UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY

AN ASSIGNMENT ON

Disease Vectors, Their Pathogens and Control Approaches

BY

ACHUGBU BRIGHT

G2024/MED/CSET/FT/031

COURSE CODE: AEB 859.2

COURSE TITLE: Vector Biology, Control and Management

LECTURER: Dr Abajueva, M. E.

DECEMBER, 2025

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 Table of Contents
Table of Contents..................................................................................................................................................
1. Disease Vectors, Their Pathogens and Scientific Names........................................................................
2. Disease Vectors of Major Veterinary Importance....................................................................................
3. Approaches to the Control and Management of Disease Vectors...........................................................
3.1 Integrated Vector Control (IVC) / Integrated Vector Management (IVM).........................................
3.2 Biological Control.............................................................................................................................
3.3 Personal Protection (PP)..................................................................................................................
3.4 Trapping...........................................................................................................................................
3.5 Environmental Management............................................................................................................
3.6 Insecticides and Acaricides..............................................................................................................
3.7 Training and Education....................................................................................................................
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................

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1. Disease Vectors, Their Pathogens and Scientific Names
African malaria mosquito (Anopheles gambiae): This small, night-biting mosquito is

widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa and breeds in small, sun-exposed pools of

relatively clean water such as puddles, tyre tracks and hoof prints (Kweyamba et al.,

2025). It transmits protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium, especially Plasmodium

falciparum, which cause human malaria (St. Laurent, 2025). The species is highly

anthropophilic and endophilic, so its host-seeking and resting behaviour greatly increases

malaria transmission in rural and peri-urban communities (Diop et al., 2025). Recent

research demonstrates that hemocytes of A. gambiae promote P. falciparum infection by

maintaining midgut epithelial integrity, revealing mechanisms the parasite exploits to

evade the mosquito immune system (Cardoso & Dimopoulos, 2025).

Yellow fever and dengue mosquito (Aedes aegypti): Aedes aegypti is a day-biting

mosquito that prefers to breed in artificial containers around houses such as buckets,

discarded tyres and water storage drums (Wu et al., 2025). It is the main vector of several

arboviruses, notably dengue virus, yellow fever virus and Zika virus, which cause dengue

fever, yellow fever and Zika disease in humans (LaReau, 2025). Its close association with

human dwellings and strong preference for feeding on people make it a key target for

urban vector control programmes (Verdugo et al., 2025). Recent epidemiological data

indicates that approximately 5.66 billion people live in areas environmentally suitable for

transmission by Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus vectors (Verdugo et al., 2025).

Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus): This species is easily recognised by its black

and white striped legs and body, and it breeds in natural and artificial containers, tree

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holes and other small collections of water (Wu et al., 2025). It transmits chikungunya

virus, dengue virus and several other arboviruses to humans and can also bite a wide

range of domestic and wild animals (Dipaola et al., 2025). Because it is highly invasive

and adapted to cooler climates than Aedes aegypti, it has expanded into new regions and

complicates control of arboviral diseases (Hendrickx et al., 2020). The species' ability to

undergo reproductive diapause allows overwintering in temperate regions, supporting

invasion of more northern latitudes (Hendrickx et al., 2020). Vector competence of Ae.

albopictus populations for chikungunya virus relates closely to their demographic history

and genetic background (Vega-Rúa et al., 2020).

Southern house mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus): Culex quinquefasciatus breeds in

polluted water bodies, pit latrines, blocked drains and septic tanks in urban and peri-

urban environments (Bhattacharya et al., 2016). It is an important vector of the filarial

nematode Wuchereria bancrofti, the causative agent of lymphatic filariasis, and can also

transmit arboviruses such as West Nile virus (Kisinza et al., 2021). The mosquito tends to

feed at night on both humans and domestic animals, and its abundance around poorly

drained settlements makes it difficult to control (Pan American Health Organization,

2023). Recent xenomonitoring studies detected W. bancrofti infection rates of 0.5% in

Cx. quinquefasciatus pools even after multiple rounds of mass drug administration

(Kisinza et al., 2021).

Savannah tsetse fly (Glossina morsitans): Tsetse flies are blood-sucking dipterans

found only in sub-Saharan Africa, and Glossina morsitans is typical of savannah habitats

where cattle are raised (International Glossina Genome Initiative, 2014). It transmits

kinetoplastid protozoa of the Trypanosoma brucei group, including T. brucei brucei in

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animals and T. brucei rhodesiense in humans, causing African trypanosomiasis (nagana

in livestock and sleeping sickness in people) (Hollingshead & Bermudez, 2024). Both

male and female flies feed on blood, and their cyclical transmission of trypanosomes

causes chronic wasting, anaemia and death in affected herds (Cecere et al., 2022). The

presence of tsetse flies in large areas of sub-Saharan Africa severely limits livestock

productivity, affecting approximately 60 million people at risk (World Health

Organization, 2023).

Old World sandfly (Phlebotomus papatasi): Phlebotomus sandflies are tiny, hairy flies

that breed in cracks, rodent burrows and animal shelters in arid and semi-arid regions

(Maroli et al., 2013). Phlebotomus papatasi is a major vector of the protozoan parasite

Leishmania major, which causes zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans, with

rodents and dogs acting as reservoirs (Cecilio et al., 2025). The female sandfly feeds on

blood during the night, and its small size allows it to pass through ordinary mosquito nets

if they are not tightly woven (World Health Organization, 2025). More than 50

Phlebotomus species have been described in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and

the Caucasus, with eleven confirmed or suspected vectors of L. infantum (European

Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2023).

New World sandfly (Lutzomyia longipalpis): Lutzomyia longipalpis occurs mainly in

Central and South America and breeds in soil rich in organic matter near animal shelters

and houses (Maroli et al., 2013). It is the principal vector of Leishmania infantum (also

called L. chagasi in the Americas), the agent of visceral leishmaniasis, a severe systemic

disease that affects both humans and dogs (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

2024). The sandfly often feeds on domestic dogs around dwellings, so canine infection

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plays a critical role in maintaining transmission (Maroli et al., 2013). Among over 800

species of sandfly recorded globally, 56 Lutzomyia species in the New World have been

proven or suspected as vectors of human leishmaniases (Maroli et al., 2013).

Blackfly (Simulium damnosum complex): Blackflies in the Simulium damnosum

complex breed in fast-flowing, oxygen-rich rivers and streams where the larvae attach to

submerged rocks and vegetation (World Health Organization, 2025). The adult female

flies transmit the filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus while taking blood meals from

humans, leading to onchocerciasis or river blindness (Gyasi et al., 2023). Repeated biting

causes intense itching and skin lesions, and microfilariae that accumulate in the eye can

lead to visual impairment and blindness in endemic communities (Pan American Health

Organization, 2025). Onchocerciasis affects approximately 18 million people worldwide,

with over 99% of cases occurring in 31 countries across sub-Saharan Africa (World

Health Organization, 2025).

Kissing bug (Triatoma infestans): Triatomine bugs are nocturnal, blood-feeding insects

that hide in cracks in walls and roofs during the day and emerge at night to feed (Ibarra

Bouzada et al., 2025). Triatoma infestans is an important domestic species in Latin

America and a major vector of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative

agent of Chagas disease (Martínez et al., 2025). Infection occurs when infective bug

faeces contaminate the bite site or mucous membranes, and chronic Chagas disease can

damage the heart and digestive tract (Levy et al., 2024). Insecticide resistance in T.

infestans populations has emerged widely in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and parts of

Brazil, with some populations displaying up to 50% resistance prevalence (Martínez et

al., 2025).

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Human body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis): The body louse lives in the seams of

clothing and moves to the skin only to feed, unlike head lice that stay on hair (Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). It transmits several bacterial pathogens, most

notably Rickettsia prowazekii, which causes epidemic louse-borne typhus, as well as

Bartonella quintana and Borrelia recurrentis (Raoult & Roux, 2024). Poor hygiene,

overcrowding and displaced populations favour louse infestations and make louse-borne

diseases a public-health concern in humanitarian crises (Brouqui et al., 2020). Body lice

demonstrate remarkable ability to develop resistance to commonly used pediculicides

including pyrethroids (Amanzougaghene et al., 2020).

Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis): Xenopsylla cheopis is a flea that primarily

infests rats and other small rodents but can also bite humans when rodent hosts die or are

scarce (Eisen & Gage, 2012). It is the classic vector of the bacterium Yersinia pestis, the

causative agent of plague, including bubonic, septicaemic and pneumonic forms

(Stenseth et al., 2008). When an infected flea feeds, blocked blood in its foregut leads it

to regurgitate bacteria into the bite wound, thereby transmitting the infection (Eisen &

Gage, 2012). Plague remains endemic in rodent populations across several regions

globally, with sporadic human cases reported annually (World Health Organization,

2024).

Cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis): The cat flea is the most common flea found on

domestic cats and dogs worldwide and can also bite humans (Rust & Dryden, 1997). It

transmits bacterial agents such as Bartonella henselae, associated with cat-scratch

disease, and Rickettsia felis, which causes flea-borne spotted fever (Chomel et al., 2020).

In addition, it serves as an intermediate host for some tapeworms and causes flea-allergy

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dermatitis and anaemia in heavily infested young animals (Beugnet & Franc, 2012).

Effective flea control requires treatment of the animal and its environment, with regular

application of topical or systemic insecticides (Dryden et al., 2021).

Sheep/deer tick (Ixodes ricinus): Ixodes ricinus is a hard tick widely distributed in

Europe that parasitises wildlife, livestock, companion animals and humans (Medlock et

al., 2013). It is the main vector of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the causative agent of

Lyme borreliosis, and also transmits tick-borne encephalitis virus, Anaplasma and

Babesia species (Medlock et al., 2013). The tick has a three-host life cycle and is

commonly acquired when people or animals move through vegetation in forested or

pasture areas where questing ticks wait for hosts (Medlock et al., 2013). Climate change

facilitates expansion of I. ricinus distribution to higher altitudes and more northern

latitudes (Medlock et al., 2013).

Tropical cattle tick (Rhipicephalus [Boophilus] microplus): This one-host tick spends

all active life stages on a single bovine host, dropping off only to lay eggs in the

environment (Jongejan & Uilenberg, 2004). It is a major vector of Babesia bovis and

Babesia bigemina, which cause bovine babesiosis, and it can also transmit Anaplasma

marginale, the agent of bovine anaplasmosis (Jongejan & Uilenberg, 2004). Heavy

infestations lead to severe anaemia, weight loss and lowered milk production, and they

cause large economic losses in tropical cattle-rearing regions (Abbas et al., 2014).

Widespread acaricide resistance represents one of the most serious challenges for cattle

tick control (Abbas et al., 2014).

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Brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus): The brown dog tick is closely associated

with domestic dogs and often infests kennels, houses and animal shelters in warm

climates (Dantas-Torres, 2010). It is the main vector of Ehrlichia canis, the causative

agent of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, a systemic disease that produces fever, lethargy,

lymphadenopathy, bleeding tendencies and chronic weight loss (Dantas-Torres, 2010).

This tick can also transmit Babesia vogeli and Hepatozon canis, and some strains harbour

zoonotic Rickettsia species (Nava et al., 2018). Because R. sanguineus can complete its

life cycle indoors, infestations may persist year-round (Dantas-Torres, 2010).

Tropical bont tick (Amblyomma variegatum): Amblyomma variegatum is a three-host

tick found on cattle, sheep, goats and other domestic and wild ruminants in many African

and Caribbean countries (Madder et al., 2012). It is the main vector of Ehrlichia

ruminantium, the rickettsial agent of heartwater, a frequently fatal disease of ruminants

characterised by high fever, respiratory distress and nervous signs (Madder et al., 2012).

The tick's long mouthparts cause deep skin lesions that predispose animals to secondary

infections and myiasis, further increasing production losses (Madder et al., 2012).

Successful eradication from some Caribbean islands demonstrates feasibility of

eliminating this tick from defined areas with sustained effort (Pegram et al., 2004).

Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis): Haemaphysalis longicornis is a

multi-host tick that feeds on cattle, sheep, goats, horses, dogs, cats, wildlife and humans

and has recently invaded new regions outside its native range (Beard et al., 2018). It

transmits protozoan parasites such as Theileria orientalis, which cause bovine

theileriosis, leading to anaemia, jaundice and production losses in affected cattle (Beard

et al., 2018). Many populations are parthenogenetic, meaning that females can reproduce

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without males, which allows rapid build-up of tick numbers in favourable environments

(Beard et al., 2018). The tick's establishment in the United States, Australia and New

Zealand demonstrates its remarkable invasive potential (Raghavan et al., 2019).

Biting midge (Culicoides imicola): Culicoides imicola is a tiny ceratopogonid fly that

breeds in moist, organically enriched soils around livestock farms and irrigated fields

(Mellor et al., 2000). It is a key vector of bluetongue virus in sheep and cattle and African

horse sickness virus in equids, both of which are important transboundary animal

diseases (Mellor et al., 2000). Although the flies are small, massive numbers can attack

animals at dawn and dusk, causing irritation and facilitating efficient virus transmission

(Wilson & Mellor, 2009). Culicoides midges can be carried long distances by wind, so

outbreaks often appear suddenly over wide geographical areas (Mellor et al., 2000).

Stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans): The stable fly resembles the common housefly but has

a piercing proboscis that both males and females use to feed on blood from cattle, horses

and other animals (Taylor et al., 2012). It is considered an important mechanical vector of

Anaplasma marginale, the agent of bovine anaplasmosis, and may also transmit other

pathogens when blood is carried on its mouthparts from one host to another (Scoles et al.,

2008). Painful bites lead to restlessness, reduced grazing time, decreased milk yield and

loss of body condition in livestock (Taylor et al., 2012). Economic losses attributed to

stable flies in cattle production systems amount to billions of dollars annually (Taylor et

al., 2012).

Housefly (Musca domestica): The housefly is a non-biting filth fly that breeds in

decomposing organic material such as manure, garbage and food waste around human

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habitations and animal facilities (Sukontason et al., 2004). It acts as a mechanical vector

of many enteric bacteria, including species of Salmonella, Shigella and Escherichia coli,

by carrying pathogens on its body surface and in its gut (Greenberg, 1973). Flies

contaminate food, water and animal feed when they land, thereby contributing to

diarrhoeal and food-borne diseases in people and livestock (Sukontason et al., 2004).

Widespread insecticide resistance in housefly populations severely limits chemical

control options (Scott et al., 2020).

2. Disease Vectors of Major Veterinary Importance

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus – Tropical cattle tick

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, the tropical cattle tick, is one of the most important

ectoparasites of cattle in many tropical and subtropical regions (Abbas et al., 2014).

Because it is a one-host tick, all parasitic stages feed on the same animal, causing intense

irritation, hide damage and significant blood loss (Jongejan & Uilenberg, 2004). The tick

is a biological vector of Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina, which cause bovine

babesiosis, and it also transmits Anaplasma marginale, the agent of bovine anaplasmosis

(Jongejan & Uilenberg, 2004). Together these tick-borne diseases produce fever,

anaemia, jaundice, abortions, reduced weight gain and milk yield, and high mortality in

susceptible herds (Abbas et al., 2014). Heavy infestations also decrease the market value

of hides and increase production costs through the need for regular acaricide treatments

(Abbas et al., 2014). Widespread acaricide resistance represents the most serious

challenge for tick control, with resistance documented to all major classes of acaricides

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(Abbas et al., 2014). Development of anti-tick vaccines targeting the Bm86 midgut

antigen offers an alternative control tool (de la Fuente et al., 2007).

Amblyomma variegatum – Tropical bont tick

Amblyomma variegatum, the tropical bont tick, is a three-host tick that attacks cattle,

sheep, goats and other ruminants as well as some wildlife (Madder et al., 2012). It is the

principal vector of Ehrlichia ruminantium, which causes heartwater, a peracute or acute

disease of ruminants characterised by high fever, respiratory distress, nervous signs and a

high case fatality rate, especially in naive animals (Madder et al., 2012). In addition to

transmitting this rickettsial pathogen, the long mouthparts of A. variegatum create deep

skin wounds that can become secondarily infected or invaded by myiasis-causing flies

(Madder et al., 2012). These lesions reduce hide quality and may contribute to mastitis

when ticks infest the udder region (Madder et al., 2012). The tropical bont tick was

accidentally introduced to several Caribbean islands where successful eradication

programmes have been implemented (Pegram et al., 2004).

Haemaphysalis longicornis – Asian longhorned tick

Haemaphysalis longicornis, the Asian longhorned tick, is a multi-host tick that parasitises

many domestic species including cattle, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and cats (Beard et al.,

2018). It is a recognised vector of Theileria orientalis and related protozoa that cause

bovine theileriosis, leading to anaemia, weakness, jaundice and reduced productivity in

affected cattle (Beard et al., 2018). Some populations of H. longicornis reproduce

parthenogenetically, so a single introduced female can give rise to large infestations in

new areas (Beard et al., 2018). This, combined with its broad host range, makes the tick

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particularly difficult to control and a serious emerging threat for livestock industries in

regions where it has recently been introduced (Raghavan et al., 2019).

Culicoides imicola – Biting midge

Culicoides imicola is a very small biting midge but has an outsized impact on veterinary

health as a vector of bluetongue virus in sheep and cattle and African horse sickness virus

in equids (Mellor et al., 2000). These orbiviral diseases cause fever, oedema, respiratory

distress, lameness and death, and they can lead to severe trade restrictions on animals and

animal products from affected regions (Wilson & Mellor, 2009). Culicoides midges breed

in moist, organically enriched soils and can be carried long distances by wind, so

outbreaks often appear suddenly over wide geographical areas (Mellor et al., 2000).

Control of these vectors is challenging, and veterinary vaccination programmes must

often be combined with vector monitoring and environmental management to limit

disease spread (Wilson & Mellor, 2009).

Stomoxys calcitrans – Stable fly

The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, is a blood-sucking muscid fly that attacks cattle,

horses, pigs and other livestock, usually on the lower legs and flanks (Taylor et al., 2012).

Its painful bites cause animals to stomp, kick, tail-flick and bunch together, all of which

reduce grazing time and feed conversion and lead to weight loss and lower milk yields

(Taylor et al., 2012). The fly is regarded as an important mechanical vector of Anaplasma

marginale, the agent of bovine anaplasmosis, and may also transmit other blood-borne

pathogens between animals (Scoles et al., 2008). High fly populations around dairy or

feedlot operations can therefore have a serious economic impact and are a major reason

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for implementing integrated fly control programmes in animal housing and waste-

management systems (Taylor et al., 2012).

Ctenocephalides felis – Cat flea

Ctenocephalides felis, the cat flea, is the predominant flea species on both cats and dogs

in many parts of the world, although it will readily bite humans and other mammals (Rust

& Dryden, 1997). It is a vector of Bartonella henselae, associated with cat-scratch

disease, and Rickettsia felis, which can cause febrile illness in humans, and it also serves

as an intermediate host for certain tapeworms such as Dipylidium caninum (Chomel et

al., 2020). In veterinary practice, heavy flea infestations are a common cause of flea-

allergy dermatitis, pruritus and anaemia, especially in young or debilitated animals

(Beugnet & Franc, 2012). Effective control requires treatment of the animal and its

environment, and because pets live in close contact with people, managing this vector is

also important from a One Health perspective (Chomel et al., 2020).

Rhipicephalus sanguineus – Brown dog tick

Rhipicephalus sanguineus, the brown dog tick, is closely associated with domestic dogs

and frequently infests kennels, households and animal shelters, particularly in warm

climates (Dantas-Torres, 2010). It is the main vector of Ehrlichia canis, the causative

agent of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, a systemic disease that produces fever, lethargy,

lymphadenopathy, bleeding tendencies and chronic weight loss (Dantas-Torres, 2010).

This tick can also transmit Babesia vogeli and Hepatozoon canis, and some strains

harbour zoonotic Rickettsia species, making them significant from both veterinary and

public-health viewpoints (Nava et al., 2018). Because R. sanguineus can complete its life

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cycle indoors, infestations may persist year-round and require sustained tick control and

environmental sanitation to protect companion animals (Dantas-Torres, 2010).

Ixodes ricinus – Sheep/deer tick

Ixodes ricinus, the sheep or deer tick, is a widespread tick species in Europe that feeds on

a wide range of wild and domestic hosts, including ruminants, horses, dogs and people

(Medlock et al., 2013). It transmits Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, causing Lyme

borreliosis, as well as Babesia divergens and other agents that cause tick-borne fever and

babesiosis in cattle and sheep (Medlock et al., 2013). In dogs and horses, infection can

result in lameness, fever and chronic joint problems, which may limit performance and

productivity (Medlock et al., 2013). Pasture-based farming systems and expanding

wildlife populations favour the maintenance of I. ricinus, so integrated tick control and

pasture management are important components of veterinary health programmes in

affected regions (Medlock et al., 2013).

Glossina morsitans – Savannah tsetse fly

Glossina morsitans, a savannah tsetse fly species, is a key vector of African animal

trypanosomiasis, commonly known as nagana, in cattle and other livestock (International

Glossina Genome Initiative, 2014). The fly transmits Trypanosoma brucei brucei and

related trypanosomes in a cyclical manner while feeding on blood, leading to chronic

wasting, anaemia, infertility and high mortality in infected animals (Hollingshead &

Bermudez, 2024). The presence of tsetse flies in large areas of sub-Saharan Africa

severely limits the expansion and productivity of cattle and other livestock, with major

consequences for food security and rural livelihoods (World Health Organization, 2023).

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Control programmes against tsetse, including trapping, insecticide-treated targets and

sterile insect technique, therefore have major veterinary and economic benefits (Cecere et

al., 2022).

Musca domestica – Housefly

Musca domestica, the common housefly, is a non-biting filth fly that breeds in animal

manure, spilled feed and other organic waste around livestock farms and poultry houses

(Sukontason et al., 2004). Although it does not feed on blood, it is an important

mechanical vector of numerous pathogens, including enteric bacteria such as Salmonella

and Escherichia coli, which can cause diarrhoeal disease in young animals and

contaminate meat, milk and eggs (Greenberg, 1973). Houseflies move freely between

animals, feed, water and human dwellings, depositing pathogens via their contaminated

body surfaces, mouthparts and faeces (Sukontason et al., 2004). In intensive livestock

systems, poor manure management and high stocking densities can lead to explosive fly

populations, making fly control a vital part of farm biosecurity and animal welfare (Scott

et al., 2020).

3. Approaches to the Control and Management of Disease Vectors

3.1 Integrated Vector Control (IVC) / Integrated Vector Management (IVM)

Integrated vector control (IVC), also called integrated vector management (IVM), is a

decision-making approach that combines several complementary methods to control

disease vectors in a cost-effective, environmentally sound and sustainable way (World

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Health Organization, 2023). Instead of relying on a single method such as spraying, IVC

uses local data on vector species, ecology, insecticide resistance and disease burden to

select the most appropriate tools (World Health Organization, 2023). It also emphasises

collaboration between different sectors such as health, agriculture, environment and water

resources, recognising that many determinants of vector abundance lie outside the health

sector alone (World Health Organization, 2023).

In practice, an IVC programme might combine environmental management to reduce

breeding sites, targeted larviciding or adulticiding, personal protection measures such as

insecticide-treated nets, and biological control tools (World Health Organization, 2023).

Community participation and health education are built into the programme so that local

people understand and support the interventions, while legislation and policy help to

regulate pesticide use and animal movements (World Health Organization, 2023). By

coordinating these various components, IVC aims to maximise the impact of vector

control while reducing negative effects such as insecticide resistance and harm to non-

target organisms (World Health Organization, 2023).

3.2 Biological Control

Biological control of vectors involves the use of living organisms or natural products to

reduce vector populations or interfere with their ability to transmit pathogens (World

Health Organization, 2023). This includes the use of entomopathogenic bacteria and

fungi, predators, parasitoids and symbionts that specifically target certain stages of the

vector life cycle (Cecilio et al., 2025). Biological control is generally seen as more

environmentally friendly than broad-spectrum chemical insecticides and can provide

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long-term suppression of vectors when well integrated into local ecosystems (World

Health Organization, 2023).

Examples of biological control include the use of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti)

and Bacillus sphaericus as larvicides against mosquito and blackfly larvae in breeding

sites, and the introduction of larvivorous fish such as Gambusia species into ponds and

canals to feed on mosquito larvae (World Health Organization, 2023). Predatory

copepods and dragonfly nymphs can also help to control mosquito larvae in some

habitats (World Health Organization, 2023). In addition, new approaches use symbiotic

bacteria like Wolbachia to reduce the ability of Aedes mosquitoes to transmit dengue,

Zika and chikungunya viruses, or rely on sterile insect techniques and gene-drive

technologies to reduce vector populations (World Health Organization, 2023). Research

demonstrates that Delftia tsuruhatensis bacteria can colonise sandfly midguts and

significantly impact Leishmania parasite development, offering promising biological

control strategies (Cecilio et al., 2025).

3.3 Personal Protection (PP)

Personal protection (PP) refers to measures taken by individuals to reduce their exposure

to bites from mosquitoes, ticks, flies and other vectors (World Health Organization,

2023). These measures are important both for people living in endemic areas and for

those who work with or handle animals that may carry vectors (World Health

Organization, 2023). Personal protection does not reduce vector populations directly, but

it breaks the contact between vector and host and therefore reduces the probability of

pathogen transmission (World Health Organization, 2023).

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Common personal protective measures include the use of insecticide-treated nets and

long-lasting insecticidal nets when sleeping, wearing long sleeves, long trousers and

closed shoes, and applying topical repellents containing active ingredients such as DEET

or picaridin (World Health Organization, 2023). Clothing and bed nets can be treated

with synthetic pyrethroids to provide additional protection against mosquitoes, sandflies

and ticks (World Health Organization, 2023). For animals, insecticide-impregnated

collars, ear tags, blankets or netting around animal pens provide similar protection,

especially for dogs, horses and high-value livestock (World Health Organization, 2023).

Physical barriers such as window and door screens and the use of fans in stables or

houses also contribute to personal protection by reducing vector entry and landing (World

Health Organization, 2023).

3.4 Trapping

Trapping uses baited or passive devices to attract and capture vectors, and it serves both

for population surveillance and, in some cases, for direct vector control (World Health

Organization, 2023). Different trap designs exploit the behaviour of the target vector,

such as attraction to light, carbon dioxide, animal odours or visual cues (Ibarra Bouzada

et al., 2025). Monitoring trap catches over time helps vector-control programmes to

understand seasonal trends, species composition and the impact of interventions (World

Health Organization, 2023).

For mosquitoes and biting midges, light traps and carbon dioxide-baited traps are

commonly used to sample adult populations around human settlements and livestock

(World Health Organization, 2023). Ovitraps collect mosquito eggs and can be rendered

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lethal by treating them with insecticides or biological larvicides (World Health

Organization, 2023). For tsetse flies, brightly coloured insecticide-treated targets and

odour-baited traps reduce fly numbers while also providing surveillance data (World

Health Organization, 2023). Sticky traps and baited traps are widely used for houseflies

and stable flies around farms, while tick drags and CO2-baited tick traps help to assess

tick densities in pastures and around animal housing (World Health Organization, 2023).

Recent research demonstrates that multimodal traps incorporating CO2 sources and heat

alongside odour blends can capture Triatoma infestans nymphs as effectively as host-

baited traps (Ibarra Bouzada et al., 2025).

3.5 Environmental Management

Environmental management aims to reduce vector breeding and resting sites by

modifying or manipulating the environment (World Health Organization, 2023). Because

many vectors depend on specific ecological conditions for their life cycles, relatively

simple changes in water management, vegetation and waste disposal can have large

effects on their populations (World Health Organization, 2023). Environmental

management is often one of the most sustainable forms of vector control because it

addresses underlying ecological drivers rather than focusing only on killing adult vectors

(World Health Organization, 2023).

Key environmental measures include draining or filling stagnant water bodies, improving

drainage and irrigation systems, and regularly emptying or covering water storage

containers to reduce mosquito breeding (World Health Organization, 2023). Proper

disposal and composting of animal manure and household refuse help to control

20
houseflies and other filth-breeding insects around homes and livestock farms (World

Health Organization, 2023). Clearing vegetation and bushes around animal enclosures

and water points reduces tick and tsetse fly habitats, while improving the design of

animal housing, for example by using smooth, crack-free walls and raised floors, makes it

harder for ticks, fleas and triatomine bugs to hide and reproduce (World Health

Organization, 2023).

3.6 Insecticides and Acaricides

Chemical control using insecticides and acaricides remains one of the most widely used

and rapidly acting methods for reducing vector populations (World Health Organization,

2023). These chemicals can be applied to the environment, to human and animal

dwellings, or directly to animals, depending on the target vector species and the disease

being controlled (World Health Organization, 2023). However, reliance on chemicals

alone can lead to insecticide resistance, environmental contamination and adverse effects

on non-target organisms, so they must be used judiciously and preferably as part of an

integrated strategy (World Health Organization, 2023).

Examples include indoor residual spraying of walls and ceilings with approved

insecticides against malaria vectors and sandflies, and space spraying or fogging to

quickly knock down adult mosquitoes during outbreaks of dengue or other arboviral

diseases (World Health Organization, 2023). For larval control, chemical larvicides such

as temephos or biological larvicides like Bti can be applied to breeding sites (World

Health Organization, 2023). In veterinary practice, acaricides are applied to livestock in

the form of dips, sprays, pour-on formulations, ear tags and impregnated collars to

21
control ticks, mites and lice (Abbas et al., 2014). Careful monitoring of resistance

patterns, rotation of active ingredients, adherence to recommended application rates and

respect for withdrawal periods in food-producing animals are essential components of

responsible chemical control (Abbas et al., 2014).

3.7 Training and Education

Training and education are cross-cutting elements that support all other vector-control

approaches by building human capacity and encouraging positive behaviour change

(World Health Organization, 2023). Health workers, veterinarians, extension officers and

community volunteers need the knowledge and skills to identify vectors and their

breeding sites, implement control measures safely and effectively, and communicate risks

and prevention strategies to the public (World Health Organization, 2023). Without

adequate training, even well-designed control programmes may fail in practice (World

Health Organization, 2023).

Community education helps people understand how their daily activities influence vector

breeding and disease transmission, and it motivates them to participate actively in control

efforts (World Health Organization, 2023). Examples include teaching householders to

eliminate standing water and properly dispose of waste, training farmers to follow correct

tick-dipping schedules and improve animal housing, and involving schoolchildren in

environmental clean-up campaigns (World Health Organization, 2023). At higher levels,

advocacy and training for policy-makers highlight the economic burden of vector-borne

diseases and the benefits of sustained investment in vector control, thereby supporting the

22
development of appropriate legislation and long-term funding for programmes (World

Health Organization, 2023).

23
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