Introduction to

Embedded Systems
Syllabus
This module will cover the following aspects

• An overview of embedded systems

• Examples of embedded systems
• Features of embedded systems
• Software for embedded systems
• Embedded systems programming and debugging

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 What are Embedded systems?

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 An embedded system example -- a digital camera
Digital camera chip
CCD

CCD preprocessor Pixel coprocessor D2A

A2D

lens

JPEG codec Microcontroller Multiplier/Accum

DMA controller Display ctrl

Memory controller ISA bus interface UART LCD ctrl

• Single-functioned -- always a digital camera

• Tightly-constrained -- Low cost, low power, small, fast
• Reactive and real-time -- only to a small extent
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Embedded systems
What is an embedded system?
• Application-specific computer system
• Built into a larger system Environment
• Often with real-time computing constraints

Why add an embedded computer to a larger Embedded system

system? Software
• Better performance
Input Hardware Output
• More functions and features
• Lower cost, for e.g., through automation
• More dependability

Examples: smartphones, smart watches, printers, User interface Other systems

gaming consoles, wireless routers
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 Embedded Systems
• System structure: Microcontroller

• Sensors: to retrieve data from its RTOS

environment
• ADC: converts the analog data from the Task 1 Task 2 Task n
sensor to digital signals
• Controller: the brain of the system; execute a
set of real-time tasks concurrently, may or
may not be with the support of a RTOS
A/D D/A
• Actuators: through actuators the controller
acts upon the target system
• DAC: convert the digital signals from
microcontroller to the analog signal Sensors Actuators

Target System
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 What are differences between embedded computers and
general-purpose computers (PCs, Laptops)?

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 Embedded Computer vs. General-purpose Computer
How the computing machine is used?
Embedded System General-purpose computer
- A component of some larger product; its - A complete product itself
purpose is narrowly focused on supporting that
product
- End user of the product typically does not - End user directly interacts with it
directly interact with the embedded system, or
interacts with only a limited interface
- User don’t consider the product (e.g. DVD - User explicitly knows the product they are
players, MP3 players, game consoles) they are buying is a computer
buying is a computer

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 Embedded Computer vs. General-purpose Computer
How the computing machine is used?

Embedded System General-purpose computer

- Having some of these standard peripherals as - Having relatively few, standardized inputs and
well, but also include much more specialized outputs: keyboards, mice, network connections,
ones: video monitors, and printers
+ special-purpose sensors: accelerometers,
temperature probes, magnetometers, push
button contact switches, etc.
+ special-purpose outputs: lamps and LEDs,
actuators, TTL electrical signals, LCD displays, etc.

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 Embedded System Definition

“Embedded systems are computing systems with tightly coupled hardware

and software integration, that are designed to perform a dedicated
function. The word ‘embedded’ reflects the fact that these systems are
usually an integral part of a larger (mechanical or electrical)
system/product, known as the embedding system. Multiple embedded
systems can coexist in an embedding system.” – (Qing Li and Carolyn Yao)

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 Embedded Computing System
• Embedded systems can be classified based on their complexity and performance into:
• Small-scale systems
– Perform simple functions, operate on battery, no operating system
– usually built around low-end 8- or 16-bit microprocessors or microcontrollers
– main programming tools: an editor, assembler, cross-assembler, and integrated development environment (IDE).
– Examples: mouse and TV remote control
• Medium-scale systems
– have both hardware and software complexities, have operating system support
– use 16- or 32-bit microprocessors or microcontrollers
– main programming tools are C, C++, JAVA, Visual C++, debugger, source-code engineering tool, simulator, and IDE
– Examples: vending machines and washing machines
• Large-scale or sophisticated systems
– have enormous hardware and software complexities
– built around 32- or 64-bit microprocessors or microcontrollers, along with a range of other high-speed integrated
circuits.
– need hardware and software co-design techniques
– Examples: flight-landing gear systems, car braking systems, and military applications

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 Microprocessor (μP) vs. MCUs vs. Embedded Systems?

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Microprocessors → MCUs → Embedded Systems
Microprocessor or Central Processing unit (CPU)

Control Unit
Memory interface
Defined typically as a single processor
To program
Instruction fetcher core that supports at least instruction
memory blocks
fetching, decoding, and executing
Instruction decoder

Register banks Used for general purpose computing,

To data but needs to be supported with memory
memory blocks and Input/Output (I/O) interfaces
ALU
Microprocessor
Datapath

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 Basic Microprocessor Architecture

• Processor = Central processing Processor

Unit (CPU) Control unit Datapath

– CPU fetches instructions from ALU

Controller
memory. Control
/Status
• Separating CPU and memory that
distinguishes programmable Registers
computer from a general finite-
state machine.
– CPU registers: program counter PC IR

(PC), instruction register (IR),

general-purpose registers, etc.
I/O
Memory

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 Basic Microprocessor Architecture: Datapath

• Function Processor

• transforming data and storing temporary Control unit Datapath

data ALU

• Structure: Controller Control

/Status
• ALU (arithmetic-logic unit ): transforming
data through operations Registers
• Registers: storing temporary data
• internal data bus
10 11
PC IR

I/O
...
Memory
10
...
11

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 Basic Microprocessor Architecture: Datapath Operations

• Load Processor
Control unit Datapath
• Read memory location into register
ALU
Controller Control +1

• ALU operation /Status

– Input certain registers through Registers

ALU, store back in register
10 11
• Store PC IR

– Write register to memory

location
I/O
...
Memory
10
...
11

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 Basic Microprocessor Architecture: Control Unit
• Control unit: configures the datapath
operations Processor
Control unit Datapath
• Sequence of desired operations ALU
(“instructions”) stored in memory – “Program” Controller Control
/Status
• Instruction cycle – broken into several sub-
operations, each one clock cycle, e.g.: Registers

• Fetch: Get next instruction into IR

• Decode: Determine what the instruction PC IR R0 R1

means
• Load operands: Move data from memory to I/O
...
datapath register 100 load R0, M[500] Memory
500 10
101 inc R1, R0
501 ...
• Execute: Move data through the ALU 102 store M[501], R1

• Store results: Write data from register to

memory
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Microprocessors → MCUs → Embedded Systems
Microcontroller Unit (MCU)

Microprocessor Program memory Data memory

System Bus

Digital I/O Analog I/O Timers Other peripherals

MCU

Single-chip computer typically has a single microprocessor core

Has memory blocks, digital I/Os, analog I/Os, and other basic peripherals

Used for basic control purposes, such as embedded applications

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 Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
Microprocessor Microcontroller
A microprocessor is a single-chip CPU. A microcontroller is one form of a single-chip
In addition to the memory, we also need I/O devices computer that includes a processor, memory, and I/O
to build a useful system. devices.

Microprocessor are designed to perform unspecific Microcontrollers are designed to perform specific
tasks tasks.
- the relationship of input and output is not defined. - the relationship of input and output is defined.
- high amount of resources like RAM, ROM, I/O - small resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports
ports

The clock speed of the Microprocessor is quite high as compared to the microcontroller.
- Microcontrollers operate from a few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz,
- Microprocessors can operate up to 5GHz

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CPUs → MCUs → Embedded Systems
Embedded system

Typically implemented using MCUs

Often integrated into a larger mechanical or electrical system

Usually has real-time constraints

Embedded
system

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Embedded system example: Bike computer
Inputs:
Wheel rotation
• Functions Mode key
• Speed, cadence, distance, heart rate (HR) measurements
• Constraints
• Size, weight, and cost; power and energy
• Inputs
• Wheel rotation sensor and mode key
• Output
• Liquid crystal display (LCD), BLE interface to smartphone
• Uses low performance microcontroller Outputs:
Display/transmit
speed, HR, etc.

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Embedded system example: Gasoline engine control unit

• Functions • Many inputs and outputs

• Fuel injection • Discrete sensors and actuators
• Air intake setting • Network interface to rest of the car
• Spark timing
• Exhaust gas circulation • Uses high performance microcontroller
• Electronic throttle control • E.g., 32-bit, 3MB flash memory, 150–300MHz
• Knock control

• Constraints
• Strict real-time constraints
• Reliability in a harsh environment
• Low Cost
• Small Weight

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 Implementing Embedded Systems:
Programming Microprocessors Vs. Designing Digital Circuits
Programmed Custom designed
Desired motion-at-night detector digital circuit • Microprocessors is a
microprocessor common choice to
implement a digital system
• Easy to program
• Cheap (as low as $1)
• Available now

I0 P0 void main() 1
I1 P1 a
{ 0
I2 P2 while (1) { 1
I3 P3 P0 = I0 && !I1; b
I4 P4 0
// F = a and !b,
I5 P5 1
I6 P6 } F
0
I7 P7 }
6:00 7:05 7:06 9:00 9:01 time
Microprocessor
Timing diagram

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 Embedded Systems Design:
When Microprocessors Aren’t Good Enough
Q: How long for each
• With microprocessors so easy, cheap, Image Sensor Micro- implementation option?
processor
and available, why design a digital (Read,
(a) 5+8+1
circuit? Memory
Compress,
and Store) =14 sec
• Microprocessor may be too slow
• Or too big, power hungry, or costly Image Sensor Read Compress
circuit circuit
.1+.5+.8
Sample digital camera task execution times (in seconds) (b) =1.4 sec
on a microprocessor versus a digital circuit: Store a
Memory
circuit

Task Microprocessor Custom Digital

Circuit Image Sensor Read Compress
circuit circuit
Read 5 0.1 .1+.5+1
Compress 8 0.5 (c) =1.6 sec
Microprocessor
Memory (Store)
Store 1 0.8 Good
compromise

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Options for building embedded systems
Implementation Design Unit Upgrades Size Weight Power System
Cost Cost & Bug Speed
Fixes
Discrete Logic low medium difficult large high ? very fast
ASIC high very low difficult very small very low low extremely fast
Dedicated
Hardware

($500K/
mask set)
Programmable logic: low to medium easy small low medium to very fast
FPGA, PLD medium high
Software Running on

Microprocessor + low to medium easy small to low to medium moderate

Generic Hardware

memory + peripherals medium medium medium

MCU (int. memory & low low to easy small low medium slow to
peripherals) medium moderate

Embedded PC low high easy medium medium to medium to fast

high high

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 Why we embed microprocessor in system? (here)

• Microprocessors are a very efficient way to implement digital systems:

• high-performance processors can execute several instructions per cycle
• CPUs are highly optimized for speed by the latest manufacturing technology
• A microprocessor, on the other hand, can be used for many different algorithms simply
by changing the program it executes.
• Implementation of your application is faster than designing your own custom logic

• Microprocessors are flexible thank to their programmability:

• it is easier to design families of products
• it is easier to provide new features to keep up with rapidly changing markets
• it is possible to reuse software for next-generation products, thereby reducing
development time and cost.
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Benefits of microcontroller-based embedded systems

Greater flexibility and Lower cost More features Better

efficiency dependability
More sophisticated Cheaper components Many not possible or Adaptive systems that can
control through software Reduced manufacturing costs impractical using other compensate for failures
approaches Better diagnostics to
Reduced operating and
maintenance costs improve repair time

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Functions of embedded systems
Closed-loop control system
Monitor a process, adjust an output to maintain the desired set point of operation
(temperature, speed, direction, etc.)

Sequencing
Step through different stages based on environment and system conditions

Signal processing
Remove noise, select desired signal features

Communications and networking

Exchange information reliably and quickly

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Attributes of embedded systems

Interfacing with larger systems/ Concurrent, reactive behaviors

environment

• Analog signals for reading sensors • Must respond to sequences and combinations of
• Use voltage to represent a physical value events
• Power electronics for driving motors and • Real-time systems have deadlines on responses
solenoids • Typically must perform multiple separate
• Digital interfaces for communicating with other activities concurrently
digital devices: UART, I2C, SPI, …
• User interfaces:
• Simple: switches, LEDs
• Complex: displays

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Attributes of embedded systems

Fault handling Diagnostics

• Many systems must operate independently for

long periods of time that requires them to • Help systems developer and service personnel
handle likely faults without crashing determine problems quickly
• Often, the fault-handling code is larger and
more complex than the normal-case code

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Constraints specific to embedded devices

Cost Size and weight Power and energy Environment

limits limits
Competitive markets penalize Mobile (aviation, Temperatures may range
products that do not deliver automotive) and portable Battery capacity, from -40 degrees C to 125
adequate value for money (e.g., handheld, wearable) cooling limits degrees C, or even more.
systems

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The impact of constraints

MCUs used (rather than Programming language Operating system (OS)

microprocessors)
• Include peripherals to • Programmed in C rather than • Typically no OS, but instead
interface with other devices in Java that results in smaller simple scheduler, or even just
and respond efficiently and faster code, so less interrupts + main code
• On-chip RAM and ROM expensive MCU (foreground/background
reduce circuit board • Some performance-critical system)
complexity and cost code may be written in • If OS used, likely to be a lean
Assembly (a lower-level real-time one (RTOS).
language)

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Embedded software
Software incorporated into/aiming to control machines or devices

• Usually specialized for a specific hardware platform

• Simple, limited memory requirements
• Often does not require OS support → firmware
• Subject to timing constraints
• Many control functions not tied to human interaction

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Embedded software constraints

Lack of abstraction Responsiveness Concurrency

developer directly system needs to multiple physical
exposed to react to external events happening at
underlying triggers in a timely the same time must
hardware manner be handled

Efficiency Reliability
given energy & timing code errors can have
budgets, optimization catastrophic events
is required in practice

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Embedded systems programming and debugging
Different option to upload/debug code on a microcontroller

• A range of interfaces are used to program embedded systems,

including Joint Test Action Group (JTAG), Serial Wire Debug
(SWD), Single Wire Interface Module (SWIM), etc.

• Programming consists of writing program code to non-volatile

memory (e.g., Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory (EEPROM)) and configuring the system via fuses.

• Configuration bits (fuses) control key behavior of embedded

hardware, e.g., clock rate, power-up timer, etc.
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Embedded software debugging
Much more complicated than debugging regular software and involves some hardware interface

Challenging to debug code involving interactions with peripherals

Debug pins could be made available for programming and testing during manufacturing

Sometime convenient to implement a command-line interface (CLI) that can enable real-time
inspection of registers and memory contents

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) frequently used to simplify debugging

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Over-the-air programming
Sometimes possible for embedded devices equipped with a wireless interface

• Over-the-air (OTA) programming is particularly useful for

firmware updating after product release.
• A risk of rendering the device unusable exists, if programming is
interrupted or inappropriate software is uploaded → some
recovery mechanism should be implemented if OTA is desired.
• Ideally, a separate chip would handle OTA programming, but this
increases the footprint and cost of the device.
• More often, memory is reserved for a bootloader that handles
the OTA programming and, in case of update failure, this can
revert the application to the previous version.

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Coming next
Module Contents
Hardware Platforms for IoT • What is a hardware platform
• Types of memory
• Power saving techniques
• Types of sensors
The Arm Cortex-M4 • Processors vs. architectures
Processor Architecture • Cortex-M4 features
• Cortex-M4 registers
Interrupts and Low Power • What are interrupts
Features • Exception handlers
• Timing analysis
• Program design with interrupts

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