MLR Institute of Technology

Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043

Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 53
Topic:Aircraft related jigs
Book Reference:Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Aircraft related jigs

There are a multitude of devices used to ensure the models we build are true and square. These
come in many forms and can be a simple straightedge or a complicated trussed assembly that is
as much of a project as the model it is used to align.

We can get by with a minimum of these, but at the cost of less accurate models or less time-
efficiency. While you build you should look at what tasks you perform that require precision
that tend to repeat from project to project. Build your own tools to make these tasks more
accurate and faster.

Jigs and Fixtures

The difference between a jig and a fixture is that a jig moves and fixture doesn't.

A Jig or Fixture is a device used to hold and align a structure while it is being built. There are
not many jigs made for model-builders simply because of the variety of models we make. It is
difficult to make something universal and nobody would buy a jig specifically for a single kit
unless the kit itself was extremely expensive and the jig was relatively small expense.

One of the great benefits of making molds is consistency - each item coming from the mold will
be identical to the last. That's why a lot of model builders make molds. For example, the
average modeler could carve nine cowl bumps for a Golden Age biplane in a few hours. Making
the mold and casting the pieces will take much longer than that. But they do it anyway because
they would rather all the bumps be identical than save the time and have inconsistent parts.

Anyone who has ever worked in a factory can tell you that setup is important. In the above
example, if the mold is wrong everything that comes out of it will be wrong. The same goes for
setting up your jigs and fixtures. Take the time to set things up right and then test it. For
example, when I'm cutting a bunch of duplicate parts on my table saw I do some test cuts first to
ensure I'm getting what I want before I start ruining the actual parts I'll be using.

This is especially important if the parts already have work done to them. If they get ruined then
you have to start all over again and repeat the steps you already completed. It's far better to ruin
some wood making sure the setup is right first.
Types of Jigs and Fixtures
1. Template jig
2. Plate jig
3. channel jig
4. Diameter jig
5. Leaf jig
6. Ring jig
7. Box jig
Template Jig
• The template jig is the simplest of all the types.
• A plate 2 having holes at the desired positions serves as a which is fixed on component 1
to be drilled.
• The drill 21 is guided through these holes of the template 2 and the required holes are
drilled on the workpiece at the same relative positions with each other as on the template.

Plate Jig
1. A fixture holds and positions the work but does not guide the tool. Whereas a jig holds,
locates and as well as guides the tool.
 2. The fixtures are heavier in construction and are bolted rigidly on the machine table.
Whereas the jigs are made lighter for quicker handling, and clamping with the table is
often unnecessary.
3. The fixtures are employed for handling work in milling, grinding, planing, or turning
operations. Whereas the jigs are used for holding work and guiding the tool particularly
in drilling, reaming or tapping operations.
A plate jig is an improvement of the template jig

Channel Jig
• It is a simple type of jig having a channel-like cross-section. The component 1 is fitted
within the channel 4 and is located and clamped by rotating the knurled knob 5. The tool
is guided through the drill bush 3.

Diameter Jig
• It is used to drill radial holes on a cylindrical or spherical workpiece.
Ring Jig
• It is employed to drill holes on circular flanged parts.
• The work is securely clamped on the drill body and the holes are drilled by guiding the
tool through drill bushes

Box Jig
• The box jigs are generally employed to drill a number of holes on a component from
different angles.
Drill jig
A drill jig is a type of jig that expedites repetitive hole center location on multiple
interchangeable parts by acting as a template to guide the twist drill or other boring device into
the precise location of each intended hole center. In metalworking practice, typically a hardened
drill bushing lines each hole on the jig plate to keep the tool from damaging the jig.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 54
Topic: Aircraft fixtures
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Aircraft fixtures
Al fixture is a device which holds and locates a workpiece during an inspection or for a
manufacturing operation. The fixture does not guide the tool.
In construction, the fixture comprises a different standard or specially designed work
holding the device, which is clamped on the machine able to hold the work in the position. The
tools are set at the required positions on the work by using gauges or by manual adjustment.
The main elements of jigs and fixtures

Body: It is a plate, box or frame type structure in which the components to be machined are
located. It should be quite sturdy and rigid.

Locating elements: These elements locate the workpiece in a proper position in relation to the
cutting tool.

Clamping elements: These elements firmly secure the workpiece in the located position.

Grinding and setting elements: These elements guide the cutting tool in case of jig and help in
proper tool acting in case of the fixture.
 Positioning elements: These elements include different types of fastening devices, which are
used in securing the jig or fixture to the machine at the proper position.

Indexing elements: They are not provided always. But, many workpieces may have to be
indexed to different positions in order to perform machining operations on different surfaces or
different locations. In such cases, these elements will have to be incorporated in the jig or fixture.

Types of Fixtures

Following are the 10 different types of fixtures:

1. Turning fixtures.
2. Milling fixtures.
3. Broaching fixtures.
4. Grinding fixtures.
5. Boring fixtures.
6. Indexing fixtures.
7. Tapping fixtures.
8. Duplex fixtures.
9. Welding fixtures.
10. Assembly fixtures.

Fixtures are usually named after the type of machining operation for which they are designed
and employed.

Turning fixtures

It is quite easy-to-hold regular workpieces on lathes in standard job holding devices like chucks
and collects, between the centre and on mandrels or faceplates. But irregularly shaped
components offer a lot of difficulties in holding them correctly.
Simple odd shaped jobs can be held in chuck also, say by proper adjustment of jaws in a four-
jaw chuck or by using shaped soft jaws. However, workpieces having complicated shaped have
to be necessarily held in position with the help of turning fixtures. These fixtures are normally
mounted on the nose of the machine spindle or on a faceplate and the workpieces held them.

Milling fixtures

These fixtures are used on milling for carrying out different milling operations on workpieces.
The fixture is properly located on the table of the machine and secured in position by means
of bolts and nuts.

The table is shifted and set in the proper position, in relation to the cutter. The workpieces are
located no the base of the fixture and clamped before starting the operation.
Since the cutting forces involved are quite high, and also intermittent, the clamping
elements. Proper locating of the fixture on the machine table is usually achieved with the help of
two tenons provided under the fixture base. These tenons enter a T-slot of the table to provide the
required location. The fixture base can then be secured to the table by means of T-bolts and nuts.

Broaching fixtures.
These fixtures are used on different types of broaching machines to locate, hold and
support the workpieces during the operations, such as keyway broaching operations, such as
keyway broaching, hole broaching, etc. The use of a clamping plate as a fixture for internal pull-
type hole broaching.
 Grinding Fixture.
Several different forms of fixtures are used in grinding machines to locate, hold and support the
workpieces during the operations. These fixtures may be the standard work-holding devices,
such as chucks, mandrels, chuck with shaped jaws, magnetic chucks, etc.
For example; a vertical surface grinder with a rotary table will normally have a rotary fixture
secured to its table. Similarly, a plain or string fixture may be provided on a surface grinder with
the reciprocating table. A drill grinding attachment is a glaring example of a standard fixture
used for grinding of drill geometry.
Whatever be the types of fixture designed for grinding operation, it should have provisions for
supply and exit of coolant, mounting of wheel dressers and should be properly balanced, if it is a
rotating fixture.
Boring Fixture
The operation can be performed in one of the following two ways:
 By keeping the boring bar (tool) stationary and feeding the touting workpiece on to the bar.
 By keeping the workpiece stationary and feeding the rotating boring bar into the work.
Accordingly, therefore, the boring fixture is made in two common designs.
Indexing Fixture.
Several components need machining on the different surface such that their machined surface
surfaces or forms are evenly spaced.

Such components are required to be indexed equally as many as the number of surfaces
to be machined. Obviously, the holding devices (jigs or fixtures) used are made to carry a
suitable indexing mechanism. A fixture carrying such a device is known as an indexing fixture.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 55
Topic: Stages of assembly
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Stages of assembly

Fundamental principles of Jigs and Fixtures design

• Locating Points: Good facilities should be provided for locating the work. The article to
be machined must be easily inserted and quickly taken out from the jig so that no time is
wasted in placing the workpiece in position to perform operations. The position of
workpiece should be accurate with respect to tool guiding in the jig or setting elements in
fixture.
• Fool Proof: The design of jigs and fixtures should be such that it would not permit the
workpiece or the tool to inserted in any position other than the correct one.
• Reduction of Idle Time: Design of Jigs and Fixtures should be such that the process,
loading, clamping and unloading time of the workpiece takes minimum as far as possible.
• Weight of Jigs and Fixtures: It should be easy to handle, smaller in size and low cost in
regard to amount of material used without sacrificing rigidity and stiffness.
• Jigs Provided With Feet: Jigs sometimes are provided with feet so that it can be placed
on the table of the machine.
• Materials For Jigs And Fixtures: Usually made of hardened materials to avoid frequent
damage and to resist wear. Example- MS, Cast iron, Diesteel, CS, HSS.
• Clamping Device:] It should be as simple as possible without sacrificing effectiveness.
The strength of clamp should be such that not only to hold the workpiece firmly in place
but also to take the strain of the cutting tool without springing when designing the jigs
and fixtures.
Essential features of Jigs and Fixtures

• Reduction of idle time – Should enable easy clamping and unloading such that idle
time is minimum
• Cleanliness of machining process – Design must be such that not much time is wasted
in cleaning of scarfs, burrs, chips etc.
• Replaceable part or standardization – The locating and supporting surfaces as far as
possible should be replaceable, should be standardized so that their interchangeable
manufacture is possible
• Provision for coolant – Provision should be there so that the tool is cooled and the
swarfs and chips are washed away
• Hardened surfaces – All locating and supporting surfaces should be hardened materials
as far as conditions permit so that they are not quickly worn out and accuracy is retained
for a long time
• Inserts and pads – Should always be riveted to those faces of the clamps which will
come in contact with finished surfaces of the workpiece so that they are not spoilt
• Fool-proofing – Pins and other devices of simple nature incorporated in such a position
that they will always spoil the placement of the component or hinder the fitting of the
cutting tool until the latter are in correct pos
• Economic soundness – Equipment should be economically sound; cost of design and
manufacture should be in proportion to the quantity and price of producer
• Easy manipulation – It should be as light in weight as possible and easy to handle so
that workman is not subjected to fatigue, should be provided with adequate lift aids
• Initial location – Should be ensured that workpiece is not located on more than 3 points
in anyone plane test to avoid rocking, spring loading should be done
• Position of clamps – Clamping should occur directly above the points supporting the
workpiece to avoid distortion and springing
• Clearance – Sufficient amount of clearance should be provided around the work so that
operator’s hands can easily enter the body for placing the workpiece and any variations of
work can be accommodated
• Ejecting devices – Proper ejecting devices should be incorporated in the body to push the
workpiece out after operation
• Rigidity and stability – It should remain perfectly rigid and stable during operation.
Provision should be made for proper positioning and rigidly holding the jigs and fixtures
• Safety – The design should assure perfect safety of the operator
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 56
Topic: Types and equipment for riveted joints
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Types and equipment for riveted joints

Solid, or structural, rivet types consist of a straight, round pin with a half-rounded head on one
end. To install these rivets, a hole is drilled through both pieces of material only slightly bigger
than the pin shank and the rivet is inserted until the head contacts the material's surface. The
blank, or buck-tail, end of the pin is then peened using a hammer or a power tool to expand it to
form a second head. This pulls the two pieces of material together tightly and prevents the rivet
from pulling out, forming a secure joint. Solid rivet types require that the material can be
accessed from both sides for installation.

Blind rivets are more complex in construction, but are easier to install, require access from only
one side of the material, and are generally used in lighter applications. They consist of a hollow
tubular pin with a head on one end similar to a solid rivet and a special nail that passes through it
to protrude beyond its head. The nail has an enlarged ball on its end too big to pass through the
pin and features weakening cuts around its girth just above the ball. To install a blind rivet, it is
inserted into a hole in the material in the same way as a solid rivet, whereupon a special tool is
used to progressively pull the nail up towards the head. This causes the pin to deform and expand
to form a head and, when pulled enough, the nail breaks off at the weakening cut leaving the
expanded pin in the hole to join the material.

Other rivet types include light-gauge hollow rivets that are typically used to join leather or
fabrics, drive rivets, and semi-tubular rivets. Most aircraft skins are attached using large numbers
of highly-specialized, friction lock rivets that are countersunk to offer little or no aerodynamic
drag during flight. Some specialized rivet types are self-piercing types and do not require the pre-
drilling of holes, piercing the material themselves during installation. Others are used purely for
decorative purposes and are mostly made from brass or copper.
Types of Rivets :
Rivets come in a number of different types, which are suitable for specific uses.

Pop Rivets
Also called blind rivets, pop rivets are tubular, and have a mandrel in the middle. A specially
designed tool is used to set these rivets. It expands one end of the rivet, popping off the mandrel.
These rivets are easy to install, especially when it's only possible to access the joint from one
side of the material. Unfortunately, they are also less strong and more prone to corrosion than
other types of rivet. Pop rivets are more likely to fail than solid or speciality rivets. Pop rivets are
suitable for joining thin pieces of metal and plastic.

Cold Rivets
Cold rivets are generally used to join steel or other metal plates. At one time, they were common
in heavy industry, but they have largely been replaced by welding and brazing. Unlike pop rivets,
these are solid throughout, which allows for greater strength. Cold rivets come in a number of
different shapes, depending on whether it's appropriate for the rivet head to be visible. They
work well to join small metal plates. Cold rivets must be installed using a rivet set, a special
metal tool that flattens the end of the rivet.

Hot Rivets
Hot rivets are the most difficult to install, but provide the strongest joint. They are similar to cold
rivets, but must be heated before setting them into place. The end of the hot rivet is flattened with
a hammer or rivet set. As the metal in the rivet cools, it also contracts, pulling the joined
materials together. This makes the joint stronger than that provided by a cold rivet. Hot rivets
were once popular for use on large buildings and other steel structures, but have fallen out of
favour. They are still used in making steel cars, tanks and in some structural steel projects.
Modern hot rivets are usually set with an automatic machine called a rivet buster.

Blind Rivets

A mandrel runs through the center. Blind rivets are useful where it is undesirable for the rivet tail

to be seen. Once the rivet has been driven into the work pieces, the mandrel is snapped off at the
blind end. Since this process results in an unlocked mandrel, the carrying capability is

significantly lowered. Vibrations may also cause the mandrel to break off. Blind rivets aren’t

suitable for structural repairs. Where access to the joint is only possible from one side, blind

rivets are useful.

Semi-Tubular Rivets

Semi-tubular rivets are also referred to as tubular rivets. A partial hole is evident at the tip of the

rivet tail end. This calls for less force during driving processes. Waxing is an integral process for

tubular rivets. This facilitates proper assembly. They offer a quick means of riveting where items

are produced en masse. Tubular rivets are ideal to use as pivot points since the rivet only swells
at the tail. The rivets are usually plated with tin, nickel, brass or zinc. Finished tubular rivets

have the head to one side with a shallow blind hole apparent on the other side.

Compression Rivets

These have two members, a solid male rivet and a female tubular rivet. The unit is driven into the

work piece with the male rivet on one side and the female tubular on the other side. When the

two components are squeezed together, a press fit is formed.

Drive Rivets

A short mandrel sticks out through the head. The pin is driven into the shank using a hammer or

some other tool. Due to less clamping force, drive rivets aren’t as secure as other rivets. Drive

rivets are popular when installing wooden panels since it isn’t necessary to drill the hole all

through the wood. This produces a better aesthetic effect. Materials that do not require enhanced

fastening also work well with drive rivets.

Flush Rivets

Where a nice appearance is critical on external metal surfaces, flush rivets work well. These use

countersunk holes to improve on the rivet appearance. Due to the countersunk hole, flush rivets

are also referred to as countersunk rivets. Flush rivets are widely used in the aviation industry for

aerodynamic purposes.
Types of Riveted Joints:
 Primarily there are two major types of riveted joints depending upon the way the
structures may be joined: lap joints and butt joints.

 Lap Joint: In this type the ends carrying the drillings of the two members are positioned
such that their surfaces slightly overlap. The riveting is then done through the coincident
holes (see figure).

 Butt Joint: Here, the two members or the elements are linked edge to edge in one
straight line. The clamping is produced using an external cover plate which is then
riveted as above through the parallel drilled holes.

 Single Riveted Joint: In this type more than one rivet are fixed along a single row
typically in a lap joint, while in a butt joint the rows may appear from both the upper and
the lower surfaces.

 Double Riveted Joint: When two rows of rivets are included over a lap joint or when
two rows of rivets are utilized from both top and bottom in a butt joint are referred to as
double butt joint.

 Chain Riveted Joint: In this type the accommodated rows of rivets may lie exactly
opposite to each other over straight lines.

 Zig Zag Riveted Joint: Unlike the above type, here the rows may appear staggered and
not complementing each other.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 57
Topic: Types and equipment for bolted joints
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Types and equipment for bolted joints

Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine design. They
consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured with the mating of screw
threads.

Types of Bolts:
 Anchor bolt
 Arbor bolt
 Carriage bolt
 Elevator bolt
 Hanger bolt
 Hex bolt
 J bolt
 Lag bolt
 Rock bolt
 Chicago Bolt
 Shoulder bolt or Stripper bolt
 U-Bolt
There are two main types of bolted joint designs: tension joints and shear joints.

 In the tension joint, the bolt and clamped components of the joint are designed to transfer
an applied tension load through the joint by way of the clamped components by the
design of a proper balance of joint and bolt stiffness. The joint should be designed such
that the clamp load is never overcome by the external tension forces acting to separate the
 joint. If the external tension forces overcome the clamp load (bolt preload) the clamped
joint components will separate, allowing relative motion of the components.

 The second type of bolted joint transfers the applied load in shear of the bolt shank and
relies on the shear strength of the bolt. Tension loads on such a joint are only incidental.
A preload is still applied but consideration of joint flexibility is not as critical as in the
case where loads are transmitted through the joint in tension. Other such shear joints do
not employ a preload on the bolt as they are designed to allow rotation of the joint about
the bolt, but use other methods of maintaining bolt/joint integrity. Joints that allow
rotation include clevis linkages, and rely on a locking mechanism (like lock washers,
thread adhesives, and lock nuts).
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 58
Topic: Aircraft tooling concept
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Aircraft tooling concept

New aerospace tooling project always involves hundreds of choices from the concept to delivery.
The greatest benefit to our customers is our ability, at MI, to select the right production path that
assures a successful job, time after time.

Our aerospace tooling team includes experts in electro-hydraulics, programmable logic

controls and motion control analysis for each project’s unique tolerance requirements. We are
your reliable source for crucial aerospace tooling under tight deadlines.

If one of your production lines shuts down or quality drops, your business is at risk. MI
aerospace tooling is a critical component in assuring the smooth operation of any mechanical
production line. That’s why we deliver accurate solutions consistently under the tightest of
deadlines. Count on us top keep your lines humming.

The Machinists team takes time to analyze and understands your manufacturing needs,
then integrates a turnkey solution that’s exactly suited to make your production line perform as
expected. Turnkey means just that: we design, build, install, and fine tune the system. We
guarantee the tooling from our MI plants works. We can even train your operators. Our aircraft
tooling has been designed and fabricated for use in composite component fabrication and
assembly line jigs in sizes that range from table top to a complete system that occupies a large
manufacturing bay.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 59
Topic: Dye penetration test
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

What is Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)?

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a testing and analysis technique used by industry to
evaluate the properties of a material, component, structure or system for characteristic
differences or welding defects and discontinuities without causing damage to the original
part. NDT also known as non-destructive examination (NDE), non-destructive inspection
(NDI) and non-destructive evaluation (NDE).

This is a simple low-cost method of detecting surface-breaking flaws such as cracks, laps,
porosity, etc. To be detected, the flaw must reach the surface to be [Link] testing is one
step up from visual inspection and offers many advantages, such as speed, large-area coverage
and cheapness.
It is usually a six-stage process:
a) surface cleaning (degreasing etc)
b) application of a penetrant liquid (dipping, spray, brush)
c) removal of excess penetrant (solvent, water)
d) application of developer
e) inspection of test surface (visual, television camera)
f) post-inspection cleaning (anti-corrosion solutions).
There are three major groups of penetrant process:
a) water-soluble
b) post-emulsifiable with water rinsing
c) solvent removable, the difference being in the method used to remove the excess penetrant.
In each of these three groups the penetrant solution can contain a dye to make the indication
visible under white light, or a fluorescent material which fluoresces under suitable ultraviolet
(UV-A) light.

The choice of technique for any specific application is based on:

a) the surface finish of the specimen
b) the compatibility of the materials with the specimen
c) the sensitivity required
d) the size, shape and accessibility of the area to be inspected
e) the ultimate use of the component.

Non-Destructive Testing Methods

 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

 Radiographic Testing (RT)
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
 Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)
 Electromagnetic Testing (ET) etc;
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
 Laser Testing Methods (LM)

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

Liquid penetrant testing involves the application of a fluid with low viscosity to the material to
be tested. This fluid seeps into any defects such as cracks or porosity before a developer is
applied which allows the penetrant liquid to seep upwards and create a visible indication of the
flaw. Liquid penetrant tests can be conducted using solvent removable penetrants, water
washable penetrants or post-emulsifiable penetrants.
Fluorescent penetrants are usually used when the maximum flaw sensitivity is required.
The principle of liquid penetrant testing is that the liquid penetrant is drawn into the surface-
breaking crack by capillary action and excess surface penetrant is then removed; a developer
(typically a dry powder) is then applied to the surface, to draw out the penetrant in the crack and
produce a surface indication. Cracks as narrow as 150 nanometres can be detected. The
indications produced are much broader than the actual flaw and are therefore more easily visible.
Liquid penetrant testing can be applied to any non-porous clean material, metallic or non-
metallic, but is unsuitable for dirty or very rough surfaces. Surface cleaning is a vital part of the
penetrant testing technique. The method can be manual, semi-automatic or fully automated.
Penetrant inspection, continuous-operation production lines in which the specimens are cleaned,
dipped, washed, dried, etc on a time cycle are common.
Recently, equipment to fully automate the visual inspection stage of the process, by robotic
handling of the specimen on a programmed procedure with television camera viewing and
pattern recognition to identify and recognise flaws, has been introduced. Television image
enhancement processes can be included.

A special, very high sensitivity penetrant process, using radioactive tracers is sometimes used,
but requires very stringent safety procedures.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No:60
Topic: X-ray test
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg
X-ray test Or Radiographic Test

Radiographic Testing (RT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method which uses either x-
rays or gamma rays to examine the internal structure of manufactured
components identifying any flaws or defects.
In Radiography Testing the test-part is placed between the radiation source and film (or
detector). The material density and thickness differences of the test-part will attenuate (i.e.
reduce) the penetrating radiation through interaction processes involving scattering and/or
absorption. The differences in absorption are then recorded on film(s) or through an electronic
means. In industrial radiography there are several imaging methods available, techniques to
display the final image, i.e. Film Radiography, Real Time Radiography (RTR), Computed
Tomography (CT), Digital Radiography (DR), and Computed Radiography (CR).
There are two different radioactive sources available for industrial use; X-ray and Gamma-ray.
These radiation sources use higher energy level, i.e. shorter wavelength, versions of the
electromagnetic waves. Because of the radioactivity involved in radiography testing, it is
of paramount importance to ensure that the Local Rules is strictly adhered during operation.
Computed Tomography (CT) is one of the lab based advanced NDT methods that TWI offers to
industry. CT is a radiographic based technique that provides both cross-sectional and 3D volume
images of the object under inspection. These images allow the internal structure of the test object
to be inspected without the inherent superimposition associated with 2D radiography. This
feature allows detailed analysis of the internal structure of a wide range of components.
TWI Resources
TWI has the following digital radiography equipment with computed tomography capability to
cater for industrial needs.
 Nikon 450kV micro-focus CT system
 X-Tek Industrial 450 kV broad focus system
 X-Tek 225kV micro-focus CT system
Benefits
 Can inspect assembled components
 Minimum surface preparation required
 Detects both surface and subsurface defects
 Provides a permanent record of the inspection
 Verify internal flaws on complex structures
 Isolate and inspect internal components
 Automatically detect and measure internal flaws
 Measure dimensions and angles within the sample without sectioning
 Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, flaws and material density changes
Applications
Radiographic Testing is widely used in the;
 Aerospace industries
 Military defence
 Offshore industries
 Marine industries
 Power-gen industries
 Petrochem industries
 Waste Management
 Automotive industries
 Manufacturing industries
 Transport industries
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 61
Topic: Magnetic particle testing
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Magnetic particle testing

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) (also known as magnetic particle inspection – MPI) is a non
destructive test (NDT) method, used to detect surface or subsurface (near to surface)
discontinuities. This NDT method can be used on metals which can be easily magnetized
(ferromagnetic). Metals can be classified as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or diamagnetic.
 Ferromagnetic metals: Ferromagnetic metals are those, which are strongly attracted to a magnet
and can be easily magnetized. Examples ferromagnetic metals are iron, nickel, and cobalt.
 Paramagnetic metals: Paramagnetic metals are those which are very weakly attracted by
magnetic forces of attraction and cannot be magnetized such as austenitic stainless steel.
 Diamagnetic metals: Diamagnetic metals are those which are slightly repelled by a magnet and
cannot be magnetized. Examples of diamagnetic metals are bismuth, gold, and antimony.
Only ferromagnetic metals can be effectively inspected by Magnetic Particle Testing
Principle of Magnetic Particle Test
This method uses the phenomenon of a magnet by virtue of which path of magnetic lines of force
gets disrupted when a surface breaking is occurred in the path. Any magnet has two poles i.e.
north pole at one end and south pole at the other. Magnetic lines of force (also known as
magnetic flux) travel from north pole to the south pole, as shown in the below figure (Figure – 1)
 Figure — 1

If there is any distinct change in the continuity (such as surface discontinuity) of magnet, then
the magnetic lines of force will get distorted, this phenomenon is known as flux leakage. During
flux leakage, additional North and South poles will be created near discontinuity (Figure —
2), and the magnetic lines of force will redistribute themselves in the material by bending around
the discontinuity.

Figure — 2

How Magnetic Particle Test works?

When fine Iron particle (ferromagnetic particle) is spread over a magnet, it gets accumulated at
the poles. But in case of any discontinuity, flux leakage would occur and the Iron powder
will accumulate at the discontinuity, due to the creation of additional North and South poles at
the discontinuity, as shown in Fig – 3

Figure — 3
 The accumulation of iron particle at the discontinuity would produce a visible indication of
that discontinuity.
Detection Media:
Particles used for Magnetic particle testing is similar to ferromagnetic particle and is called
as detection media. These particles may be applied in dry form or may be mixed with liquid and
spread over the area where Magnetic particle test has to be performed. Liquid like kerosene or a
similar petroleum distillate may be used. Water can also be used by using suitable additives such
as wetting agents and antifoam liquids. To provide better contrast with the test objects and
enhanced sensitivity, these particles are coated, there are two types of coating;
1. Color contrast coating
2. Fluorescent coating
Color contrast coating: Color contrast coatings are available in several colors such as red, blue,
black and Gray etc. Color of particle are selected so as to provide a good contrast with test
object.
Fluorescent coating: Fluorescent particles can be seen under a ‘Black light illumination’. These
particles emit light when seen by a black light in a dark background. These particles provide
excellent contrast in dark background.
How to temporarily magnetize the test object:
To carry out Magnetic Particle Testing we need to temporarily magnetize the test object.
Magnetization should be temporary in nature. To magnetize the test piece, common instruments
which are used are;

 Electromagnetic yoke
 Permanent Magnet
 Prod
 Coil
Electromagnetic Yokes are also called as AC yokes, it’s very portable and commonly used in
Industries. Yokes are connected with AC power source (Battery pack version is also available).
Many yokes come with adjusting legs, to facilitate wide range of area profiles. These yokes
produce longitudinal magnetization. Hence, for complete inspection, re-positioning of yokes in
at least two 900 opposing direction is required.
 How to perform the Magnetic Particle Test?
To carry out Magnetic Particle Testing, we need to follow the following activities

1. Temporarily magnetize the test object

2. Suspend (spread) the magnetic particles (either dry or wet) on the test object
3. Inspection of test object either by black light (in case of wet fluorescent particle) in a dark area
or inspection in sufficient light (in case of dry particle).
Various techniques are available to carry out the first two steps (mentioned above), these are;

 Dry Continuous
 Dry Residual
 Wet continuous
 Wet Residual
The term ‘Continuous’ is used when the particles are applied while the current is still flowing.
And ‘Residual’ is used when particles are applied after the current has ceased. Out of these four
techniques Dry continuous and Wet continuous techniques are widely used in Industries. A brief
description of these two techniques are given below;

Dry Continuous: In dry continuous technique, dry magnetic particles are used. These particles
are applied while the magnetizing force is on. Yokes or prods can be used to generate the
magnetizing force. This technique is useful for detecting subsurface discontinuities, due to the
higher permeability compared to the wet particles.
Wet Continuous: Particles are mixed with liquid and suspended on the test area, magnetization
of test area and suspension of wet particles shall be done simultaneously. Liquids such as
kerosene or petroleum distillates can be used for this purpose, water can also be used as a liquid
carrier for particles. Kerosene and petroleum distillates are costly, highly inflammable and
possesses safety related issues. However, water is inexpensive, available in abundance and
possesses no safety related issues, but it can initiate corrosion in the test object.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 62
Topic: Ultrasonic testing
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Ultrasonic testing

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a non-destructive testing techniques based on the propagation of

ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested.
Ultrasonic Testing

In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies
ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to
detect internal flaws or to characterize materials.

A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the test
object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be
used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries
including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace, automotive
and other transportation sectors.

How Ultrasonic Testing Works ?

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over

the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing.
However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.
Principle of Ultrasonic Testing
As shown in below figure a probe sends a sound wave into a test material. There are two
indications, one from the initial pulse of the probe, and the second due to the back wall echo.
As shown in below figure (right) : A defect creates a third indication and simultaneously reduces
the amplitude of the back wall indication. The depth of the defect is determined by the ratio D/Ep

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform.

They are
1. Reflection and
2. Attenuation.
Reflection method
In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of
the pulsed waves as the “sound” is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from
an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object.
The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude
representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the
reflection.
Attenuation method
In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one
surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after
traveling through the medium.
Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the
amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the
efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation
between the surfaces.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing
1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of internal
flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.
 6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with different acoustic
properties
7. Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and
materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing
1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The transducers
alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens
(both termed “noise”) and to faults therein severe enough to compromise specimen
integrity. These signals must be distinguished by a skilled technician, possibly requiring
follow up with other nondestructive testing methods.
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are difficult
to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although paint
that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Non-contact
techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers.
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not
contain rust inhibitors. In these cases anti-freeze liquids with inhibitors are often used.
 MLR Institute of Technology
Laxma Reddy Avenue, Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad – 500 043
Phone Nos: 08418 – 204066 / 204088, Fax: 08418 – 204088

Subject: Aircraft Production Technology Unit No: V

Faculty: [Link] Lecture No: 63
Topic: Acoustic holography
Book Reference: Process and materials of manufacturing –Lindberg

Acoustic holography
Acoustic holography is a method for estimating the sound field near a source by
measuring acoustic parameters away from the source by means of an array
of pressure and/or particle velocity transducers. The Measuring techniques included in
acoustic holography are becoming increasingly popular in various fields, most notably those of
transportation, vehicle and aircraft design, and noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). The
general idea of acoustic holography has led to different versions such as near-field acoustic
holography (NAH) and statistically optimal near-field acoustic holography (SONAH). For audio
rendition, the wave field synthesis is the most related procedure.

Acoustic holography is the process in which sound waves are recorded and arranged into
a visual pattern using a computer. The sound field can be modeled to reconstruct its structure
using three-dimensional (3D) images. Sound fields that radiate from the surface of musical
instruments, aircraft, submarines, and automotive interiors are measured to study how the design
impacts the propagation of sound. The two basic types are near-field and far-field acoustic
holography.
Data are collected using a microphone or hydrophone, but sometimes arrays of
microphones can be set up to monitor the acoustic pressure surrounding its source all at the same
time. A computer processes these data to reconstruct the sound field in a visual format. Time
data are associated with specific frequencies to create a representative set of holograms, which
are broken up into waves based on their propagation characteristics. The sound source is
calculated by using an inverse calculation so the field can be analyzed using each sound wave.
Near-field acoustic holography is used to localize sound from a relatively close source.
Multiple microphones are arranged into a rectangular configuration, spaced horizontally and
vertically. The half-wavelengths of the maximum and minimum frequencies are measured,
which depend on the spacing of the microphones and the size of the array. Sound intensity
calculations are possible from the measured sound source, but wave propagation can only be
assessed parallel to the surface measured. The acoustic holography technique is also limited to
testing high frequency sounds.