Orbital Mechanics

ORBITAL MECHANICS

 To achieve a stable orbit around the earth, a spacecraft must first be beyond the bulk of the earth’s
atmosphere, i.e., in what is popularly called space.
 According to Newton's law of motion F=ma. Where a = acceleration, F= force acting on the object
and m= mass of the object. It helps us understand the motion of satellite in a stable
orbit.(neglecting any drag or other perturbing forces).
 (F=ma) states that the force acting on a body is equal to the mass of the body multiplied by the
resulting acceleration of the body.
 Thus, for a given force, the lighter the mass of the body, the higher the acceleration will be. When
in a stable orbit, there are two main forces acting on a satellite: a centrifugal force due to the
kinetic energy of the satellite, which attempts to fling the satellite into a higher orbit, and a
centripetal force due to gravitational attraction of the planet about which the satellite is orbiting,
which attempts to pull the satellite towards the planet.
 If these two forces are equal the satellite remains in a stable orbit.
 Forces acting on a satellite in a stable orbit around the earth.
Gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the centers of gravity of the satellite and the
planet the satellite is orbiting, in this case the earth.
 The gravitational force inward (FIN, the centripetal force) is
directed toward the center of gravity of the earth. The kinetic
energy of the satellite (FOUT, the centrifugal force) is directed
diametrically opposite the gravitational force.
 Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity v of
the satellite. When these inward and outward forces are
balanced, the satellite moves around the earth in a free fall
trajectory: the satellite’s orbit
 Note the reduction in orbital period as the satellites move from GEO (essentially
zero movement as observed from the ground) to very low earth orbit (VLEO).
 There are two immediate consequences for non-geostationary satellites as far as
connections to a fixed earth station on the surface of the earth:
 (i) there will be gaps in coverage unless a constellation of the same satellites are
orbiting, usually in the same plane;
 (ii) the observation time is significantly reduced as the orbital altitude is reduced.
 What is gained in lower signal delay with altitude is lost with the need for complex
fixed earth station antennas and smaller observation time per satellite.
 A number of coordinate systems and reference planes can be used to
describe the orbit of a satellite around a planet.
 This Figure illustrates one of these using a Cartesian coordinate system
with the earth at the center and the reference planes coinciding with the
equator and the polar axis. This is referred to as a geocentric coordinate
system.
 The initial coordinate system used to describe the relationship between
the earth and a satellite. A Cartesian coordinate system with the
geographical axes of the earth as the principal axes is the simplest
coordinate system and the origin at the center of the earth.
 The rotational axis of the earth is about the z axis, which passes through
the geographic north pole. The x and y axes are mutually orthogonal to
the z axis and lie in the earth’s equatorial plane. The vector r locates the
satellite with respect to the center of the earth.
 This Figure illustrates the orbital plane coordinate
system. In this coordinate system the orbital plane
is used as the reference plane.
 The orthogonal axes x0 and y0 lie in the orbital
plane.
 The third axis, z0 is orthogonal to the x0 and y0
axes to form a right hand coordinate set.
 The z0 axis is not coincident with the earth’s z axis
through the earth’s north pole unless the orbital
plane lies exactly in the earth’s equatorial plane.
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary
Motion

 Kepler’s three laws are:

 A satellite is in orbit around the planet earth, E. The orbit is an
ellipse with a relatively high eccentricity, that is, it is far from being
circular.
 The figure shows two shaded portions of the elliptical plane in
which the orbit moves, one is close to the earth and encloses the
perigee while the other is far from the earth and encloses the
apogee.
 The perigee is the point of closest approach to the earth while the
apogee is the point in the orbit that is furthest from the earth.
 While close to perigee, the satellite moves in the orbit between t1
and t2 and sweeps out an area denoted by A12. While close to
apogee, the satellite moves in the orbit between times t3 and t4
and sweeps out an area denoted by A34. If t1 – t2 = t3 – t4 then A12
= A34.
Describing the Orbit of a Satellite

 Polar coordinate system in the plane of the satellite’s orbit. The axis z0 is straight out of the paper
from the center of the earth, and is normal to the plane of the satellite’s orbit.
 The satellite’s position is described in terms of the distance r0 from the center of the earth and the
angle this makes with the x0 axis, Φ0. Since we defined the positive x0 axis so that it passes
through the perigee, Φ0 measures the angle from the perigee to the instantaneous
position of the satellite . So r0 can be denoted as follows:
 Here the orbit appears as that of the
orbital plane. The point O is the center of
the earth and the point C is the center of
the ellipse.
 The two centers do not coincide unless
the eccentricity, e, of the ellipse is zero
(i.e., the ellipse becomes a circle and a =
b).
 The dimensions of a and b are the semi-
major and semi-minor axes of the orbital
ellipse, respectively
 Equation (2.21) is extremely important in satellite communications systems. This equation
determines the period of the orbit of any satellite, and it is used in every GPS receiver in the
calculation of the positions of GPS satellites.
 Equation (2.21) is also used to find the orbital radius of a GEO satellite, for which the period T
must be made exactly equal to the period of one revolution of the earth for the satellite to
remain stationary over a point on the equator.
 The orbital period of a GEO satellite is exactly equal to the period of rotation of the earth, 23
hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds, but, to an observer on the ground, the satellite appears to have
an infinite orbital period: it always stays in the same place in the sky.
Sidereal day vs Solar day

 Sideral day:
 The orbital period of a GEO satellite, 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds, is one
sidereal day. A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings of any
particular longitude on the earth by any star, other than the sun
 Solar day
 The mean solar day of 24 hours is the time between any consecutive
crossings of any particular longitude by the sun, and is the time between
successive sunrises (or sunsets) observed at one location on earth, averaged
over an entire year. Because the earth moves round the sun once per 365 ¼
days, the solar day is 3.94 minutes longer than a sidereal day.
Geostationary vs Geosynchronous

 To be perfectly geostationary, the orbit of a satellite needs to have three features:

 It must be exactly circular (i.e., have an eccentricity of zero)
 It must be at the correct altitude (i.e., have the correct orbital period)
 It must be in the plane of the equator (i.e., have a zero inclination with respect
to the equator)
 If the inclination of the satellite is not zero and/or if the eccentricity is not zero, but
the orbital period is correct, then the satellite will be in a geosynchronous orbit.
 The position of a geosynchronous satellite will appear to oscillate about a mean
look angle in the sky with respect to a stationary observer on the earth’s surface
Locating the Satellite in the Orbit

 The equation of the orbit may be rewritten by combining Eqs. (2.15) and (2.18) to obtain .

𝑎 1 − 𝑒2
𝑟0 =
1 + 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙0 (2.22)
 The angle φ0 is measured from the x0 axis and is called the true anomaly.
 Anomaly was a measure used by astronomers to mean a planet’s angular distance from its
Perihelion, closest approach to the sun, measured as if viewed from the sun. The term was
adopted in celestial mechanics for all orbiting bodies.
 As noted earlier, the orbital period T is the time for the satellite to complete a revolution in
inertial space, traveling a total of 2π radians. The average angular velocity η is therefore
(2.25)
 If the orbit is an ellipse, the instantaneous angular velocity will vary with the
position of the satellite around the orbit. If we enclose the elliptical orbit with a
circumscribed circle of radius a , then an object going around the circumscribed
circle with a constant angular velocity η would complete one revolution in exactly
the same period T as the satellite requires to complete one (elliptical) orbital
revolution.
 Consider the geometry of the circumscribed circle .Locate the point (indicated as
A) where a vertical line drawn through the position of the satellite intersects the
circumscribed circle. A line from the center of the ellipse (C) to this point (A)
makes an angle E with the x0 axis; E is called the eccentric anomaly of the
satellite
 The circumscribed circle and the eccentric anomaly
E. Point O is the center of the earth and point C is
both the center of the orbital ellipse and the center of
the circumscribed circle.
 The satellite location in the orbital plane coordinate
system is specified by (x0, y0). A vertical line through
the satellite intersects the circumscribed circle at
point A. The eccentric anomaly E is the angle from
the x0 axis to the line joining C to A.
Mean Anomaly
 Locating the Satellite With Respect to
the Earth
 In most cases, we need to know where the satellite is from an observation point that is not at the center of the
earth. We will begin with a geocentric equatorial coordinate system as shown in Figure.
 The rotational axis of the earth is the zi axis, which is through the geographic North Pole. The xi axis is from the
center of the earth and is always the same, whatever the earth’s position around the sun toward a fixed
location in space called the first point of Aries.
 This coordinate system moves through space; it translates as the earth moves in its orbit around the sun, but it
does not rotate as the earth rotates. The (xi, yi) plane contains the earth’s equator and is called the equatorial
plane.
 The xi direction is always the same, whatever the earth’s position around the sun and it is in the direction of the
first point of Aries.
 Angular distance measured eastward in the equatorial plane from the xi axis is called right ascension and given
the symbol RA.
 The two points at which the orbit penetrates the equatorial plane are called nodes; the satellite moves upward
through the equatorial plane at the ascending node and downward through the equatorial plane at the
descending node.
 at the descending node, given the conventional picture of the earth, with
north at the top, which is in the direction of the positive z axis for the earth
centered coordinate set. Remember that in space there is no up or down;
that is a concept we are familiar with because of gravity at the earth’s
surface. For a weightless body in space, such as an orbiting spacecraft, up
and down have no meaning unless they are defined with respect to a
reference point. The right ascension of the ascending node is called Ω. The
angle that the orbital plane makes with the equatorial plane (the planes
intersect at the line joining the nodes) is called the inclination, i
 For a weightless body in space, such as an orbiting
spacecraft, up and down have no meaning unless they are
defined with respect to a reference point.
 The right ascension of the ascending node is called Ω. The
angle that the orbital plane makes with the equatorial plane
(the planes intersect at the line joining the nodes) is called
the inclination, i.
 The variables Ω and i together locate the orbital plane with
respect to the equatorial plane.
 To locate the orbital coordinate system with respect to the
equatorial coordinate system we need ω, the argument of
perigee west. This is the angle measured along the orbit
from the ascending node to the perigee
 Standard time for space operations and most other scientific and engineering
purposes is universal time (UT), also known as zulu time (z).
 This is essentially the mean solar time at the Greenwich Observatory near
London, England. UT is measured in hours, minutes, and seconds or in fractions
of a day.
 It is 5 hours later than Eastern Standard Time, so that 07 : 00 EST is 12 : 00 : 00
hours UT. The civil or calendar day begins at 00 : 00 : 00 hours UT, frequently
written as 0 hours. This is, of course, midnight (24 : 00 : 00) on the previous day.
 Astronomers employ a second dating system involving Julian days and Julian
dates.
 Julian days start at noon UT in a counting system whereby noon on 31 December
1899, was the beginning of Julian day 2415020, usually written as 241 5020
Orbital Elements

 To specify the absolute (i.e., the inertial) coordinates of a satellite at time t,

we need to know six quantities:
 Orbit Size : semi-major axis (a),
 Orbit Shape : Eccentricity (e),
 Orbit tilt : Inclination (i),
 Orbit twist : Right ascension of ascending node (Ω) or longitude of ascending
node,
 Orbit rotation : Argument of perigee (ω).
 Satellite location : Time of perigee (tp), Frequently, the mean anomaly (M) at a
given time is substituted for tp.
Semi-major axis
Ecentricity
Inclination
Right Ascension of the Ascending
Node
 A solar equinox is a moment in time when the Sun crosses the
Earth's equator, which is to say, appears directly above the
equator, rather than north or south of the equator. On the day
of the equinox, the Sun appears to rise "due east" and set "due
west". This occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23
September
 In the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox is called the
vernal or spring equinox while the September equinox is called
the autumnal or fall equinox. In the Southern Hemisphere, the
reverse is true.
 More precisely, an equinox is traditionally defined as the time
when the plane of Earth's equator passes through the
geometric center of the Sun's disk.[7][8] Equivalently, this is the
moment when Earth's rotation axis is directly perpendicular to
the Sun-Earth line.
Argument of Perigee
True Anomaly
 Question

 Question: A satellite is in an
elliptical orbit with a perigee of
1000 km and an apogee of 4000
km. Using a mean earth radius of
6378.14 km, find the period of the
orbit in hours, minutes, and
seconds, and the eccentricity of
the orbit.
 Solution:
 Look Angle Determination

 The coordinates to which an earth station antenna must be

pointed to communicate with a satellite are called the look
angles. These are most commonly expressed as azimuth
(Az) and elevation (El), although other pairs [Link]
example, right ascension and declination are standard for
radio astronomy antennas.
 Azimuth is measured eastward (clockwise) from geographic
north to the projection of the satellite path on a (locally)
horizontal plane at the earth station.
 Elevation is the angle measured upward from the local
horizontal plane at the earth station to the satellite path.
 The precise location of the satellite is critical. A key location
in many instances is the sub-satellite point.
 Sub-satellite Point :
 The sub-satellite point is the location on the surface of
the earth that lies directly between the satellite and the
center of the earth.
 It is the nadir pointing direction from the satellite and, for
a satellite in an equatorial orbit, it will always be located
on the equator.
 Since geostationary satellites are in equatorial orbits and
are designed to stay stationary over the earth, it is usual
to give their orbital location in terms of their sub-satellite
point.
 The plane of the paper is the plane defined by the center of the earth, the satellite, and the
earth station. The central angle is γ. The elevation angle El is measured upward from the local
horizontal at the earth station.
 In Figure, rs is the vector from the center of the earth to the satellite; re is the vector from the
center of the earth to the earth station; and d is the vector from the earth station to the
satellite.
 These three vectors lie in the same plane and form a triangle. The central angle γ measured
between re and rs is the angle between the earth station and the satellite, and ψ is the angle
(within the triangle) measured from re to d.
 Defined so that it is non-negative, γ is related to the earth station north latitude Le (i.e., Le is the
number of degrees in latitude that the earth station is north from the equator) and west
longitude le (i.e., le is the number of degrees in longitude that the earth station is west from the
Greenwich meridian) and the subsatellite point at north latitude Ls and west longitude ls by
 Azimuth Angle Calculation

 Since the earth station, the center of the earth, the satellite, and the sub-satellite point all lie in the
same plane, the azimuth angle Az from the earth station to the satellite is the same as the azimuth
from the earth station to the sub-satellite point.
 Geostationary Satellite Look Angles

Question:- An earth station situated in the

Docklands of London, England, needs to
calculate the look angle to a geostationary
satellite in the Indian Ocean operated by Intelsat.
The details of the earth station site and the
satellite are as follows: Earth station latitude and
longitude are 52.0°N and 0°, respectively.
Satellite longitude (i.e., the sub-satellite point) is
66.0° E.
Solution:
 Note that, in the example above, the elevation angle is relatively low (5.85°).
Refractive effects in the atmosphere will cause the mean ray path to the satellite to
bend in the elevation plane (making the satellite appear to be higher in the sky than it
actually is) and to cause the amplitude of the signal to fluctuate with time
 While it is unusual to operate to a satellite below established elevation angle minima
(typically 5° at C-band, 10° at Ku-band, and in most cases, 20° at Ka-band and
above), many times it is not possible to do this.
 Such cases exist for high latitude regions and for satellites attempting to reach
extreme east and west coverages from their given geostationary equatorial location.
 To establish whether a particular satellite location can provide service into a given
region, a simple visibility test can be carried out.
 Visibility Test

For a satellite to be visible from an earth station, its elevation angle El must
be above some minimum value, which is at least 0°. A positive or zero
elevation angle requires that the orbital radius rs be greater than the ratio
re/ cos(γ) where re is the radius of the earth and γ is the central angle:
𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑠 ≥
cos(𝛾 (2.42)

This means that the maximum central angular separation between the earth
station and the sub satellite point is limited by
𝛾 ≤ cos −1 (𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑠 (2.43)

For a nominal geostationary orbit, the last equation reduces to γ ≤81.3° for
the satellite to be visible.[Hints: Put the values of re and rs ]