is
suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70𝐺𝑃𝑎, and 𝐸𝑏𝑟 = 83𝐺𝑃𝑎.

Solution

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Example 5: The rigid bar ABC shown in Fig. below is hinged at A and supported by a steel
rod at B. Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is
limited to 30𝑘𝑠𝑖 and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10𝑖𝑛.

Solution

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1.5. Changes in Lengths under Non-Uniform Conditions

𝑃𝐿
For bars with continuously varying loads or dimensions, we can no longer use 𝛿 = 𝐸𝐴 to

obtain the change in length. Instead, we must determine the change in length of a differential
element of the bar and then integrate over the length of the bar. Selecting a differential
element at distance x from the left-hand end of the bar, the internal axial force N(x) acting at
this cross section may be determined from equilibrium using either segment AC or segment
CB as a free body. In general, this force is a function of x. Also, knowing the dimensions of
the bar, we can express the cross-sectional area A(x) as a function of x.

The elongation of the entire bar is obtained by integrating over the length:

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Example 1: A tapered bar AB of solid circular cross section and length L (Fig. below) is
supported at end B and subjected to a tensile load P at the free end A. The diameters of the
bar at ends A and B are dA and dB, respectively. Determine the elongation of the bar due to
the load P, assuming that the angle of taper is small.

Solution
The bar being analyzed in this example has a constant axial force (equal to the load P) throughout
its length.
Cross-sectional area

The cross-sectional area at distance x from the origin is:

Change in length:

By performing the integration and substituting the limits:

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Thus,

Finally, we substitute LA/LB= dA/dB:

Example 2: A rod which tapers uniformly from 40𝑚𝑚 diameter to 20𝑚𝑚 diameter in a
length of 400𝑚𝑚 is subjected to an axial load of 5000𝑁. If 𝐸 = 2.1 ∗ 105 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 , find the
extension of the rod.
Solution

4𝑥5000𝑥400
𝛿= = 0.01515 𝑚𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
𝜋𝑥2.1𝑥105 𝑥40𝑥20
1.6. Elastic constants and their derivatives for axial loaded members

Relationship between modulus of elasticity and bulk modulus

Consider a cubic element subjected to stresses p in the three mutually perpendicular direction
x, y, z as shown in figure below.

𝝈𝟎
Now the stress 𝝈𝟎 in x direction causes tensile strain in x direction while the stress 𝝈𝟎 in
𝑬
𝝈𝟎
y and z direction cause compressive strains ѵ in x direction.
𝑬
𝝈𝟎 𝝈𝟎 𝝈𝟎 𝝈𝟎
Hence 𝜺𝒙 = −ѵ −ѵ = (𝟏 − 𝟐ѵ)
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝝈𝟎
Similarly 𝜺𝒚 = (𝟏 − 𝟐ѵ)
𝑬

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𝝈𝟎
𝜺𝒛 = (𝟏 − 𝟐ѵ)
𝑬

𝟑𝝈𝟎
∴Volumetric strain 𝑒𝑣 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 = (𝟏 − 𝟐ѵ)
𝑬

From definition, bulk modulus K is given by

𝝈𝟎 𝝈𝟎 𝑬
𝑲= = =
𝒆𝒗 𝟑𝝈𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝟐ѵ) 𝟑(𝟏 − 𝟐ѵ)
𝑬
Relationship between modulus of shear, modulus of elasticity and bulk modulus

We know 𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + ѵ) 𝑎

𝐸 = 3𝐾(1 − 2ѵ) 𝑏

By eliminating ѵ between the above two equations we can get the relationship between E, G, K, free
from the term ѵ.

𝐸
From equation (a) ѵ = 2𝐺 − 1

Substituting it in equation (b), we get

𝐸
𝐸 = 3𝐾 [1 − 2 (2𝐺 − 1 )]

𝐸
E = 3𝐾 [1 − 𝐺 + 2]

𝐸
E = 3𝐾 [3 − 𝐺 ]

𝐸
𝐸 = 3𝐾 [3 − 𝐺 ]

3𝐾𝐸
𝐸 = 9𝐾 − 𝐺

3𝐾𝐸
𝐸+ 𝐺
= 9𝐾

3𝐾
∴E (1 + 𝐺
) = 9𝐾

𝐺+3𝐾
E( 𝐺
) = 9𝐾

9𝐾𝐺
E = 𝐺+3𝐾

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