1.

00 The Heading

1.01 The Unit 1 of the first Module of the curriculum of Science Journalism through
Distance Education has been presented under the title of “Science Journalism : the
Need, Role and Usefulness”.

2.00 Introduction and aims

2.01 An orderly and systematic exposition of knowledge on any subject is known by the
term Science. Science is related to every aspect of life and it affects the life in diverse
ways. The benefits of ever increasing achievements of science are relevant and
meaningful only when its knowledge is communicate to the people at large.

2.02 Perusal of this Unit will enable the pupils to appreciate the need, role and
usefulness Science Journalism from the angle of conveying the knowledge of every day
progress, discoveries, and changes to the people at large.

In the present lesson the following topics will be discussed :

• Scope of Science Journalism

• Need of Science Journalism

• Role of Science Journalism

• Usefulness / relevance of Science Journalism in life

3.00 Place and usefulness

3.01 It will be necessary to understand / appreciate the place of this Unit in the over all
pattern of this Curriculum, and its relation to other Units of this Module. This will also
throw light on its relation with ‘Popularisation of Science’, ‘Scientific attitude, temper,
outlook’ and ‘popularization of Science among children.’

4.00 Introduction

4.01 There is an innate inquisitiveness in man about his surroundings and environment.
In fact the advent of Science must have had its origin in man’s curiosity about ‘why’ and
‘wherefore’, or urge to unravel the mysteries of nature, to conquer the nature. To day
man has either expounded or is in the process of expounding what was a mystery till
yester day. The expositions of science have been dislodging the ‘alchemy’ or the
’miracle’ or the ‘black magic’. The advent of Science journalism lie embedded in the
writings directed to explain these changes.

4.02 It is noteworthy that the progress and expansion in the world of science even in the
early years of twentieth century had been manifold as compared to the progress made
till the end of nineteenth century. It appears that the science has been exponentially
growing every five years. Except for some of fundamental principles, it can be affirmed
generally that the scientific hypotheses and postulates have been undergoing changes
in almost all the fields and branches.

4.03 New remedies and solutions are emerging every day in the field of medicine owing
to new discoveries and inventions in the field of life sciences. Man’s capacity to control
nature is increasing every day.

4.04 New possibilities have opened up in the field of food grain production owing to new
researches in the area of genetic engineering and agriculture. Unprecedented
advancements are being made in the field of communication and information
technologies. Hegemony and monopoly of certain persons on ‘knowledge’ is being
demolished. This has been enabled by advancements in the field of communication.
Innovations in the printing technology has made sources and study material related to
knowledge accessible to common man. Audio visual media has facilitated instant
transmission of information and news, spectacles and descriptions to crores of people.
In the circumstances it becomes imperative to generate a timely and appropriate
understanding among masses of the knowledge from the field of science.

4.05 Common news material gets favour for their sensationalism and flavour. But issues
an news related to science are selected on account of their relevance and significance.
5.00 The need for Science Journalism

5.01 In the beginning the news papers were published by

individuals, groups and organizations subscribing to different political ideologies.
Science journalism or newspapers were a lesser and later development. When authors
or journalists submitted their write ups to these news papers for publication, the best
strategy for ensuring acceptability was to see to it that the contents should be
“scientifically objective”. This ruled out the bane of personal bias, prejudice,
inclinations, predilections etc. Over the time this objectivity of contents came to be not
only an indispensable characteristic but it also proved to be its very forte. This fact
brings out the necessary condition for working in the field of science journalism.

5.02 Science journalism calls for a scientific temper, objective appraisal, analysis and
narration, whereas, the modern day media is sustained by dramatized news which
makes an impact. News about violence, devastation, destruction, find prominence.
Since the focus is on the so called ‘Breaking news’, the issues of abiding importance are
relegated to the background. In the interest of ‘topicality’ those subjects are overlooked
and ignored which need investigation, critical analysis, and adequate technical
knowledge. This seriously restricts the possibilities of investigation of ‘processes and
procedures’ related to scientific field. Even in the journalistic writings, prominence is
given to the outcomes and impacts. The underlying processes and phenomena are not
considered worth mentioning. This short coming again high lights the need for genuine
work in the field of science journalism.

5.03 There is a veritable ‘knowledge explosion’ in the fields of life sciences, medicine,
communication, electronics, drug research, nuclear energy, earth sciences. There is a
need to communicate this knowledge to the masses and to make them aware of these.

5.04 To the common people the scientific truth is what ever is purveyed by the press,
radio and the T.V. Thus the pertinent questions to be considered are :

(a) What kind of science subjects and expositions appear in the modern day news
papers and magazines ?

(b) What explicit or implicit message is conveyed to us by these selected news or

reporting.

So far the ‘reporting’ usually has meant describing things by using epithets such as ‘the
fastest’ or ‘the slowest’ or ‘the greatest’ or ‘the coldest’. But now this style is no more
adequate when we are faced with subjects like ‘cloning’ in the field of genetics.

5.05 In modern times media’s focus is generally more on technology policy related
issues and decisions, or on environmental quality, public health, controversies centred
on bio engineering, AIDS, changes in temperature of the environment, calamities,
horrors of accidents. People feel concerned about the information concerning the field
of science and technology, about changes resulting from the new researches, and
speculations on the consequent impact on human life, on environment, on
surroundings. In fact people are curious to know much more than this. Thus whereas it
is necessary to provide the common men with information on the contemporary topics,
on the other hand, it is also necessary to support the pressure lobby advocating polices
for promotion and continuation of research and exploration in the field of public
importance. It is also required to create an atmosphere for the implementation of such
decisions and provide financial resources there for. It is necessary to enlarge the scope
of science journalism in the interest of both these issues.

5.06 Although an increase is noticeable in the science news and write ups in the various
media, yet even earlier and now also, people’s comprehension of these matters
remains immature. Usually a ‘machine’ is mistaken for science. More over, despite
spread of literacy, science and knowledge, people’s weakness for traditions and
superstitions prevails. Thus science journalism is required to reinforce scientific temper
and a scientific outlook.

5.07 Science journalism depends on collection of basic material concerning matters of

topical interest from various sources. But the unfortunate part of it is that most of the
matter is available in English. The material available on net is useful only for English
knowing people. In these circumstances one task is to produce such material in easily
comprehensible Hindi or other vernacular languages. This fact also underlines the role
of science journalism.
6.00 The importance and usefulness of Science Journalism

6.01 Science journalism requires presentation of scientific

facts, concepts, knowledge and information in the language of journalism. This style
induces confidence in the people. Encouraged by this example, matter pertaining to
many other fields is also being presented in this very style in order to readily winning the
confidence and acceptance of the people. For example sake, it will be seen that the
popular series ‘Why and How’, regular columns and features in news papers,
magazines, journals dwelling upon health and fitness, the T.V. programmes, quite often
do not present scientific knowledge, but it is their presentation only makes them appear
as if these are the ultimate truths. The news papers are full of ‘daily forecast’,
astrological and pseudo scientific claims. Not only this, during election times there are
a host of ‘exim’ and ‘’exit polls’ and the inferences derived from such opinion polls are
presented in such a way as if they have been obtained on a scientific basis. Usually
people are taken in by these predictions. But the fact is that these claims only create an
illusion of truth and reinforce unscientific tendencies. The significance of science
journalism lies in the fact that they do not rest on pseudo science, but propagate among
the people only true and scientifically valid knowledge.

6.02 In the name of science, to day’s media purveys material on a set pattern and this is
justified as ‘situational technicality’. There does not appear to be any concrete and
systematized effort to explore as to what the people actually want to know. Actually the
nature of the presented material depends on our own notions of the public demand.
The importance of science journalism can be established strongly by presenting fully
material authenticating human life, and its various aspects.

6.03 People are attracted only to those news items in the news papers which appear to
impact their day to day life and the personal health. It has become amply clear now that
the media itself serves the purpose of primary health guide. The point will be illustrated
by a survey on sources of knowledge about prevention and protection against cancer. It
was found that the most popular source turned out to be newspapers and magazines,
next was T.V,. and the last was discussion and consultation with the doctor (physician).
This again clearly brings out the role of science journalism.

6.04 Media also help decision making in several personal matters, like the use of
contraceptives or family planning options. Of course, these decisions related to private
life are made when they are in consonance with the prevailing values, and collective
beliefs. In fact the readers or the audience receive the images propagated by the media
only in keeping with their own faith, experience and thinking. Further, the people
transform it according to there own convenience. From this angle also the science
journalism plays an important role.

6.05 Science journalism writing is useful in the true sense only when it targets the
common people, the students, the modestly educated persons and is in a simple and
easy style. It should be meaningful also to the target audience. Such writings can be
rendered useless if they bristle with difficult technical terminology. Therefore, it should
be avoided. In case it is unavoidable to use a technical term, it should be explained.
Material thus presented in an easy and simple style could be maximum useful.

6.06 Utility of a meaningful science journalism lies in the presentation for the people of
factual information or knowledge on health, alternative medicine, physical fitness, life
sciences (human sciences), food, material related to the contexts of life.

6.07 The greatest usefulness of science journalism is for the children. The children are
the carrier (vehicle) of traditions and yet the hope for the future. Popular science writing
is badly needed so that in place of a divided and disintegrated society there may grow a
society informed with a scientific outlook. This is an indispensable need of the time.

6.08 The industrialization has made the human life easy, but there is no awareness
about its negative and pernicious effects on the environment. The labour and the
children working in the glass industry in Ferozabad face diseases and untimely death.
They face adverse circumstances and an environment which is laden with chemicals,
and toxins. It is the task / job of science journalism to make people aware of it, to give
them knowledge about it, to enlighten them on it.

6.09 The print medium is restricted to the use of verbal expression, supported by
pictures, graphs, and statistics. Radio uses only audio communication. The T.V. employs
visuals also in addition to the sound. The visuals afford an opportunity to see the things.
It is easier to comprehend a visual. The visual representation is remembered for long.
That is why, in science journalism radio and T.V have been found more useful. Its impact
is far reaching, widely pervading and long lasting. The Cinema, which is more developed
and complex, is superior among all these three. Therefore, the effectiveness of the
visual medium can become more if it is coupled with science journalism. If literature or
material concerning subjects of public interest is created with focus on the common
people, it will indubitably be more useful.

6.10 Science should not be taken merely as certain topics or certain body of knowledge.
Science includes way of thinking about the processes of science.

7.00 Summing up

7.01 In view of low literacy rate, and restricted propagation of education, scientific
temperament and an appropriate life vision has not developed among the people. There
will be found a duality of approach between classroom teaching about natural
phenomena like the eclipses of sun and moon and the personal faith being held
privately. In these circumstances there is a need to disseminate through
communication media knowledge and information about discoveries from the field of
science, among the common people. Science journalism can play a very important role
in moulding and fostering a healthy and appropriate life view.

8.00 Comprehension Test

1. Elaborate the need of science journalism in the modern times.

2. Describe the role of science journalism in promoting an understanding of science

among the common people.

3. ‘The increasing role of communication media can be related to the life of the masses
through the science journalism.’ Express your views on it.

4. “Science Journalism is not merely dissemination of knowledge on science subjects,

but it is also an instrument to mould the mind set of common man.” Comment.
 1.00 Science for a Science Journalist

It goes without saying that one who has chosen to pursue science journalism has an
interest in and an understanding of science, though he need be no scholar of science
himself.

Three things about science and technology have to be borne in mind. Science and
technology is perpetually growing and growing exponentially. It means that whatever
progress it has made, say, in the last five years, will be multiplied many times in the next
five years in the rate, in the expanse and in the content. Second thing is that it keeps on
entering in to, and impacting and pervading the life of man without his being conscious
of it. Also, there is a direct relationship between the degree and quality of Science and
Technology factor in man’s life and the stage and quality of the material and physical
circumstances of his life. The point will be illustrated by a comparison between the life
of a forest dwelling aborigine of Andamans, and that of a prosperous, jet set, metro
citizen. Thirdly, comprehension of science and technology in a ‘scientific’ manner is a
strictly selective function. It depends not only on a man’s intelligence, but also on his
inclinations and intentions. For example, while a farm labor can very well be a ‘user’ of
an advance digital technology TV, it would be entirely irrelevant, and unnecessary, even
a physical impracticability for him to understand the science and technology behind it.
And interestingly in this respect a noble laureate in, say, economics, or a nuro-surgeon
would also be equally incapable of comprehending technology outside his field.

Therefore, a science journalist should have realistic and

practical professional objectives, and targets. His basic concern is with the creation of a
scientific temper, outlook and attitude, and presentation of an intelligent view of the
things. While it would be alright for him to make people in general understand causes
and implications of ozone layer depletion, and role of CFC gases in non technical terms,
or give vivid description of amazing black holes, it would be foolish for him to teach the
common man the difference between RNA and DNA, or the nature of quarks or
nutrinos. But all said and done, it is essential for him to be well grounded in the basic
principles and well informed of the happenings in the frontier areas of science and
technology, without being a ‘scientist’. As for the fare to be served by him through the
media, it should be ‘user friendly’. He has to rely on his instincts and faculty of
discrimination for the fare to be served.

If it is essential for a science journalist to be familiar with the present scenario of

science and technology, and have a reasonable view of its future directions, it is all the
more necessary for him to have a knowledge of the history and background of the
development of science and technology. Past of Science and Technology is as exciting
and interesting as its future.

The contents of this Unit may appear to be a little over loaded, but it will stand a student
in good stead in his career. He is likely to participate in learned assemblies and forums.
The background acquired here will save him from drwing a blank there. Moreover, all this
knowledge is not commonplace to come by.

2.00 History of Science and Technology for Science Journalist

The science and technology is as old as the human civilization itself. Not only that both
can be considered to be running parallel, but they can be taken to be in symbiotic mode.
They mutually feed each other’s growth.

The homo sapiens might not have suffered nature silently and helplessly like other
animals for long. The sense of mere wonderment was soon accompanied by curiosity
and inquisitiveness - the ‘what, why and how’. Man from the very beginning was
manipulative and interfering. Tool making, hunting, food gathering, rudimentary
protection against rigours of nature, was beginning of primitive civilization as well as
primitive science and technology. Discovery of fire making was perhaps a very
significant breakthrough. Invention of the wheel was a very important technological
event. It should be realized that the crucial impacts made by these simple primitive
discoveries and inventions on the course of civilization, can not be easily matched even
by the high profile discoveries and inventions of this age. In fact the importance of
scientific and technological development is to be appreciated relative to the stages of
civilization.

Still any meaningful review of the past of civilization, and therefore, of science and
technology has to embrace vast expanses of space and time. Let it cover at least the
entire old world – i.e., Eurasia and Africa. There is a tradition of generally ignoring
exploits of civilizations like Maya (Middle America - 600 BC to 1400 AD), Aztec Mexico
etc. – 1100 AD to 1500 AD) and Inca (Peru – 1300 to 1600 AD, in the American continents
and Chinese etc. in the orient. So let it be like that territorially for now. Then time wise,
as there is a prehistory period of civilization, so is with science and technology.

It is also to be borne in mind that the historical contents and frontiers of knowledge are
liable to constant changes. The historical picture of science and technology delineated
here, is as it stood towards the beginning of twenty first century. New knowledge can
always change the view.

3.00 History of Science in outlines

3.01 Ancient Times

At present historians take note of history beginning ( i ) as discovered in about 5000 BC

in Mesopotamia, the fertile land between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. ( ii ) The
Egyptian civilisation along the river Nile in central and northern Africa, seems to have
followed a little later, about 3300 BC. ( iii ) Notice is taken of the history in the Indus
valley in Indian sub continent around 2800 BC, and of Vedic or Aryan achievements
from about 1500 BC ( iv ) from about 700 BC in Greece, and ( v ) from 300 BC in
Alexandria, ( vi ) from around 200 BC in Rome, ( vii ) and from 700 AD in Arab.

3.02 Civilisation in Mesopotamia :

Socio-political : About 5000 BC, the south of Mesopotamia, Assyria or Sumeria, was
inhabited by Sumerians, drifted from mountains of Central Asia. The north known as
Akkad, was occupied by Semites, having come from Mediterranean coast.
Notwithstanding their political rivalries, their life styles were organized similarly, in small
walled cities. The prominent among them were Nippur, Lagash, Eridu, Nineveh and Ur in
Sumeria, and Kish, Sippar, Agade, Susa and Babylonia in Akkad.
A fresh wave of Semites, known as Amorites over ran Akkad in about 2000 BC. They had
a famous monarch, Hammurabi. After about a thousand years they were again invaded
by king of Elam. Towards 1650 BC both the kingdoms were attacked by Hitties, Hurrians
and Kassites. In about 538 BC Sumero – Babylonian culture was over powered by the
Persians. Akkadian languages were supplanted by Armenian. A new chapter in history
and civilization set in.

Science and Technology in Mesopotamia : Both these regions were chiefly agricultural,
producing wheat, barley and date palms. They used potters wheel, wheeled carts, boats
and copper tipped harpoons. Stone tools, like sickles have been found. In the later
stages some rare iron tools have also appeared. A stone pillar, inscribed with ‘laws’, in
cuneiform script was found in Susa. It is understood that it was originally erected in the
temple of the god, ‘Marduk’ in Babylonia by the king Hammurabi near about 2000 BC.
But stone was not yet in common use architecturally. Mesopatamians worshipped
many Gods. But the chief among them was the Sun, god of justice and power.

Script : The language and writing though in itself a science, is the vehicle for the
development of civilization. Its evidence comes down in the form of clay tablets. The
earliest writing or script found is pictographic almost all over Sumerian pictographs are
oldest. They also represent ideas and had become conventional. Later Sumerians and
others learnt expanding their meanings by use of certain signs. Next it became linear.
Later Sumers developed Cuneiform.

Note : All civilization is knowledge based. Knowledge is communication dependent. The

vehicle of communication is language. Need for giving permannace to communication
is the mother of art of writing. It is interesting to note that in all the civilizations, the art
of writing has almost similar beginnings and similar stages of development. The
maximum realization of the capacities of writing appeared in the form of alphabetical
script. It is helpful to understand the meanings of some of the terms used in this
context. (1) Pictographic : Picture writing. Use of pictorial symbols to denote facts,
events, or ideas. It was man’s earliest method of making a more or less self explanatory
record. Earliest examples are found on clay tablets. (2) Ideographic : Writing system
using a sign or symbol to directly represent a concept or a thing rather than the word for
it. It developed from pictographic language, but is not tied up to picture of a particular
object. Its example is the Chinese script. (3) Hieroglyphics : Pictorial Characters
employed in Egyptian, Indus valley civilization, Hittites, and Mayans. It also began with
Pictpgraphs outlining objects, e.g. an eagle, but always with conventional meanings,
which might become ideographic if interpreted literally e.g., a circle for sun or
symbolically, eg, a circle for day or light, musical instrument for gladness, a club or
mace for war or fighting. (4) Cuneiform : Written characters resembling a series of arrow
heads or wedges and rectangles only. It was invented by the people who used Ural-
Altaic languages differing from the Semitic.

By 3150 BC, Cuneiform had completely replaced pictographic writing. Signs used were
basically syllabic. Each of the characters represented a vowel with one or two
consonants. Though languages had differences, yet the writing system was common to
Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea and even among Hebrews. The Semites on the eastern
coast of Mediterranean, who were in contact with Egypt as well as Mesopotamia
invented alphabets comprising 22 signs. Each sign represented a consonant. Vowel
sound was added by interpretation of context only. Incidentally, Egypt had mainly
developed hieroglyphics, whereas later Phoenicia, Syria and Greece had depended on
the use of ‘letters’. In about 900 BC this ingenious script was carried by Phoenicians to
the Ionian Greeks, who added vowels to make 27 alphabets. This became the mother of
all European languages, including old Latin and later English.

Measures and Mathematics : The next stage in development was the evolution of value
based numerals, weights and measures. Stone weights have been found used in about
3000 BC in a Sumerian temple at Lagash. The earliest use of numerals has also been
found in keeping temple revenue accounts in Sumer. They used both, sexagesimal as
well as decimal systems. The Babylonians have been found handling large numbers,
multiplication tables, tables for squares, square roots and cube roots, and knowledge
of Algebra. They were using a kind of quadratic equation in about 2000 BC. In geometry,
Babylonians had found formula for calculating areas of rectangles, triangles,
trapezoids. They were familiar with properties of similar triangles, right triangles
inscribed in a semicircle, of the theorem which was much later named after Pythagoras.
In solid geometry they could compute volumes of right prisms, circular cylinders,
frustums of cones, and of square pyramids.

Astronomy : Astronomy had its roots in curiosity, but the periodicity connected with
certain celestial bodies gave the idea of its practical use in measurement of time.
Babylonians kept track of passage of time on the basis of lunar months. They had learnt
to add extra months to keep in step with seasonal agricultural festivals. They conceived
a year of 360 days, divided in 12 months of 30 days each. Simultaneously they
developed the idea of a seven day week. They named the days after the Sun, the Moon
and the five planets they knew.

Babylonians later on measured time by the amount of water trickling out from a hole at
the bottom of a vessel. They measured the diameter of sun by establishing that the time
taken from the appearance of upper edge of the sun to the coming out of the whole disk,
which happened to be 1/720 th of the time between one sun rise to the next. This
interval was divided into 12 double hours, the time required for the Sun to travel 60
times its own diameter. Using sexagesimal system, hour was divided into 60 minutes
and a minute into 60 seconds.

This is the system, the whole world has been using even to day.

The Babylonians identified and named prominent constellations of distant stars,

located in the 12 parts of the zodiac, or the equatorial belt which is the path of the Sun.
It was determined that the 30 days of the month were based on the stay of the sun in
one of the 12 parts of the zodiac. By 1000 BC, Mesopotamians achieved fair degree of
accuracy in observation of the periodicity of planetary motions and even of the lunar
eclipse. They have left systematic record of planetary phenomena from 700 BC.
However, they imagined the universe as a closed rectangular box.

Just before 500 BC, Babylonian Nabu – ri – Mannu (or Naburianos in Greek) determined
the length of a year as 365 days, six hours, 15 minutes, 41 seconds. This happens to be
longer only by 26 minutes and 55 seconds than the modern day calculations. In the next
century, Chaldean astronomer, Kidinnu (Kidenas in Greek) studied the record of 360
years and refined the length of year. Surprisingly he also discovered the slow directional
shifting of the earth’s axis, described as precession of equinoxes.

Medicine : The medicine in Mesopatamia, remained magico – religious in the custody of

priests, although the King, Hammurabi had prescribed a code for them in about 2000
BC. It combined omens, evil spirits, divination, incantations, and exorcism together with
a little of crude surgical procedures and drug administration. They attributed suffering
and cure to demons, Gods and spirits.

3.03 Scene in Egypt :

The history in Egypt is taken to begin with the uniting of Upper and Lower Egypt by the
first Pharaoh, called Menes, in about 3360 BC as recorded in the inscription of Palermo
Stone. Yet there are references in their records which show their various achievement
even before this period.

Three important stages of Egypt’s history are described as the Old Kingdom, or the
Pyramid Age (3000 – 2075 BC), the Middle Kingdom, or the Feudal Age (2160 – 1788 BC),
and the New Kingdom, known as the Empire (1580 – 1150 BC). Egypt of old was ruled by
Pharaos. The deeply religious Egyptians believed them to be sons of Ra (the Sun God),
who was their chief God. They followed the cult of the dead, and preserved mummified
bodies of the dead in huge Pyramids. The Pyramids and their contents exhibit Egyptian’s
good, though limited knowledge of engineering, mathematics and astronomy and
medicine. The largest of the some 80 surviving Pyramids, is that of Cheops, from 2600
BC. It is 493 feet in height and 775 feet square. The four sides correspond to the four
points of Compass. A shaft in the Pyramid is directed towards the Pole star as in that
period, and another shaft is so directed as to shine on the coffin the rays of the star
Sirus when at its highest point, which was a very important event in the life of Egyptians.

The bulk of knowledge is recorded on strips of Papyrus reed growing along the Nile. It is
written with reed pens in ink made from soot. Of course, writing on leather, wood and
stone has also been found. Hieroglyphic writing of Egyptians is in the nature of
pictograms and ideograms also. But importantly, they had come to use 24 consonant
based Hieroglyphics perfected in about 3000 BC. Development of the science of writing
in itself is an interesting achievement reflecting the degree of advancement of
civilization.

Technical Competence : Creative or imaginative literature was not very common in

Egypt. Writings found are mostly religious and utilitarian. Their knowledge of science,
mathematics, astronomy, and technology and medicines, has been found recorded,
although it is mainly demonstrated by the architecture and engineering works,
pyramids, obelisks, statues, dikes, irrigation works, pottery, coloured glass, dissection
of bodies and mummification, use of organic and inorganic preservatives, dyeing,
vegetable tanning of leather, use of pigments and enamel. They show a good knowledge
of metallurgy. Metallic artifacts of lead, silver, copper, tin and iron have been found. But
gold was more extensively used in ornaments. Oldest gold jewellry dates from 3400 BC.
Alloys like Bronze and gold mercury amalgam have also been found. Over all they were
well ahead of their contemporaries in technical applications.

Some of the Papyrus writings show that in that remote past the practice of crafts was
looked down upon. The pursuit of medicine, mathematics, astronomy and astrology
was regarded as respectable. The job of a scribe was considered to give a superior
status.

Mathematics : Egyptian’s hold on Mathematics remained rather primitive and limited.

This had an unfavourable influence on their knowledge of engineering and astronomy in
particular. Use of numerals in Egypt is seen around 3400 BC. There were straight marks
for small numbers and a special sign for number 10. Signs for 100, 1000 and 10000 were
added later on. The system in use was purely decimal. About 2000 BC, the concept of
whole numbers and fractions was discovered. They evolved method for solving first
degree equations with one unknown quantity. They had also learnt formulae for
calculating areas and volumes of elementary shapes, and circumference of a circle
from given radius. They knew the basic operations of addition, subtraction and equality,
and represented these by special symbols. They were handicapped by the ignorance of
multiplication and division. They had no multiplication table. They had to reduce all
operations to repeated addition or subtraction. Even in the fifth Century BC they used to
keep count by stone pebbles.

Astronomy : The Astronomy, as in all the ancient civilisations, was regarded as a very
distinguished branch of learning. It dealt with heavenly bodies. It was seen as related to
divinely controlled phenomena. In the lower Egypt, the new year commenced with the
annual rise in Nile water. This coincided with the appearance of the brightest star called
the Dog star or the Sirius with the rising of the sun in the middle of July. This event was
found receding by 5 days every year of 360 days or 12 months of 30 days each. The extra
5 days were celebrated as holidays. Further, the left over 6 hours every year kept on
causing shift of the new year. The year could return to its original position in 1458 years.
It seems in the beginning the month was lunar, but later it was made of 30 days. The
year was made of three seasons, namely the floods season, the cultivation season and
the harvest season. They used the sun dial in the day and water clock in the night to
measure 12 hourly divisions of variable lengths of the day and the night. The
astronomers fixed the position of stars by means of a forked stick and a plumb line.
Record has been maintained from 1100 BC of the time when a particular star crossed
the meridian. Till the Alexandrian period have been recorded 350 solar eclipses and 800
lunar eclipses. But they also, like the Babylonians, viewed the universe as a rectangular
box. (Alexandrian science is more Greek than Egyptian)

Medicine : in this field the Egyptians have shown an amazingly different pragmatic
approach. They deviated from the total belief in cause of disease as the demonic
interference. They were the pioneers who spoke of heart, and the circulation of fluids
being the source of bodily functions and dysfunctions and the basis for diagnosis of
diseases. They have recorded prescriptions for treatment and not magical rituals. The
elaborate record of their medical and surgical knowledge is found in numerous Papyrus.
But it does not mean that they were completely free from the faith in demons, Gods and
magic. Although, after a stage progress in the field of medicine had stopped, yet later
even important Greek physicians, like Hippocrates and Galen turned to the works of
Egypt.

The art of embalming was brought to perfection. But embalming, as well as

circumcision did not fall in the area of a physician. Had the physicians participated in
embalming, it would have helped their anatomical knowledge.

3.04 Greek Wisdom :

Although in chronological order activities in India should have claimed a place here, yet
it is deferred for the logical reasons to be explained later. However, as stagnation
seemed to have overtaken Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, around the VI
Century BC there up in north west, a new light was dawning upon the Aegean region.
Beginning from VI Century BC for about a period of 500 years, philosophy, science and
arts saw a powerful thrust in Greek islands and Alexandria, an African port city.

Not only that the Greeks pushed the frontiers of knowledge much further and with
greater vigour, they also showed a significant change in the spirit. With them, the role of
intellect, inquiry, reason and logic entered the scene to reinforce the observational
activities in a different way. This new spirit and attitude is the greatest contribution of
the Greeks to the world. These activities promoted and dominated the whole western
civilization carrying a continued impact.

There is such an amazing multiplicity and diversity in the expression of this Greek spirit
of enquiry packed in a short period that in order to make the comprehension easier, it
will be better to briefly recapitulate the works of some leading intellects of Greece and
also some of focal areas.

(1) Thales, a VI century Ionian of Miletus, of Phoenicin descent, who had predicted the
solar eclipse of 585 BC and had calculated the height of pyramids by measuring their
shadows, was reputed as one of the seven wise men of Greece. A merchant by
profession, he was a mathematician, an astronomer, a geometer, a geographer, and
many things. He deeply pondered over the nature of matter. Although some of his ideas
were erroneous, yet he was incontrovertibly a pioneer of scientific observation and
logical inference.

(2) Another important thinker was Anaximander, disciple of Thales. He disputed Thales
postulate that the fundamental substance of all matter was water. He declared it to be
‘aperion’, an airy mist. He reasoned that earth was at the center of universe. He was the
first Greek to have made a map of the world as visualized then.

(3) Yet another Miletus philosopher of VI century was Anaximenes. He reasoned like
Thales that the first substance was Water. He held that stars were much more distant
from the sun, and that they were fixed on the celestial vault. Yet another philosopher,
Heraclitus (around 500 BC) asserted that the fundamental element was an eternal fire.
A very interesting thought propagated by him states ‘all things flow, nothing abides’.
Empedocles of Agarcus, Sicily (around 450 BC) theorized that all physical phenomena
are combination of four elements, namely, water, fire, earth and air.
(4) Later, the famous physician Hippocrates also explained all the conditions of human
health on the basis of these four elements. He belonged to a family of Physicians. His
principles and practices of medicine is respected even to day. World over, physicians
when embarking upon the profession are administered what is known as the
Hippocratic oath.

(5) Three prominent streams were noticeable in the Greek world. Sophists were the
speciously argumentative crowd, who have left no worthwhile legacy. Another set of
intellectuals concerned themselves with natural sciences and have left valuable
knowledge. The third category was that of thinkers and philosophers. Yet the fourth
group was the practitioner of arts of drama, poetry, architecture, sculpture and music.
Of course, sports and the skill of soldiery was a universal preoccupation. Greeks did not
make a distinction between science, religion and philosophy, or between various
branches of science.

(6) The nature and composition of universe preoccupied the minds of Greek
philosophers, who depended more on speculation than observation. Amazingly
futuristic hypothesis was conceived by the Ionian Leucippus and his pupil Democritus .
The former was the founder of a school at Abdera in Thrace in the mid V Century BC.
Inspired by Heraclitus, they asserted that all substances were made up by ‘atoms’ (a-
tom=uncuttable), identical in substance, but different in size, shape and motion and
differently arranged to form different elements. The atoms themselves are changeless,
uncaused, from the beginning till eternity. Still more astonishing is their assertion that
they form not only our world, but innumerable other worlds also.

It will be realized that these atomists had been speaking like the moderns. In fact, this
same view about ‘atom’ was arrived at, though empirically, by Dalton, which is valid
even to day.

(7) Another remarkable contemporary theorist was Pythagoras, who had founded an
esoteric brotherhood in a western Greek colony, Croton, in Sicily. He had traveled
widely to Egypt and even India. His name, being associated with a geometrical theorem,
is familiar even to a school child. But it is well known that he was not the founder of this
theorem. Pythegoras put forward a mathematical model of the universe, which was
ensured to be aesthetically sound also. He was concerned with the virtues of perfection
and nobility, rhythm, regularity and musicality. His three layered universe produced
‘music of spheres’. His elaborately designed geo centric world revolved west to east in
circular orbits around a central fire, while each body also rotated on its axis in east to
west direction, in their own periodic time. All shapes and motions in nature were
spherical or circular because that is the perfect form. Although his views were proved
erroneous ultimately, yet they influenced Plato, Aristotle and later thinkers for a long
time.

(8) Then came the great stalwart of Greek wisdom, Socrates. By instinct he was a
fearless and dedicated teacher, concerned more with the moral and intellectual life
rather then the nature and matter. In the politics ridden society of Athens, his advocacy
of intellectual freedom was punished by death in 399 BC.

(9) His greatest discovery was his devoted disciple Plato. Most of Socrates is known
indirectly through Plato. After the execution of 70 year old Socrates (399), wisdom made
him leave Greece. He traveled widely to Egypt, Sicily and Italy etc. Plato returned 12
years later to Athens. He was a typical slave driving Greek philosopher, who loved
intellectual leisure and shunned labour. He established Plato’s Academy in a public
garden and taught till his death at 81 years (347 BC).

He was also influenced by the teachings of Pythagoras. He developed the deductive

method of rigorous analytical thinking, emphasizing the determination of precise
relationship between fact and theory, experiment and hypothesis, all in the abstract. He
refined the philosophical base of mathematics and science and established many
axioms and formulae. Regarding the universe, he mistakenly believed in a geo centric
stationary earth, around which all heavenly bodies moved in circles, at distances
proportionate to their numbers from earth. He influenced the ancient and medieval
thoughts, and provided a very powerful mental discipline for the scientists and
philosophers alike, while contributed little to the actual scientific knowledge.

(10) However, in the IV century BC scientific studies received a great boost, along with
philosophic and aesthetic pursuits under the versatile genius, and encyclopedic vision
of Plato’s worthy successor, Aristotle (384 - 322 BC). Coming from the borders of
Macedonia, He stayed at Athens for 20 years (367-347 BC) and spent about 17 to 18
years at Plato’s Academia. It was universally acclaimed that he had an astonishing hold
on physics, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, natural history, biology, psychology,
logic, ethics, political philosophy, drama, poetry and everything under the sun. But at
the death of Plato (347 BC), he was denied headship of Academy on account of
prejudices against foreigners. He left Athens and after about 3 years became a tutor to
Alexander (343-335) . His father had been a physician to the grandfather of Alexander.
But finding the Court atmosphere uncongenial, he left the court after 5 years and
returned to Athens, to found a rival school, Lyceum (335), situated in grounds
consecrated to the god Apollo Lyceus. His school was famous as Peripatetic school,
because he used to continuously and restlessly pace up and down while lecturing. He
left it in 323 for Chalcis in Euboea. He died in 322 BC.

He was an unparalleled prolific writer. He attempted to reconstruct all previous

knowledge while adding original ideas. His views had a very far reaching and lasting
influence on the thoughts of the West. But not withstanding their essential importance,
many of his scientific theories about the nature, composition and motion of universe,
and the biological world, proved false. His value lay in theorization and methodology. He
differed from Plato in denying that ‘idea’ was every thing, and also in denying universal
applicability of deductive method. According to him deductive logic was fully valid in
philosophical matters. He gave it a set pattern and called it Syllogism. But in studies of
natural sciences, inductive logic had also an indispensable role to play. His ideas gave a
very useful direction and method to future scholars.

Aristotle, particularly in his 4 volumes ‘On the Heavens’ speculated at length on the
construction, composition and motion of the Universe. His ingeniously intricate model
of Universe, was driven by the Primum Mobile, and other lesser movers. It was
composed of two different types of matter, viz., celestial matter and the terrestrial
matter. The terrestrial matter comprised 4 elements, earth, water, air and fire, while the
celestial matter was a fifth element, the quintessence.

His deeply researched Biological studies are found in the available books, The History of
Animals, Parts of Animals, and Generation of Animals. His significant contribution is an
attempt at classification of life forms.

His other works are Organon (logic, ethics, politics, philosophy, poetics), De Anima etc..

(11) Theophrastus (372 - 287 BC), a notable Botanist was a pupil of and successor (at
Lyceum) of Aristotle. Two of his important voluminous works are, On the History of
Plants, and On the causes of Plants.

(12) Hippocrates (460 - 359 BC), born at Cos, as already mentioned, is the most shining
example of great advancements made in medicine in Greece. He is revrred as the
‘Father of Medicine’. He found the art of healing, on the traditions of Egypt and
Mesopotamia, mainly based on supernatural, magic, and sorcery etc. mainly carried on
by the priests. Under him it became rational and scientific. He and his pupils have left a
corpus of about 100 books.

(13) Herophilus and (14) Erasistratus, born in the late IV century BC, are the two
physicians of the third century BC who advanced medical science very significantly.
They belonged to the same city of Ceos. Both studied anatomy and physiology by
dissecting not only animals but also human corpses. Herophilus recorded his findings
in three volumes, of which only fragments have been left. He has given excellent
description of eye, membranes of the brain and genital organs. He gave the name
duodonem. He is first to recognize the true nature of nerves and that the brain is the
central organ of nervous system, and also that the peripheral nerves are the organs of
sensation. The depression in the occipital bone at the confluence of a number of
venous sinuses, has been named Torcular Herophili, after his name. He was also a
successful obstetrician.

(15) Democritus was the main influence on Erasistratus. Only fragments have been left
of his two books on anatomy. He has given a very good account of heart and its valves,
upper air passages with the epiglottis, of the liver, bile duct and the brain. He discovered
that there are two types of nerves, the sensory and the motor. He said that there are
three kinds of conduits traversing the body, namely, the veins, arteries and the nerves.
But he made a mistake in claiming that the arteries contained only air and not the
blood. He was the first to observe that different diseases left certain organs in different
conditions. His theory of mechanical origin of diseases instead of the older humoral
theory was recognized only after hundreds of years.

3.05 Activities at Alexandria :

Very interestingly, the Greek science subsequently flourished at a center away from
Greece, in the African port city founded in 332 BC by Alexander, after he had defeated
Persian armies. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, African territories came under
the control of one of his Generals, Ptolemy I, also a pupil of Aristotle. He invited
Demetrius of Phalerum, in 294 BC, alongwith his companions, all disciples of Aristotle
at Lyceum, to establish a center of learning, much bigger than Lyceum. It had a zoo,
botanical garden, astronomical observatory, medical labs, and above all a huge library
consisting of more than a million papyrus manuscripts. It continued to be the greatest
center of learning for about 600 years. Illustrious names, like, Euclid, Archimedes,
Eratosthanes, Apollonius, Aristarchus, Herophhilus and Erasistratus were associated
with it.

(1) A systematized exposition of Geometry by Euclid (of Athens : 330 –260 BC) at
Alexandria is an immensely important work. The rulers in Egypt were faced with the
problem of land survey every year after the obliteration of all previous demarcations by
the annual floods of Nile. Thales (640-546 BC) of Miletus, after a visit to Egypt, thought
of developing a scientific method for this purpose. After him Pythagoras (582-500 BC)
and his disciples further developed the science of Geometry.

(2) About 320 BC Eudemus of Rhodes compiled a historical account of Geometry. On

this foundation, Euclid further systematically developed Gemetry in about 300 BC. This
work, called Elements, in 13 Books, has remained till date the standard work on
Geometry. Of course, in the tradition of those days it contains contribution from many
other mathematicians. Like most of science, this has also been handed down through
Arab channels. Euclid is also responsible for works like On Fallacies, Optics, on
Catoprics etc.

(3) Another talented scientist, mathematician and engineer linked with Alexandria,
Archimedes born in Syracuse (287 - 212 BC), has done lot of original work. For the most
part he stayed in his native place. School children know him for his theory of floating
(and submerged) bodies. His mechanical military devices, using principles of lever,
pulleys, screws, wheel and axel etc, had played havoc with the Roman invaders,
although he was ultimately killed by a Roman soldier.

(4) After Archimedes, Heiro of Alexandria (about 150 BC), a great mathematician and
inventor, invented siphon, gear wheel, pump, water clock, steam engine. His famous
works are Mechanics and Pneumatics. His works caught attention of scholars in XVI
century and were translated into Arabic and Italian. He describes more than 60 clever
mechanical devices or gadgets, which have the value of curiosity, entertainment and
fun only. He describes siphon based toys, a pump driven trumpet, a hissing rattle snake,
penny-in-the-slot machine to dispense holy water, serving wine and water from the
same bottle, temple doors opening on lighting a fire. In fact, he showed a light hearted
attitude and spirit which was totally different from the commonly held serious views of
scholars.

(5) Aristarchus (310-230 BC) was a remarkable, original and modernistic astronomer of
Alexandria. His book On the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, is one of very
important expositions combining observation with speculation. Unlike the commonly
held geo-centric view he propounded a helio-centric view of universe, which has finally
prevailed. This was not acceptable to the scholars of his times. Athough some of his
conclusions were not accurate, but he showed very sound methodology. Unfortunately
his works are lost and his views are known from references found elsewhere.

(6) Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), the famous librarian of Alexandrian Library was a
observational astronomer. By measuring the angular distance of the Sun on the first day
of summer of 250 BC at mid day, between the city of Syene and Alexandria, about 5000
stadia away, due north of the former, he calculated the length of the circumference of
the earth. The angular distance was about 70, or 1/50 th of a circle. Hence, the
circumference was calculated to be 50 x 5000 = 250000 stadia or about 24500 miles,
one stadia used by him being 517 feet. Incidentally this value is not very far from the
latest exact measurement of 24860 miles.

(7) Hipparchus (190 – 120 BC) born at Nicea in Bithynia, he worked at first at Rhodes and
then at Alexandria. All his works, except for one have been lost. Succeeding
astronomers drew heavily on data compiled by him, although one of his concepts, that
is universe being geocentric proved wrong. He compiled a catalogue of stars by
collecting knowledge since the Babylonian times. He was also first to have discovered
and estimated approximate rotational shifting of earth’s axis. He calculated the length
of year within 6 minutes of the latest value. He laid the foundation of trigonometry and
constructed table of chords or natural sines.

(8) Claudius Ptolemy (85-165 AD) sometimes considered to be an Egyptian, the greatest
follower of Hiparchus, is chiefly known for his astronomical treatise drawing heavily on
Hiparchus. He wrote books on optics and sound also. He had invented simple but
useful astronomical measuring devices. His importance lies in the synthesis he
produced in his book, Syntaxis, called Megale Mathematic Syntaxis. Later scholars,
particularly Arabs, respectfully called it Al magiste Syntaxis. The name was popularized
as Al-magest.

It was translated in Latin in 1175 and deeply influenced the Renaissance. In fact
Ptolemy’s concepts held sway for about 1400 years and were known as Ptolemic
system, in spite of carrying the erroneous notions of Hiparchus. Holding the geocentric
view he had very diligently and intelligently worked out a structural design and
movement system for the heavenly bodies, which was based on apparent phenomena,
and could verify the past positions and predict the future positions of the heavenly
bodies. His views had not come in conflict with Christian theology and were followed by
the Arabs. (The system was discredited only after Tycho Brahe : 1546-1601 AD)

Alexandria produced two renowned mathematicians, (9) Pappus (around 300 AD) and
(10) Diophantus (2 nd half of third century). The former published a treatise called
Collection (8 volumes), and the latter, Arithmetic (besides a few more books). This book
is a pioneer work on Algebra. The Collection contains complete till date knowledge of
mathematics, besides the historical account of the development of mathematics.

3.06 The Roman Science and Technology :

The Roman Science & Technology : The city of Rome was founded in 753 BC on both
banks of river. Soon it established a kingdom lasting till 529 BC when the last king
Tarquin was banished and a Republic was founded. In 529 Tarquin, the last king was
banished. It became a Republic. In 200 yrs after 529 the whole Italy was united. As
Greece became weak, Rome fought with it.
 From 264 BC it kept on fighting Carthage for 100 years,
which was completely destroyed. It went on conquering Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and
then invaded Greece to destroy Macedonian kingdom. Asia Minor was conquered.
Spain and Gaul (France) were subjugated. Parts of Africa were conquered. Julius Caesar
conquered Gaul. He was murdered in 44 BC. His nephew Octavian succeeded, as
Augustus – the first Roman Emperor in 44 BC. After his death his successors, conquered
England and invaded Scotland. Period up to the death of Marcus Aurelius, known as the
Augustan age was its golden period. Roman empire became disturbed up to 323 AD
when Constantine the Great became Emperor. Constantine moved the capital to
Byzentium in 330 AD. After his death the Roman Empire was divided in to two. Rome
had a glorious history for a 1000 years. Afterwards it never regained its past glory. In 410
AD the Goths conquered Rome. The final fall came in 455 AD after Romulus Augustus.

Romans were more of warriors, conquerors and builders, than scholars. They became
fabulously rich and led a luxurious life. Roman contacts with the Greeks at Sicily and in
southern Italy became closer in second century BC when they conquered many Greek
provinces. They being not intellectually inclined like the Greeks, the philosophy and
science declined, but civil and military engineering developed. They built imposing
forts, walls, roads, aqua ducts, theatres, baths, grand palaces, roads and bridges etc.
The book De Architectura by Vitruvius written in the times of Augustus (14 BC) remained
an important treatise till the Renaissance. Though the Roman empire was short lived,
however, three noteworthy things of this period are the Julian Calendar, Natural History -
in 7 volumes by Pliny, the Elder, and the works of Galen the physician (130 – 199 AD).

Galen was born in the city of Pergamum, where studies Medicine under very capable
scholars till he was 20 years. Then he traveled for 9 years (148 –157 AD) to Smyrna,
Greek mainland, Alexandria and other places. He studied unfamiliar cases of illness
and new methods of treatment. On his return he was appointed surgeon to gladiators.
He went to Rome in 162 AD where he treated an important man and became famous.
He became physician to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius and other later emperors. He was
there for 30 years. He wrote much, some of which has been lost. But even the surviving
works made his reputation last as an authority in the middle ages, at least till
Renaissance, when he began to be compared unfavourably with Hippocrates. His
erroneous views regarding the formation and the course of blood proved detrimental to
the progress of medical science. However, his study of the nervous system was
significant.

In fact the Romans were interested most in the study of Medicine. Two other famous
physicians were Celsus and Dioscorides. The Materia Medica compiled in Greek by the
latter remained an important work of reference till XVI century. But one important event
during their times was the reform in the calendar ordered by Julius Caesar in 46 BC.
Though this again was further reformed by Pope Gregory in 1582. Romans developed
commercial arithmetic. The numerals invented by them, though clumsy in use, were still
an advance over the Greek system. Strabo (circa 63 BC) was was an important
Geographer.

With the downfall of Roman Empire in 476 AD, even the last vestiges of learning were
stamped out. The Christian theology was opposed to pagan or heathen learning,
intellectual pursuits and investigations of nature. This resulted in wide spread illiteracy
and ignorance. But Charle Magne in 787 AD tried to revive learning ina way which
avoided head on collision with the Church.

Another factor which helped revival of learning was the leading of Christian Crusades
for the liberation of Jerusalem about 1000 AD. The Crusaders came in contact with the
remnants of Greek and Roman learning and arts. They also got exposed to the wealth of
learning and arts being consolidated by the Arabs. The dark ages were finally expelled
with the advent of Renaissance about 1453 AD.

4.00 India’s Wisdom

The brilliant history of eminence in all branches of human knowledge and sciences is
essentially the history of Aryans, who however, were neither the original inhabitants of
Indian sub continent nor the earliest settlers. The Vedas compiled by them have no
parallel in the history of human civilization. They made their presence felt near about
1500 BC. The Vedas show that they already had significantly advanced knowledge. Their
intellectual achievements were continued vigorously till VI or VII century AD. After that a
number of political and social factors sapped the energy of their intellectual activities.
The advent of Buddhism and Jainism, and then Bhakti Marg perhaps also contributed to
it. The stream of science however never completely died down. In fact its unbroken
continuity, howsoever tenuous, is the great and singular virtue of Indian civilization.
Even when the spirit appeared to be dormant here, it was spawning brilliant knowledge
in Arab. Arab also became an important conduit for the passing on of the Indian
influence to the West. Of course, its visible resurrection in XIX and XX century was
stimulated through the west.

Scientific Methodology : Besides the Greeks, the Vedic

people were the only ones to have assiduously worked out the tool of scientific method
and analytical logic and reason. In many respects its brilliance and power remains
unsurpassed till to day. Some of the important names in this field are Gotama or
Akshapada (VI cent BC - contemporary of Buddha and Kanada). To him is attributed the
Nyaya Sutras. He was a Philosopher and a Scientist. Another name to reckon with is
that of Kapila (VIII to VII cent. BC). He is propounder of Sankhya. In fact there are a
number of other scholars and thinkers of great eminence.

This part starts with an over view of pre Aryan civilizations.

4.01 Pre history to proto history

Humanity poised on the threshold of civilization appeared in India a little later than
West Asia, around 6000 BC. Man was settling down in villages, practicing agriculture -
cultivating rice, barley and wheat, - building mud houses, domesticating animals,
weaving cotton and wool cloth, making pots on potter’s wheel, making polished tools of
stone and of bones. This phase is called neo - lithic.

Soon these men in Indian sub continent learnt using copper; a little later discovered
bronze. These Chalcolithic men cultivated, at different places, rice, wheat, barley, bajra,
ragi, millets, pulses (masur, blackgram, green gram, grass pea), linseed, and cotton.
They domesticated animals (cows, sheep. goat, buffalo, pig, donkey). They hunted deer,
caught fish and ate beef also. They lived in thatched mud houses, having even a hearth.
Sometimes houses had several rooms. Many of their villages were fortified by a
surrounding wall. By 1500 BC they started using burnt bricks, and stones. In later
Chalcolithic period (1300 – 1200 BC) they are found spinning (on spindle whorls) and
weaving from cotton, flax and cotton silk (semal), making ornaments, bangles and bead
strings of polished semi precious stones. There were weavers, potters, terracotta
artisans, smiths, ivory carvers, lime makers. They existed before Harappans, and with
Harappans, who were more advanced technologically and were fully urbanized. But
they were independent of Harappans.

They had not develop the art of writing.

4.02 The Harappans

The Harappan civilization was unique in the contemporary world, and distinguished
from all other inhabitants of contemporary India. It is taken as the sheet anchor of
history of civilization in India. Previously it was called the Indus Valley Civilisation,
because initially it was discovered along the river Indus at Harappa, in west Punjab, and
483 km away at Mohanjo daro in Sindh, both now in Pakistan. There are seven layers of
ruins at Mohanjo daro. The lower layers are still inaccessible. But it dates at least from
3225 BC to 2750. Particularly vigorous period of Harappan civilization seems to be from
2800 – 2500 BC. Evidence of its existence are found till 1800 BC, though it was
becoming decadent. After 1200 BC it seems to have disappeared.

They could never develop alphabetical writing. All their written record is in pictographs
on clay tablets, though not much. These have not been fully deciphered even up to the
end of XX cent AD. Although during the same period pictographic writing was in use in
Mesopotamia and Egypt, but they had no influence on Harappan pictogrphs. Therefore,
all the knowledge about them comes from the archeological remains.

It may be noticed that the civilization was contemporaneous with that of Mesopotamia
and Egypt. But these people at the point of time were much more organisd and evolved.
Their townships were laid out with geometric precision. All construction was done in
burnt bricks. There are rows of comfortable houses using only two or three standard
sizes and designs providing court-yards, bathrooms and kitchen. There are grids of
paved wide and straight roads and covered drains with man-holes, and flood protection
walls Every city has a citadel, a lower section of town for commoners, public bathrooms
with change rooms, big tanks and a room having a water well, a set of big granaries with
working areas and labourer’s barracks. Some of the cities have a stadium as well. They
have jetties on the riverside for loading / unloading goods, perhaps grains. They grew
cotton, wheat, barley, peas, rye, mustard, and, sesame, and in some places rice. They
built boats. All this shows that they were much advanced technologically.

The excavated finds consist of textiles (mainly cotton but woolen also ), house hold
utensils, tools, weapons, jewellery made of gold, silver, copper and stones (specially
lapis lazuli), articles of bronze, tools and statues, figurines, toys (specially wheeled
carts), pottery (glazed and turned out on potter’s wheel), inscribed seals, some articles
of polished stones etc. They had good knowledge of metallurgy and metal craft. It is also
called the bronze age civilization.

Weighing scales and measures of weights, have been found ranging from 0.875 gms to
10970 gms. Unit of length used was cubit. Drugs have been discovered like shilajit,
cuttle fish bones, horns of deer and antelope, coral and neem leaves. They
domesticated cows, cats, dogs and asses. Their seals show humped bull, rhinoceros,
goat, buffalo, tiger and elephant, and terracotta figurines include, dogs, sheep, monkey
and birds.

They were probably peace loving agriculturists and commercial people, whose origin
and race is a little obscure. They brought raw material as metals, metallic ores and semi
precious stones, from other parts of the country and from outside also. They sold
finished goods in the country and outside. They had connection and interaction with
Afghanistan, Persia and Mesopotamia, of which evidence has been found in
Mesopotamia also. They mostly used land routes but also sailed on Arabian sea.

They were religious but built no temples. They were not warriors. It is not clear as to
what was their interest and achievement in astronomy and medicine. But they had no
match in their limited area of interest and activity, particularly town planning, health and
hygiene, civil engineering and crafts related to metals, jewelry, textiles and pottery.

Beginning 1800 BC through 1200 BC a progressive decline in Harappan culture is

witnessed and is given the name of post Harappan culture. During this period the
distinguishing features of this culture along with its vitality were disappearing. Some of
its elements were percolating into other life styles in India. At last some elements of
some alien sources have also been found creeping in it. Chalcolithic and other
indigenous influences were also appearing resulting in coexistence of stone and copper
articles. For about two thousand years Harappan culture led on a steady life. But
strangely over all during this phase there do not appear any significant developments in
the field of science and technology or their life style.

The Harappans as a people were slowly disappearing from the regions once dominated
by them. But no body was uprooting them. Possibly there had been a few episodes of hit
and run encounters with barbaric hordes from north west. But Harappans were not over
run by any invaders. There is also no clear cut evidence that they were pushed to the
south to form the Dravidian population, as assumed by some historians. Undoubtedly
the influx of Rig-vedic Aryans is noticeable around this time. They were settling down in
the same region of seven rivers (Sapta sindhu) but they came in confrontation with other
societies. It appears that the Harappans simply faded out after 1200 BC.

4.03 The Aryans :

Between 1600 and 1500 BC a horde of a fair skinned people pushed their way into India
from North West, coming through Iran. Some stray small groups of Aryans appear to
have come as early as 2000 BC. They were semi nomadic, pastoral people speaking
Indo-Aryan language, analogous to Indo - European and Indo - Iranian languages. In the
beginning they lingered about eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh.
They used several animals known to India. But they were the first to introduce horse and
horse drawn chariot to India. They came across buffalo for the first time in India. During
the time they were tentatively settling down, they did not leave significant archeological
evidences. Knowledge about this phase comes from their book, in ten parts (mandals),
the Rig Veda, originally propagated by word of mouth, and therefore, called ‘Shruti’.

In all some five Aryan Tribes entered India in successive waves. They finally came to
settle down about 1000 BC following conflicts with Dasas and Dasyus here and
amongst themselves.

The major source of information about the life and times of Aryans remains the Rig Veda
(circa 1500 BC, additions up to 1000 BC), Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, and
then a series of texts known as Brahmans, all composed between 1000 and 600 BC.
Upnishads were compiled around 600 BC.

From Punjab the Vedic people had spread over the whole of Ganga Yamuna doab. By
600 BC they had advanced to eastern Bihar. Vedic Aryans had assimilated in
themselves some of the other people.

From 1000 BC onward iron tools and weapons were in use, which had spread up to
Bihar by 600 BC. Use of copper was already known. By now Aryans had become settled
agriculturists. The later Vedic phase registered a great advance in the material life of the
people. A number of crafts were being practiced during this later Vedic period from 1000
to 600 BC. Besides agriculture, commerce also came in picture. Vedic literature
mentions about sea voyages also. It is noteworthy that after the eclipse of Harappan
culture to wards 1800 BC, for about 1000 years, when various new people were trying to
settle down there was not any significant progress in civilization and culture.

Introduction of punch marked metallic coins in V century impacted the trade and
commerce. Importance of Vaishyas increased. Vaishyas, who were rich but socially
down graded wanted more respect. Kshatriyas wanted emancipation from Brahmanic
strnglehold.

Two major tribes, Bharatas and Putus had combined to form the Kuru people, and then
Panchals (inhabiting Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad) merged with them. They made
Hastinapur their capital. Two clans of Kurus, viz., Kauravas and Pandavas fought the
Mahabharata war in about 950 BC. As an outcome of this great war, both the clans of
Kurus were almost completely routed and annihilated.

Towards the end of the Vedic period began a strong reaction against priestly
domination, cults, rituals etc. Some of the Kshatriya princes also developed such
thinking and created the atmosphere for reform against priestly domination. There were
tensions, a section had been treated as an untouchable slave, a section as meant only
to be fleeced for tributes and taxes, women were persecuted. Strongest was the
reaction of the kshatriya against stranglehold of greedy and crafty Brahmans.

In VI cent BC numerous religious sects, of various description appeared in the middle

Gangetic plains. Two important reformatory movements were Jainism and Buddhism.

Jainism was founded by Adi Nath. But historically important was Vrdhaman Mahavir, the
24 th and the last Tirthanker. He was born in 540 BC in a village near Vaishali, in a
Khstriya family. He died in 468 BC. He had renounced the world at 30 and had started
preaching at 42. He preached austerity. He used the Prakrit language.

The propounder of another great religion, Gautam Budha (Siddhartha) was born in 563
BC in a Shakya Kshatriya family at Kapilvastu. He preached middle path. He used Pali.

Under the sway of both these religions, the masses as well as the rulers cultivated
austerity and renunciation. Their world view was rather dismal. Though sciences of
mathematics and astronomy had their adherents but there were not many land mark
achievements. The only science which received greater attention was medicine.

4.04 The Vedas :

As mentioned above the knowledge about Aryans and their achievements comes from
their original book, in ten parts (mandals), the Rig Veda, originally propagated by word of
mouth. Vedas, 4 in number and compiled at different times have been found to be
fountain head of all wisdom associated with India. The major source of information
remains the Rig Veda (circa 1500 BC, additions up to 1000 BC), Sama Veda, Yajur Veda
and Atharva Veda, and then a series of texts known as Brahmans, all composed
between 1000 and 600 BC. Upnishads were compiled around 600 BC.

Mathematics : The crucially important contribution of India to the world of science are
the numerals, decimal system of place value notation, and the concept of zero and its
functions. Of course, they had also acquired advanced knowledge in Algebra, Geometry
and Calculus.

A Vedic seer Medhatithi, associated with hundreds of Rigvedic verses, and mentioned in
Atharvaveda and Yajurveda was the first in the world to use the system of numerals
based on multiples of ten. He has stated systematically numerals up to Pradha, i.e.,
1012 . Perhaps that early they were not in a written form. In fact for a long time Vedas
themselves were propagated by word of mouth. Written numerals from 1 to 9 have been
found in Brahmi script during Ashoka’s time. But the use of numerals 1 to 9 and zero has
appeared in Bakhshali Manuscript (around 200 AD). Later this system has been found in
regular use in Aryabhatta (499 AD), Varahmihir (522 AD), Jainbhadra Gani (529-589 AD)
and others. But scholars place its introduction around second century BC. The Indian
numerals and the decimal place value notation was carried to Arab by some Indian
scholars during the times of Caliph Al Mansur (753-774 AD) of Baghdad. The westerners
learnt of this system around X or XI century AD through Arabs, but its general use has
been seen in XVII century AD. Interestingly the Arabs called these numeral symbols
Hindsa, whereas to day world over these are called Arabic numerals.

Geometry : Sulva Sutras show Indian’s remarkable knowledge of geometry from very
early Vedic times. These manuals prescribe designs, formula and directions for the
construction of altars for different vedic rituals. ‘Sulva’ means ‘to measure’. They are
part of Shraut Sutras, which in their turn are part of Kalpa Sutras, which again is one of
six Vedangas. Each Veda has a number of Sulva Sutras, named aftertheir authors. Only
seven of them have survived, and Baudhayana Sulva Sutra is the oldest, composed
about 500 BC. Baudhayan attributes his knowledge to much older Taittiriya Samhita.
Interestingly it contains the theorem now called Pythagorean Theorem.

Aryabhatta : As a mathematician he developed the theory of epicycle, which is used to

determine the motion of planet, and which is a part of calculus. He is the earliest Hindu
author to have developed algebra. He has described a method for the solution of
intermediate equations of first degree. He has described what is known as Pythagorean
Theorem. He has made considerable contribution in the field of geometry. He obtained
the value of  ( as 3.1416 which is correct to fourth place of decimal. He has given a
method for the calculation of dimensions of shadow of an object placed in path of light.
This has application in calculating eclipses.

His knowledge of Algebra was much ahead of many mathematicians and great
algebraists of Europe. He was the first to work out the solution of equations involving
several unknowns and intermediate equations. His influence greatly helped the
development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world.

Algebra : Bhaskara (1114 - AD) a great protagonist of Algebra. He propounds principles

and operations of Algebra which could be known to the Western scholars only about
XVII or XVIII century AD. And much of this knowledge was handed down to him by his
father. His works are Siddhanta Shiromani (1150 AD), Karana Kautuhala (1183-84)

The first part of Sidhanta Shiromani treats of arithmetic. He begins with the description
of weights and measures in use then. This has a historical importance. Then he deals
with the 20 arithmetical operations and eight arithmetical determinations, describes
problems concerning indeterminate equations up to second degree, properties of
figures and bodies like triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, spheres, cones, pyramids etc.

The second part given to Bijganit, i.e., algebra, gives a very succinct and comprehensive
exposition of the subject in 213 verses, unsurpassed till modern times. In dealing with
the concept and functions of zero he has made a significant advance over Brahmagupta
by furnishing the gap left by him in as much as he has found out that any thing divided
by zero becomes infinity (  ) and zero divided by any quantity will give the quotient zero.
Another achievement is the algebraic solution of indeterminate equations. But he
changed the entire future course of algebra by introducing the use of symbols which
gave freedom and ease in algebraic operations.

In the third part called Graha Ganitadhyaya (Graha = planet), he develops astronomy
starting from the Surya Siddhanta. He explains the motions and revolutions of the
planets and changes in the longitudes of sun, making it continuous and uniform over
the smallest intervals.

The Goladhyaya, the fourth part treats of circles and spheres.

Lilavati was translated in to Persian by Abul Fazl Faizy for the Moghul Emperor, Akbar.
After Akbar’s times a translation of Bijganit was made by Atta-ulla-Rushdee.
Bhaskar was the last bulwark of Indian intellectualism. As a matter of historical fact, an
all round decline and decay had already set in after Gupta period beginning from V
century AD. The Jainism and Buddhism also did little to light up the intellectual scene.

Astronomy : A number of references in Rig veda show that the Aryans were familiar with
the constellations of stars, their relationship with cycles of seasons and season related
religious activities, and also the planets and their movements. Atharva Veda also
contains mention of celestial bodies and phenomena. It indicates possibility that when,
where ever they came from, they already possessed such a knowledge. Their knowledge
of astronomical sciences was further considerably developed in India between the
period 600 BC and 400 AD which was a period of all round expansion in intellectual
pursuits.

The Rig veda mentions a year of 12 months or 360 days. The Atharvaveda further
mentions an intercalary thirteenth month of 30 days in every 5 year cycle (called ‘yug’ of
1830 days), to compensate for the balance of 6 days every year. It also describes
eclipses of the sun and the moon. Of course, it does associate it with the myth that the
eclipse is caused due to the devouring of the sun and the moon by the demon Rahu.

The sage Garga has enumerated constellations (Nakshatras) along the ecliptic (the path
of sun, moon and planets around the earth). The Atharva veda has listed 28
constellations, whereas the Yajur veda mentions the number as 27. But this is not out of
ignorance or confusion. In fact these constellations have been identified as markers of
the divisions of the 3600 ecliptic. Therefore the difference in numbers is a matter of
view.

Jyotisha Vedanga : A considerable body of astronomical knowledge was compiled in a

systematic manner in a treatise (Jyotish Vedanga) by a scholar, Lagadha in 900 BC.
Before him there has been no separate text on astronomy. Jyotish Vedanga seems to
have been revised in about beginning of the Christian era. References and data in the
text indicate that it might have been composed in the Kashmir valley. The knowledge of
astronomy dealt with the mathematical aspect only. The principles enunciated and the
information contained in it, are precise and concise, though at times obscure. This was
basically related to the cycles and division of time and season and to the performance
of religious rituals, i.e., Yagyan. This also was necessary for the correct interpretation of
the Vedic text.

Lagadha divides the ecliptic into 27 equal parts of 13.200 each and identifies a
prominent Constellation (Nakshatra) residing in it. He fixes the position of the sun,
moon and planets with reference to these constellations.
It may be noted that the ancient Babylonians also had identified the prominent
constellations along the ecliptic or the Zodiac, as it is known in the system of 12
divisions. More over, the names given to the constellations by them continue to be
recognized in all the civilizations. Further, the system of using them as ‘mile posts’ in the
journey of planets has also been accepted through out.

He counted the day from one sun rise to the next sun rise, which is known as the ‘savan’
day (civil day). A day was made up of 30 muhurta, where one muhurta was of 22 nadikas
and one nadika was equal to 10 1/20 Kalas. One civil (savan) day consisted of 603
Kalas.

On this basis a solar year (interval between the sun coming to the same position) is 366
days. However, for civil purposes the year has been divided into 12 months of 30 days
each. Each month has been given a name related to the corresponding constellation in
the zodiac. He mentions the system of synchronization of civil years with astronomical
year introducing one extra month on five yearly basis (called a Yug of 1830 days). The 12
months were grouped into six seasons of 2 months each, the duration in which the sun
passes through 4 and a half constellation. The days of the start and end of seasons had
been indicated. One cycle of the moon comprised 29c29 32/62 days. The solar and the
lunar days / months were correlated by prescribing measurement on the basis of
progress in angular distance between the sun and the moon. This provision was not
conceived in any other system.

One very obvious implication of the knowledge compiled in Jyotish Vedanga of Lagadha
is that the author must be having with him data collected over a few centuries before
900 BC, when Lagadha lived and composed the first treatise on the subject.

During those days time was measured by using clepsydra (water clock).

Prominent names after the Christian Era are recounted below :

1. Arya Bhatta : (c. 476 AD - xx ) Aryabhatiya

2. Srisena (before 500 AD) Romaka Siddhanta

3. Varahamihira (499 – 587 AD) a) Pancha Siddhanta - Astronomy – Paulisa, Romaka,

Vashishta, Surya, Paitamaha b) Jatak, Vrihad Yatra & Vrihad Patal, Vrihad Samhita
(vriksha Ayurveda)

4. Brahmagupta (598 - xx AD) - Brhmasphuta Siddhanta, Karana Khnda Khadyaka(665),

5. Bhattotpala – Commentator of Varahamihira 968 AD

6. Bhaskara (1114) Siddhanta Shiromani (1150), Karana Kautuhala (1183-84)

Astronomy : About 400 AD great impetus was received by Indian astronomical studies.
It is sometimes attributed to Gk influence. Indian literature acknowledges it.
Astronomical treatises by the name of Siddhanta (e.g., Surya Siddhanta, Romak
Sidhanta, Paulisa sidhanta) show Gk influence in methods of calculation through
algebraic procedures (albeit modified and developed). Some of the terminology was
also coined after Greeks. But certain scholars while admitting contacts with Greece, do
not accept any significant contribution by them to the mass of Indian astronomy or
mathematics.

In the fifth cent AD, Arya Bhatta (476 – 500 AD) was the first Indian to contradict the Geo
centric concept of universe. He was born at Kusumpura (later Patliputra and Patna). This
was the time of exceptional surge of all round excellence, during the reign of Guptas
(335 – 455 AD), and has been called the Golden Age. His treatise, Aryabhatia, is an
outstanding work on Astronomy. This book condenses the knowledge available till then,
and adds his own observations and modifications. In this compact treatise are given
only the distinctive features of the system propagated by him.

He declared that earth was a sphere rotating on its axis and going round the sun. He
refuted the myth of Rahu causing eclipse. He also pointed out that Moon was
essentially dark, but was illuminated by sun. He described clearly the phenomena of
solstices and equinoxes.

As a mathematician he developed the theory of epicycle, which is used to determine

the motion of planet, and which is a part of calculus. He is the earliest Hindu author to
have developed algebra. He has described a method for the solution of intermediate
equations of first degree. He has described what is known as Pythagorean Theorem. He
has made considerable contribution in the field of geometry. He obtained the value of (
as 3.1416 which is correct to fourth place of decimal. He has given a method for the
calculation of dimensions of shadow of an object placed in path of light. This has
application in calculating eclipses.

His knowledge of Algebra was much ahead of many mathematicians and great
algebraists of Europe. He was the first to work out the solution of equations involving
several unknowns and intermediate equations. His influence greatly helped the
development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world. Unfortunately
Aryabhatta’s brilliance made some other talented scholars, like Brahmagupta jealous of
him. It was only out of his blind intolerance that he attacked Aryabhatta’s views
vehemently, specially that the earth moved around the sun and also rotated on its axis.

Aryabhatta has extensively made use of the interesting system described by the Vedic
phoneticians of expressing numbers by means of syllables. He comes out as the most
original scientific innovator in ancient India.

It may be mentioned that Aristarchus (310 – 230 BC), a Greek astronomer at Alexandria
had propounded the thesis that the spherical earth rotated on its axis daily and moved
around the stationary sun in a circle once a year. He also mentioned that the eclipses
were caused by the shadows of either moon or the earth. But his helio-centric view was
ignored by the Greeks who continued faith in geocentric view, which had the support of
Aristotle.

Persistence of the erroneous Geo-centric view was caused by reverential faith in

Aristotle, then by Brahmagupta’s advocacy (in 628 AD) and later Christian theology also
subscribed to the geo-centric view. (Aristarchus / Aryabhatta) This view was challenged
during Renaissance by Nicolaus Copernicus of Poland (1473-1543) who advocated the
helio-centric view.

However, later in VI century AD, two very brilliant astronomers, viz.,Varahamihira (of
Pancha Siddhanta) and Brahmagupta (of Brahmasphuta Siddhanta) unfortunately took
to vehemently attacking the Arya Bhatta’s geo-centric thesis.

Varahamihira : He was born in 499 AD at Ujjayini. He died in 587 AD. The volume of his
work in Astronomy and Astrology is large. His works consist of Pancha Siddhanta,
Jataka, Vrihada Yatra and Vrihad Patala (Vrihad Samhita). In the Vrihada Samhita he has
included a chapter on Vriksha Ayurveda. He is the first scholar to have dealt with
Astrology, the predictive part, so seriously. A part of his work has been lost. But much
knowledge about them has been gathered from his commentators, or from the
references in other works. In his Pancha Siddhanta he has given a critical review of the
five Siddhantas composed before his times. They are, Paulisa, Romaka, Vashishta,
Surya and Paitamaha Siddhantas. Out of these four books are no more available in
original. Only Surya Siddhanta has survived.

From the list of the topics recommended by him to be studied by the astronomers, it
would appear that his range of knowledge was vast. While revising the earlier works, he
has also applied the doctrines of Aryabhatta. But he has outright rejected Aryabhatta’s
helio-centric thesis. In fact he had a good knowledge of the works of Greeks,
particularly those at Alexandria. They all, except for Aristarchus stood by the geo-centric
theory, believing earth to be stationary. He was familiar with the spherical shape of the
earth and its gravitational pull. He has frequently used Greek terminology.
Srisena : Srisena’s name is traditionally associated with Romaka Siddhanta, though his
authorship has been questioned many a time. This book forms part of Pancha
Siddhanta of Vrahamiira, but the original book has been lost. It is believed to have been
composed before 500 AD. Varahamihira speaks approvingly of this book. It has drawn
extensively from the Greek astronomy. Interestingly, the reference point taken for his
calculations is the meridian of Alexandria (Yavanpura). Again the beginning of day has
been reckoned from sun set, and from the meridian of Alexandria. Thus it stands as an
example of exchange of knowledge between these two centers of learning, and of the
Greek influence. He has also adopted some procedures for calculations from
Aryabhatta. Some later scholars like Brhmagupta and Al Beruni have condemned
Srisena.

Srisena arrived at the value of a solar year which would calculate to 365 days, 5 hours,
55 minutes and 12 seconds. But his method of calculation was very complicated. This
was near about 500 AD. It is to be noted that the current standard length of a solar year
is 365 days, 5 hours, 59 minutes, 46 seconds. Probably the first attempt at determining
the exact duration of a solar year was made by a Babylonian, Nebu ri mannu, in about
500 BC. This value was 365 days, 6 hours, 15 minutes, 41 seconds.

Brhmagupta : (598 AD) he is author of two books, Brhma Sphut Siddhanta (628 AD) and
Karan Khanda Khadyaka (665 AD). He was born near Multan, after the decline of
Guptas, under the reign of Vyaghra Mukha of Chapa. Some scholars claim that his
Brhma Sphut Siddhanta is essentially a revised, updated and enlarged version of the
much earlier outdated work, Paitamaha Siddhanta, which has been a subject matter of
Arya Bhatta’s Panch Siddhanta. He has made it a valuable historical record by including
his own views on algebra, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. He has also made a
comparison with earlier scholars, and information contained in Puranas (which in some
cases he found to be unfounded).

He has given valuable knowledge on the astronomical system, calculations,

phenomena, shape of the earth and the heavens, and earths gravitational force. In this
he could not help but advance Aryabhatta’s views. But it seems that it was out of sheer
jealous and haughty intolerance that he perversely denounced Aryabhatta’s helio-
centric and earth’s rotational view.

Brahmagupta’s landmark contribution, however, is his expostulation on the functions

and operations of ‘zero’ (shunya). He stated that zero subtracted from a negative or
positive quantity or from zero would yield an (unaltered) negative or positive quantity or
a zero respectively. He said that any quantity multiplied or divided by a zero would
provide a ‘zero’. His above conclusions, with one exception remain universally accepted
key in all the mathematical and scientific operations. But he had erred in the last of the
above quoted cases. In fact, any quantity, negative or positive, divided by zero may be
any indeterminate quantity, or more simply stated, an Infinity (  ).

It may be mentioned here that the place valued numeral system invented by India is to
day the very foundation of all scientific work in the world, and Indians should be proud
of it.

It would be realized that Brhmagupta’s basically significant contribution is in the field of

algebra. Most of the Astronomers in India excelled in mathematics. Here again,
ironically he was obliged to develop further Aryabhatta’s work. But the skill with which
he applied algebra to astronomical problems, is unprecedented and in this he remains
unexcelled. This step facilitated future astronomers also to achieve perfection. He had
also a firm grip on arithmetic. But in geometry he was not very proficient.

His impact on the Arabian astronomy and mathematics is deep. Aryabhatta’s works had
already reached the Arab world. Now knowledge of Brahmagupta reached the Arabs in
771 AD through an Indian scholar visiting Baghdad, and helped them in casting
Astronomical tables and in designing Islamic Lunar calendar. But at the same time Al
Beruni was aware of the faults of Brahmagupta.

Bhaskar : Born in 1114 AD at Vijjadavida in the present day Maharashtra state, belonged
to a family of eminent mathematicians and astronomers, including his father, son and
grandson. His most important contribution is his huge work Siddhanta Shiromani in four
parts, first of which dedicated to his daughter is named Pati Ganit or Lilavati. His other
work is Karana Kautuhal.

He has made his work comprehensive by compiling all the earlier works till his times,
and then refining and developing it further.

His brilliant knowledge in the field of Mathematics, particularly Algebra, has been
treated in the section on Mathematics.

Medicine : Another field in which the contribution of India has been outstanding, is
Medicine, known as Ayurveda. It is a part of Atharva Veda. Its origin is attributed to the
God Brahma who expounded it to Prajapati, who in his turn handed it down to the twins,
Ashwini Kumars. The pioneer of medicine for thehumanity is said to be Dhanvantri.
Famous names among ancient Indian physicians are those of Charaka (controversial,
but likely in II century BC), Susruta, Bhela (uncertain), Vagbhatta (VII century AD) ,
Madhavakar (IX or X century AD), Dalhan X century AD), Chakrapandit (XI century AD),
Vrinda (about 1000 AD), Nagarjun (VII & IX century BC), Sharangdhara (XII century AD),
Bhava Misra (livingin 1550 AD) and Jeevaka (V & VI century BC).

The famous treatises are, Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Bhela Samita, Nav Nitaka
(known asBower Manuscript), Ashtanga Sangraha. Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita, Rug
Vinishchaya, Siddha Yoga, Chikitsa Sar Samgraha, Ras Ratnakar,Kakshaput Tantra,
Arogya Manjari, Sharagdhar Samhita, Sharangdhar Paddati, Bhavaprakash,

The Ayurvedic knowledge in India had always been much advanced than the medicine
elsewhere in contemporary civilizations. Yet there had been certain unavoidable errors
and deficiencies. The Ancients covered a wide field, such as the surgery, anatomy,
embryology, physiology, causation of diseases, diagnosis,prognosis,treatment etc.
there are a few material medica also, chiefly narrating the vegetable products, herbs
etc., but they also mentioned medicines from biological sources, and metals.

Susruta Samhita was translated in Arabic before the end of VII century AD.

5.00 The Arabs

It is very interesting to note that as the Greco – Roman knowledge and science was
headed to wards oblivion, and Indian intellectual might was being eclipsed, a new
center of sciences and learning was emerging in the Arab world. This started tentatively
around 750 AD, reached its acme by about 900 AD and exhausted itself around 1100
AD. It was a curious phenomenon. The edifice of Arab learning and sciences was
founded upon material annexed from earlier renowned centers of learning in Greece,
Rome and India by wondering Arabs mostly through the reconstructive toil of foreign
scholars. No doubt, there arose indigenous talent also to refine and reinforce it,
sufficient to give it the name of Arab and pass it on to the west. Numerals and concept
Zero, decimal system, algebraic procedures, all originating in India, were passed on to
west with their stamp. The same is true in many of the areas of astronomy and
medicine.

The opulence of Arabian courts is legendry, and the richness of its knowledge in science
of medicine, mathematics and astronomy is famed. In fact in its turn these had a great
impact upon the western world. But when reference is made to Arabian might and
intellect, it geographically embraces territories of Iraq and Persia (Iran). Politically at one
time or the other, the Arabs dominated countries from Asia Minor up to India on one
side and on the other, Egypt, Italy, Spain and even touched France. This followed the
disintegration of Roman Empire. Racially they were Semites, excluding the Jews. Other
nomadic and barbarous tribes like the Bedouines were peripheral. Significantly their
united might emerged after the advent of the Prophet Mohammad and his Islam.

The Islamic conquests had started after the year 622 AD when the Prophet (born 570
AD) had moved from Mecca to Medina. He returned to Mecca in 630 AD. After the death
of the Prophet in 632 AD, under the Caliphs, their burning religious fervour to establish
Islam (founded 610 AD), drove them to over run country after country. Ummayyad
Dynasty (661 – 749) at Damascus (in Syria) boasted of great wealth and luxury. They
were followed by the Abbasids in 750 AD, who shifted the capital to Baghdad (in Iraq).
They were great intellectuals.

In the beginning where ever they went they destroyed the art, culture and knowledge of
the infidels. But gradually they could not help being impressed by the brilliant
achievements of the countries they came in contact, specially Greco – Roman and also
Egyptian. Therefore, during their expeditions they hunted for books and manuscripts
also. These were got translated into Syriac and Arabic. By 900 AD, Arab courts had
become a great store house of learning. This process was greatly encouraged by the
Caliphs Al Mansur (754 - ) and Al Mamun (813-833 AD). The latter established at
Baghdad an Academy by the name of House of Wisdom. This had a library and an
Observatory. Another famous Observatory was established by Ulug Beg

Golden Age of Arabian Science was from 900 - 1100. All intellectual work was in
Arabic,but was mostly produced by Syrians, Persians, Jews (with Arabic names). Many
Indian scholars were also there. Caravan route carrying traders and pilgrims passed
through Persia, Tashkent and Samarkand. Influences from all over these countries also
poured in. Arabs learned from Greece, Rome, Egypt, Persia, India and China. Their
genius essentially lay in synthesizing and integrating the knowledge annexed from all
round.

Medicine : Their first interest was in Medicine. There was from early VI century a
Christian Centre of learning and Hospital at Jundishapur in Persia. Christian physicians
attended the families of Caliphs. Harun al Rashid founded a Hospital in Baghdad
modeled after Junadishpur hospital. There is an exact and detailed record of another 34
hospitals. Medical science was developed further through the experiences of Arab
physicians.

Important physicians were, Rahazes (865 – 925) – Abu Bekr Mohammad al Zakkaria, ar
Razi. Avicenna (980-1037) - Abu Ali Hussain Abdullah ibn Sina and Ibn an Nafis (1210 –
1288).
Rhazes founded a big Hospital at Baghdad. He composed more than 100 works on
different subjects 9including philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and alchemy) His
monograph (treatise) On Small pox andMeasels became famous. He is famous for
compiling a huge Encyclopedia of Medicine. Popularly known al Hawi. (latin name
Continens. It is a posthumous work. It is an elaboration of all knowledge from Greece,
Arabia and India, with his observations.

Avicenna became famous by the time he was 18. at 31 he had completed an

Encyclopedia in 20 Volumes. His most imp work is Cannon of Medicine,in 5 sections.
Till 17 th century it was used as text book in the west. He wrote Comprehensive Book of
Medical Science and Book on Opthalmology and a commentary on Cannons of Ibn
Sina. He wrote commentaries on all the works of Hippocrates. He believed his works
would last for ten thousand years. His description on the circulation of blood and
anatomy of heart and lungs was a significant advance on Galen.

Barmecide family of Indian physicians occupied an important place in Arab. Manaka

was another important Indian Physician in Arab. Another Indian physician in Arab
contemporary of Manaka was Ibn Dhan.

Many of the Indian treatises were translated in to Arabic and Persian. Susruta Samhita
was translated in Arabic before the end of VII century AD under the name Kitabshaw –
shoon-a –Hindi or Kitabi – i – Susrud. There generally used to be a separate chapter on
Indian medicines even in the Arabic works of medicine.

Alchemy : An Arab Physician who had become famous earlier in later half of eighth
century was Al Jabir. He was the ‘father of alchemy’. His interest was specially directed
to finding an “Elixir of Life”, which could also be a panacea to cure all diseases and
make a man lead a youthful life for ever. In fact there were several scholars in the quest
of a potion giving eternal life and a formula to transmute baser metals into gold.
Needless to point out both the pursuits were futile. But these pursuits indirectly yielded
useful knowledge in chemistry and metallurgy. They learnt to separate antimony and
arsenic from their natural sulphides, make steel, made sulphuric and nitric acids, and
acetic acid, developed processes to dye cloth and leather.

Incidentally both these objectives had been a preoccupation of quite a few scholars of
the west also.

Physics : it has been noted above that a physician by the name of Ibn an Nafis had
written a Book on Opthalmology. A predecessor of his, Ibn al Haithan (965-1020), also
known as Alhazan. He had given a detailed account of the anatomy and the function of
human eye. He contradicted the view of Euclid and asserted that the rays of light
emanated from the object seen and not from the eye. His special contribution is a Book
on Optics, where he has enunciated the laws of reflection and refraction. He had
studied reflection from spherical and parabolic mirrors. He was first to prove
experimentally that the ratio between the angle of incidence and angle of reflection is
not constant. He was also the first to record the magnifying power of segment of glass,
i.e., a lens and possible uses. He went on to devise an apparatus to study refraction.

The Arabs recognized the use of pendulum for keeping a measure of time in the absence
of sun. they systematically tabulated specific gravities of several known metals.

Mathematics : The Arab mathematicians benefited from the Indian mathematicians as

well as the Greek and other scholars. Omar Khayyam of Naishapur was also a well
known mathematician. The well known book on Algebra, Al Khwarizmi (82 AD) draws
liberally on Indian sources.

6.00 The Dark Age, The Middle Ages & The Renaissaince

During the period roughly about VI and VII century AD, there appeared world over a a
kind of general decline and decadence of human civilisations. In India, the factors of
political chaos and social tensions after the Guptas, the influence of Buddhism,
Jainism, Tantricism and the Bhakti movements, in the west disintegration of the power
of Rome, anti - intellectualism generated by the Christian faith, devastation caused by
Muslim invasions, resulted in a setback to the cultural and scientific life. This period is
described as a Dark Age. Not that the human intellect and the spirit of enquiry had
become completely sterile, but there was definitely a certain subdued life. Though in
course of time, intellectual life was gaining strength among the ecclesiastical environs,
but only as much as was not running counter to theology.

But the indirect effect of these things was building up a center of refuge for the wisdom
and wealth, both from the west and the east, in the Arab world. This intellectual activity
flourished with some vigour up to about XI century.

The intensified tension between the Christianity and Islam, represented by the crusades
and the jehads was having a two way effect. The exposure of Arabs to the wisdom and
wealth of the west and the east gave rise to what is known as the Arabian science. This
in its turn acted as a conduit for transfer of wisdom of east to the west. This had a very
far reaching effect upon the course of science of medicine, mathematics and
astronomy in particular. In a way this made it possible for the west to achieve all the
progress afterwards. And this will remain the foundation for ever as has been described
in the fore going parts of this Unit.

The period between 1000 AD and 1400 may be considered the middle ages, because it
was during this period that the forces of future flowering of genius were gaining ground.
Trade and commerce was flourishing. New technologies of the use of power of water
and wind were being developed. The eastern contacts were acting as a stimulus.
Centres of learning outside the pale of religion were coming up as famous Universities
of England, and other countries of Europe. To some extent political turmoils also had
abated. Minds tended no more to look heavenward, but were discovering the beauty of
the earth. The final release of secular creative energies came from the Renaissance.
This is the event when in 1453 AD Constentinople fell to Ottoman Turks and their
increasing influence made Italy the center where all the ancient intellectual wealth was
gathering and the new intellectualism was taking birth.. It was from there that these
influences flooded the whole of Europe. Two names which outshine a multitude of
names are those of the multifaceted genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and of the
scholar coming from Poland, Nicoloas Copernicus (1473-1543). Simultaneous to it was
the increasing navigational power and the great voyage of Columbus. This was a source
of discovery of new lands and development of enriching trade and commerce.
Ultimately the Renaissance provided the platform to launch man to his journey to the
modern world.

Copernicus in his revolutionary treatise (1543) De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium

finally made the universe helio-centric and described the three way motion of the earth.
Another rebel was Gianardo Bruno (1548-1600) who was burnt on stake for having
asserted that there were many solar systems in the infinite Universe. However, the
Danish Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) again insisted on returning the earth to a stationary
position. But his brilliance consisted in compiling a large volume of very accurate data
on stars’ movements. But his pupil Johannes Kepler (1571-1620), a German, returned to
helio-centric world and enunciated three famous laws of planetary motion, which
helped Newton in his discoveries. Galilee Galileo (1564-1642) made very fruitful use of
telescope and made many important discoveries to give modern shape to Astronomy.
He used pendulum to measure time. He also has to his credit the discoveries
concerning gravitation. However, Issac Newton (1642-1727), author of the famous work
Principia, gave the three laws of Motion, Law of Gravitation, theories of light and optics.
In the field of astronomy and cosmology, names of Herschel (1738-1822), Fred Hoyle
(b.1915) and Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944) also occupy key position.

During the XVII, XVIII and XIX centuries, scores of scientists in every conceivable field,
left amazing wealth of knowledge. In the field of physics important discoveries and
inventions were made concerning steam power, atmospheric and air pressure, vacuum,
light and optics, relativity, nature of heat, electricity and magnetism, electro-magnetic
waves, and wireless. Advancements in the field of Chemistry, Biology, medicine and
Geology have also been epochal.

These are not being discussed here because such information is easily available.

7.00 Comprehension Test

1. Write a note on the importance of history of science and technology for a Science
Journalist.

2. Give brief sketch of the different civilizations in the olden times, mentioning
approximate periods.

3. What were the main fields of knowledge which were pursued in all the civilizations ?
Add brief notes also.

4. What according to the ancients in different places, was the shape and nature of the
universe ?

5. What is the importance of language and a script ? What forms of script were
developed in different civilizations ?

6. Write a note on the use of numerals in various civilizations ?

7. What are the striking features of Greek civilization ?

8. Write a note on Arab science and learning.

9. What is the meaning of Dark Ages ?

10. Briefly describe the rise of modern science.

1.00 Objectives

The instant Module will dwell upon the following topics

• Communication : Meanings and definition

• Communication : Functions

• Communication : Procedures and forms

• Communication : Elements and effect

• Communication : Forms

• Communication : History

1.10 Preface

Communication is an essential factor in life. It is indispensable for a man as air and light
are. An infant establishes communication with his parents through cries. An adult
communicates through articulated language. The deaf and dumb exchange their ideas
through sign language. It is impossible to contemplate social life in the absence of
communication.

1.20 Communication : meanings and definition

Etymologically the word ‘communication’ has been derived from the Latin word
‘communis’ or ‘communico’. This means ‘common participatory information and its
transmission’. In this context, view of Professor Wilbur Shram is noteworthy that in the
‘communication’ function is implied establishment of ‘communion’ with a ‘subject’ or a
group of individuals. According to A.V. Shanmugam communication is sharing of
knowledge, experience, emotions, thoughts or even new existential changes. This
process of sharing is called the communication function. Another definition of
communication is ‘the transmission of information between the source and the
recipient. Man usually receives information through the medium of five senses, viz.,
hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, or tasting.

Keeping in view a number of different definitions a comprehensive definition of

communication can be conceived. This can be stated thus, ‘ Communication is the
interactive transmission of message, information, knowledge, thought or feelings
through meaningful signs, signals, or symbols, from one person to another individual or
to several individuals. Besides, some of the well known definitions of ‘communication’
are quoted below :

( 1 ) “Communication is the sum of all things one person does when he wants to create
understanding in the mind of another. Communication is a bridge of meaning. It
involves a systematic and continuous processs of telling, listening and understanding.”
Lotus. A..Allen

( 2 ) “In the most general sense we have communication whenever one system, a source
influences another destination, by manipulation of alternative signals which can be
transmitted over the channels connecting them” Charles E. Osgood.

As a matter of fact experiences are exchanged under communication. This process of

‘exchange’ can be accomplished either overtly or covertly. An objective is implied in the
transmission of a message. Thus a meaningful linkage is established between two
persons through the medium of communication. Normally communication is a
cognitive process in human society, wherein the needs are mutually exchanged.
1.30 Function of Communication

In order to comprehending the function of communication, it is essential to understand

the context. In common usage will be found the word ‘Mass’ prefixed to the word
‘communication’. ‘Mass communication’ signifies multiple point or broad front
transmission of message or information. In any social group the main functions of
communication can be enumerated in the following manner.

1. Socialisation - Communication is the basic vehicle or agent for the evolution of

society. This is the medium for the dissemination of knowledge. It enables an individual
to play his social role in his life effectively.

2. Motivator - Communication provides impulse to live the life. It helps an individual in

the pursuit of his personal goals and in developing social capabilities.

3. Information and knowledge - Communication receptively exposes an individual to the

dispersal of news, facts, messages, thoughts, reviews and to visual representations.

4. Education - Communication is the medium for the dispersal of intellectual activities

which induces intellectual development and character building. Education imparts
aesthetic complexion to an individual’s life.

5. Cultural development - Communication propagates cultural and artistic creations. It

helps the preservation of glorious traditions and rich heritage.

6. Recreation - Communication is the means of recreational activities, which give relief

from stresses, and which refresh the human spirit, and regenerates the mental
faculties. It helps create an agreeable ambience through music, drama, dance, or other
artistic activities by making use of signs, symbols, sounds and images.
7. Public relations and liaison - Communication and communication media are
accessory for propaganda and contact, which create fruitful linkages between
governments, establishments, institutions and individuals.

8. Sales and publicity - Communication as the vehicle of publicity plays an active role in
dissemination of information on new consumer products, their value, and their
reliability.

1.40 Responses and Formats of Communication

Communication is the participating agent in all the change processes, whether in

knowledge, experience, emotions, and even in existence. This active involvement is in
fact the communication process. Several elements compose the communication
process. There are three main constituents, viz., the Communicator, the Message, and
the Receiver.

The person or the source which propagates the message is known as the
Communicator or the Transmitter. The information or the thought that is transmitted or
exchanged is called the Message. Finally the terminal which receives the message is
known as the Receiver, or the Audience, or the Decoder. The communication process
can be graphically represented by linking these three elements, as shown below.

Figure 1

Not with standing these three elements, two more factors are needed to complete the
process of communication. These are the Medium for transmission and the response or
reaction to it. Now the graphic representation including the five constituents will be as
depicted below.
Figure 2

Further incorporating Feed Back factor in the reciprocall yresponsive process of

communication chain, the graphic representation would be as given hereunder.

Figure 3

This graphics above illustrate that the Communication is a reciprocal exchange. The
roles of Communicator and the Receiver are inter changeable. In fact Communication is
a two way interactive process between individuals. This can also be stated that
Communication is that transmission of message, thought or feelings which is
interactive and which evokes reaction from the Receiver.

1.50 Elements of Communication

The role of the constituent elements is important in making the Communication

process effective and meaningful. Towards this effectvity, the contribution of all the
elements is more or less equally important. It is to be noted that there are five main
elements included in the process as given below.

• Communicator

• Message
 • Medium

• Receiver

• Feed back

In order that the Communication be fully successful, there will be detected even ten
elements as enumerated below.

• Communicator or Source

• Selected Information

• Message

• Communication channel

• Communication media

• Audience or Receiver

• Encoding

• Decoding

• Destination

• Feed back

1.60 Modes of Communication

The Communication is executed between two terminals, viz., the Communicator and
the Receiver. The activity of Communication can be put in four main classes as based
on the relation between the two ends.
1. Intra personal communication
2. Inter personal communication
3. Group communication
4. Mass communication

Intra personal communication - In this kind of communication the communicator and

the receiver are one and the same person. In fact it can be viewed as a psychological
process centred around own self. This communication is only at the mental level, where
a person achieves continuous thought modifications through an internalized dialogue
and feed back. For example sake, consider a person suggesting to self that he would go
to pictures the next day. But the thought is countered that the next day it is more
important to write an article. In the result of this mental question - answer, he decides to
cancel the visit to pictures. This whole process is ‘intra personal communication’.
Gurmeet Man Singh in his book ‘The story of communication’ says that the best
example of intra personal communication is man’s prayer to, or communion with God or
any super natural power.

Inter personal communication - When the exchange of thoughts, ideas, views, feelings
is direct between two individuals it is known as Inter-personal Communication.
According to the definition given by Jean Paul Far Andre in his book Colour and undate
Communication Inter-personal communication, is that communication where the
message given out by a person is directly received by another. He holds that even a
small group of recipients can act as a unit Receiver, because it can manifest immediacy
of response.

Inter-personal communication takes place face to face. Because it is between two

individuals only, it has a larger scope of options of time, place and means.

Here message can be communicated through touch, taste, sound, smile and other
facial expressions and gestures.

In the present day inter-personal communication is no more subject to physical

presence. Even telephonic conversation is within the ambit of inter-personal
communication, the communicator and the receiver are physically apart. This can also
include two, or even more than two persons, in small groups. This is marked with instant
feed back and is two way interactive. The Receiver expresses his reaction immediately,
upon which the communicator can continue the chain.

This class of inter-personal communication may entail four kind of probable results.
One, the Receiver may be in full agreement with the message received. Or two, he may
partially agree or partially disagree with it, Still, the Receiver may fail to comprehend the
message. The reaction of the Receiver could be expressed by any of the senses of the
Receiver, but in any case the reactive feed back is instant. According to the book Inter-
personal communication of the author D Veto Joseph A. there are five components of
inter-personal communication, viz., ( 1 ) Source ( 2 ) Message ( 3 ) Audience ( 4 )
Response ( 5 ) Feed back.

Figure 5

It has already been explained above that the Inter-personal communication is not
strictly restricted two individuals, but can also take place between small groups,
provided the groups are so small as to behave as a single unit. The essential parameter
is promptness of feed back and reaction. Such a situation is illustrated by panel
discussions or interchanges at the family dinner table. The graphic given below
illustrates this process.
In fact this class of inter-personal communication is much more effective than any
other type of inter-personal communication. We can manage to be as close to any
person as we may choose. Since basically it is emotional, it can be made effective by
infusing in it emotional colour. Inspite of message contents, it has strongest feed back
content. During any crisis, or disaster like violence, floods, earth quakes etc. the inter-
personal communication creates a conducive ambience.

Group Communication - As the term implies it is a group activity. This has always
remained the main source of social intercourse. It has social dimensions which
promote the harmonious corporate life. It creates a social ambience favourable to
collective decisions, and to collective action to confront natural disasters, and other
crisis situations affecting the society or the country.

1.70 Land marks in Communication

YEAR HISTORICAL EVENT

2000 BC Story telling by pre historic man through drawings/pantings

3500 BC Known Writing system developed by earliest Assyrians

1500-
First alphabets developed by Assyrians
1000 BC

59 BC Use of hand written News sheets by Romans

First AD Invention of paper in China

1045 AD Invention of moving types by Chinese Printer P Shing

Improvement in moving types by German blacksmith Johaness

1400 AD
Guttenberg
1500 AD Invention of Graphite pencil in England

1600 AD Launch of printed news sheet, ‘Corentos’,

1700 AD Invention of visual telegraph by French Engineer, Cloud Chappe

1811 AD Invention of steam printing press by German Printer, Fredrick Koing

Creation of first permanent photograph by French Physicist Joseph

1826 AD
Nippon Nipse

Development of an advanced photographic procedure by a French

1830 AD
photographer, Louis J.M. Degurre

1840 AD American painter Sequel F.B. Morse got patented Electric Telegraph

Discovery of Electro magnetism by British Physicist James Clark

1864 AD
Maxwell which became the basis of Wire less communication

Europe and America connected successfully by the first Trans Atlantic

1866 AD
cable telegraph service

1868 AD Three American inventors patented first practical Type writer

1877 AD Thomas Elva Edison invented first practical phonogram

1880 AD German physicist Henrich Hertz discovered Electro – magnetic waves

Ottomer Maglanther, a mechanic of German origin patented first lino

1884 AD
type printing press

1895 AD Guglimo Marconi, an Italian, developed radio telegraph

Transmission of voice on wire less by Reginald A Fasinden of Canadian

1906 AD
origin
 1907 AD L.D. Forest, an American patented an improved vacuum tube, Triode

1929 AD Zworikin of Russian origin demonstrated first electronic TV system

1936 AD First TV broadcast in the world by BBC

1947 AD Bell Telephone Laboratories invented Transistor

1947 AD British Engineer Dennis Gabor invented 3 D photography (Hologram)

1950 AD TV network started video tape recording of programmes

Eco – I became the first satellite to transmit back to earth the radio
1960 AD
messages received from the earth

1970 AD Several manufacturers developed VCR

1974 AD Transmission of Telegram for the first time by satellite

1980 AD Several firms started distribution of cellular mobile phones

1980 AD Several traders started selling FAX machines (Facsimile)

1.80 Comprehension Test

1. What is meant by Communication ? What is the role of communiction in

popularization of science ?

2. How many types of communication are there ? What is Group communication ? How
is it used ?

3. Write an essay on “Communication and Science” in about 1000 words.

1.00 Preface

To day we are already into the XXI century. But India is

beleaguered with a multitude of problems. Some of the bewildering problems
confronting the country are poverty, population, unemployment, ecological imbalance,
scarcity of food, lack of alternative energy sources, lack of agricultural and health
services and so on. In this era of globalisation distances between countries and regions
are shrinking and the whole world is being converted only into one country. All over, in
every sphere, whether industries, space, environment, health, energy, or agriculture,
there prevails an atmosphere of fierce competition and rivalry. At the same time the
reactionary forces like the superstitions, casteism are holding back this country from
realizing full potential of development. In the circumstances, emerges one big
imperative, that the science should fulfill the role historically associated with it. In view
of its wide ranging possibilities, science is considered a strong medium of progress and
development. Science can offer a new platform for meeting the economic, commercial
and social challenges.

1.10 Objectives

The science has many uses in life. Scientific methods are useful in probing the process
of social development, and on its basis analyse present day situations. The insights
acquired from this can help conceive situations, approaches and programmes which
may be conducive to new explorations, discoveries and changes. Many of the prevailing
notions, beliefs and views are the result of inadequate or incomplete knowledge and
logic. The basic objective of science is to initiate the logical thought process and a
critical mind. Hence, the key objectives of science can be stated thus :
 • Development of scientific temper

• Awareness about health

• A healthy outlook towards life

• Development of technologies which may promote positive development in all

the segments of society

• To encourage new researches and explorations

1.20 Necessity

The boundless possibilities informing the science is a strong reason for recommending
its importance. Science is expected, or should be expected to offer a new positive role
in the scenario where there is rampant jealousy, cut throat competition, and ever
increasing disparities among man and man. Some of the real life situations described
here will focus the necessity of science in life.

Iodine dependent deficiency has been officially widely

publicized. Use of non-iodised salt makes for Iodine deficient food, which leads to
goiter and cretinism. Therefore, the government has prohibited marketing of ordinary
salt. On the one hand manufacturers of ordinary salt are facing loss, and on the other
iodised salt is costlier. Further the manufacturers of iodised salt do not mix iodine in
salt, but they use a derivative of iodine, an iodate. This iodate lasts only for three
months. It is to be noted that the whole process of making the salt iodised, packing,
distribution, reaching the consumer, itself takes almost three months. More over, the
housewives store the unpacked salt in open containers. There is no concept of using the
salt as ‘table salt. The salt is put in the vegetables or pulses during cooking. By this time
the iodine content is destroyed. Finally it is the ordinary iodine-less salt that is eaten.
In certain areas of Purvanchal, like Maharajganj, Kushinagar etc., the water lacks iodine.
But there has been no survey to identify specifically the iodine deficient areas. It is only
in such areas that iodine supplement is needed and is useful. But the government
adopts a short cut and enforces sale of iodised salt universally. Consequently, instead
of ordinary salt people are unnecessarily forced to purchase costlier iodised salt. This
affects the business of many people. Still the common consumer has to take a salt
which has been rendered iodine less.

Similarly there is lot of propaganda recommending use of green vegetable. But our
practice is to wash the vegetable after it is cut. In cooking, it is boiled till it has become
dry. This all destroys the useful elements in the green vegetable. It is here that the
science should step in to carry the right information to the people, so that scientifically
sound practices are observed.

1.30 The meaning of science

There are many misleading notions about science among the common man. Therefore it
is essential to be clear about the nature of science. Ordinarily the impression about
science is that it is a body of hard to understand knowledge and facts. But such
knowledge and facts are built upon certain basic or common things or subjects. This
knowledge only seeks to define those basic things more clearly. Some people labour
under the belief that science is a study of plants or animals and birds or human
anatomy. Obviously such notions are unsound or superficial. Science in fact is a
method, a process, a system. Science is also a matter of temperament.

A person observes and perceives a thing through his

senses or through certain instruments. He further either collects information from the
available literature or from knowledgeable persons. He may also himself undertake
investigations and probing to uncover new knowledge. This knowledge is methodically
compiled. By this time he may arrive at a hypothesis. Further critical investigations,
analysis and tests may lead to a theory or even a scientific law. This is the specialized
domain of science and a scientist.

But science journalism, or science popularization does not make a scientist out of a
science journalist or out of every common man. All it aims at is inculcation and
promotion of a scientific temper, a scientific out look and a scientific attitude. It
depends on the use of such natural faculties as inquisitiveness, curiosity, observation,
testing knowledge and experimenting, rationality, logicality and enlightenment.

1.40 The way to science popularisation

Popularisation of science calls for persistent and focused emphasis on the

development of scientific outlook. Organization of a variety of activities or programmes
will be needed for the propagation of science. These programmes need be planned
specifically according to the interests and levels of different target audience. But these
programmes need have a scheme, a continuity and an orderliness. Otherwise,
possibilities of a meaningful and useful exercise remain dismal. More over, the nature of
the programmes should be such that they should offer the reader or the audience a
scope for thinking, understanding, raising doubts, and working out at a solution.

This would be a task cut out for the Science journalists. They can help publication of
science journals targeting readership of different age groups. The periodicals will be
specially useful because the scienctific information needs constant updating. Even the
existing news papers or magazines can bring out science columns or features. Other
activities can be science seminars, lecture series, organization of Yatras or Jatthas.
Various institutions and departments can be mobilized to organize poster sessions.
Publicity can be given to the outstanding achievements of the workers in different areas
of science. Meritorious workers can be honored and rewarded. Science clubs or
science associations can be organized at the level of primary, or intermediate, or Degree
colleges. Network programmes can be organized at the level of regions, states, or the
nation, by linking institution or individuals working different scientific fields. Leaf-lets,
posters or stickers can be used. Cartoon films can be made for the children and
documentaries for the adults. Scientific reviews can be made dwelling upon the
prevailing customs, or traditions or festivals. One very important job will be
identification of problems of specific segments of society and attempting scientific
solutions for them. This will not only help them, but it will also make them interested in
science. The most important thing is that there should be coordination and
understanding among all such activities. The activities and programmes should have a
continuity and linkage. There are a number of institutions and workers in the country
who can play an important role in this task. These need be catalogued and a directory
can be compiled.

1.50 Institutions or Organisations involved in scientific work and inS propagating

scientific knowledge

1. National Council for Science and Technology Communication New Delhi

2. National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources New Delhi
3. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi
4. Vigyan Sabha Bhopal
5. Marathi Vigyan Parishad Mumbai
6. Eklavya Bhopal
7. University Grants Commission New Delhi
8. Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany Lucknow
9. Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad Kerala
10. Indian Science Communication Society Lucknow
11. Lok Vigyan Sanghatna Pune
12. Delhi Science Forum Delhi
13. Lok Vigyan Parishad New Delhi
14. All India People’s Science Network New Delhi
15. Haryana Vigyan Manch Rohtak
16. Kanpur Science Society Kanpur
17. Students’ Science Society Shahjehanpur
18. Vigyan Parishad Allahabad
19. Indian Science Writers Association New Delhi
20. Paryavaran Shiksha Kendra (Centre for Environment Education) Ahmedabad
21. Bharatiya Prodyogiki Sansthan New Delhi
22. Vigyan Parishad Mahoba
23. Bharatiya Vigyan Sansthan Bengalore
24. Bharat Jan Vigyan Samity Delhi
25. Bharat Gyan – Vigyan Jattha Delhi
26. Vigyan Indira Nagar Lucknow

The above list is only illustrative. The trainees themselves can compile a list of
Institutions active in this field. This would in fact amount to their concrete contribution
to the popularization of science. Since there are infinite employment opportunities in
this field, this exercise can help them win recognition in this sphere.

1.60 Comprehension Test

1. What do you understand by science popularization. How can it benefit the nation and
the society ?

2. What job opportunities are there in science popularization ? What steps would you
take to achieve science popularization in your district ? Which local institutions and
individuals you would like to associate in this task, and why ?
Introduction

It is hard to come by science news in the pages of news

papers. In the circumstances it is still more difficult to come across any science news
specially targeting the children. News has its own definition. Similarly it is a moot
question as to what ‘science news’ is. Simply reporting about new discovery, invention,
satellites in the space, space crafts, and the like essentially is not science news. On
critically searching there will not be found dearth of material of which science news is
made. What lacks is the appropriate approach.

To declare that ‘this is an age of science’, has become too hackneyed in the context of
our country. There was a time when this essay could not be missed in Board
Examinations. The students used to prepare and mug it up. But the irony has been that
students merely kept on writing essays on science. They never grasped the meaning, the
spirit of science. Science never became a part of their mental outlook and living style.
Some of them at the most got involved in technological part and were bedazzled with its
glamour. Science and technology did influence the living modes, but it failed to touch
the spirit. In fact the essential thing is to make our outlook scientific.

Although admittedly the has been from the very beginning forward looking, yet when
there is no change in his way of life and thinking in keeping with the changing times and
circumstances, he becomes a traditionalist.

In his book ‘Prachin Bharat ke Mahan Vaigyanik’ the well known science writer, Gunakar
Mule has repeatedly pointed out that in olden times the scientific knowledge was very
much advanced. But there came a time when it suffered stagnation. It ceased to absorb
new ideas. From then onwards traditionalism took roots.

The biggest users of new scientific thought should be those children who are at present
undergoing their education, and who are going to enter the fray of life. There are two
routes for developing scientific out look. One is through the formal education and the
other, through informal education.
Talking about the utility of education in life, it is realized that except for language, even if
….. , and to some extent ordinary mathematics, there is nothing that could be found of
use in later life. A voluntary organization in M.P., ‘Eklavya’ during its operations has
found that in the educational programme being implemented by it in the whole of
Hoshangabad district and in some schools of other 13 districts, that by the time a
student passes out of eighth class, he must develop a scientific outlook which he could
useful in his tackling situations in his future life. Same kind of experiments have been
done in subjects other than science.

During the implementation of this educational programme, the Organisation felt the
need some formal literature besides the curriculum, which could help develop
scientific out look among the children. It was also found that what ever child literature
or magazines were available, they also missed this focus and interest. It was to make
this deficiency that the magazine ‘Cakmak’ was born.

As a matter fact ‘Chakmak’ is not a commonplace science

magazine for children, but it is a complete child magazine. It is making utmost effort to
inculcate scientific out look among children. But after all it a magazine brought out by a
voluntary organization, therefore it has its limitations.

But the news papers are not so handicapped. If not much, at least for four days in a
month they take the opportunity to address the child reader. The need is to make
maximum use of this opportunity. Almost every news paper runs a page or a column for
the children once a week. They can play an effective role through this page to develop
scientific temper among the children. In the context of science journalism the basic
priority should be accorded to focus on development of scientific out look among the
children.

To day the stuff of the child literature is only tales of Raja, Rani, Rajkumar or of Ghosts or
Jinns or Demons. Quite often this is didactic, giving moral preachings, like, ‘don’t tell a
lie’, ‘don’t steal’, and so on. But these are not going to be of use in real life. They learn
from the actual happenings around them. If they are equipped with a logical and
scientific aptitude, they can themselves analyse them and draw out conclusions and
lessons as to what is right and wrong. Children have an innate curiousity. If their
inquisitiveness is kept on encouraged, they will become more inquisitive. If their
curiousity is suppressed, they are bound to become dull and tame. Therefore, it of vital
importance that their critical faculties are reinforced and expanded.

On the weekly children page in the news papers, one column should be exclusively
devoted to science. Science news which may be of interest and use to children can be
given in this column. All those scientific news that may be of common interest to the
adult as well as the children, can also be included here.

It would be a useful idea and a great motivator, to reserve some space for the
publication of material authored by the children themselves. Apart from this priority
should be given to the news concerning some real life incident or happening. This will
encourage children to look at the surrounding life more closely and intently.

Columns can also be introduced to deal with the ‘question – answers’, replying to the
queries of the children. These questions can be suggested by the every day life of their
locality or of the school or college. Their involvement can be made more exciting for
them if the children themselves are invited to find solutions to the queries raised by the
child readers.

The magazine Chak-mak published by the M.P. NGO, ‘Eklavya’ has two very interesting
features. One is the column, ‘Kyon …. Kyon’ (Why …. Why), meant to examine the
commonly held beliefs or notions. The other is, ‘Sawali Ram’. The latter deals with
quesries sent by the child readers. In fact once an initiative is taken, the future course
will keep on opening up.

Tips for science writing for the children

Adults writing for the children, even it were just news reporting, face their own
difficulties. But if the tips like the given below are borne in mind, one can hope to
succeed.

1. Take the children as friends and address them as such. Get rid of your superiority
complex.
2. Keep in consideration the different backgrounds of the children. If there is much
diversity, focus on an average level.

3. keep in view a certain base line knowledge level of the children. Don’t treat them as
altogether blank.

4. Make a minimum use of technical jargon. Let the language be simple.

5. Don’t encourage them repeat and copy. Let there be some thing new every time.

6. Science does not present the ultimate truth. Science is the ceaseless quest after
truth.

Besides this there are a host of other ideas, which may be learnt by experience,
provided you begin with a scientific attitude.
1.00 Object of the Unit

In this age of specialization and expertise, there is emerging a distinct group of authors
and journalists who are engaged in science writing and journalism. This Unit deals with
certain guide lines, rules, regulations, laws and code of conduct related to them.

2.00 The central idea

The Science journalist is governed by the same rules and codes as a general category
journalist observes. In fact there are no separate rules for him. As far as it is known, no
country has framed specialized rules, regulations, laws or codes for the science
journalist.

3.00 Limitations

The information provided in this Unit on the various legal subjects are merely
introductory and illustrative in nature, even though attempt has been made to make it
comprehensive, updated and authentic. It would not be advisable to treat it as legally
authoritative. A student is advised to reinforce his knowledge by referring to the original
documents and sources.

4.00 Background

All the countries world over have laid down their press policies, framed rules,
regulations, laws and duties and established ethical traditions applicable to the working
journalists in general. But as yet necessity has not been recognised to treat science
journalists as a distinctly separate category and provide for them specially. Code of
conduct or professional ethics have been prescribed for the Journalists in India by the
All India Editors Conference, in the U.K., by the National Journalist Association, and in
the States by the American Society of News Editors and National and Pan American
Press Congress.

5.00 The modern scenario and the salient points

As has already been pointed out above the same set of rules and laws etc. are
applicable to the Science journalists as are applicable to the working areas,
performance, principles, procedures and practices, of the working journalists in
general. The all India organization of science writers an journalists, Indian Science
Writers Association, has perused and examined proceedings of different workshops
and seminars, and have compiled a tentative set of conduct guidelines. This is given
below.

1. Take pride in the name of your paper, magazine, or organization, and work spiritedly.
But don’t be arrogant and vain.

2. Stagnation or in action in a journalist is his professional death. Propagating stale

material, falling in a grove amounts to intellectual death.

3. Don’t miss an opportunity to grab a news. Attain versatility in the field of of

knowledge. Don’t fail in being innovative.

4. In the field of journalism, an offensive should be countered with offensive. Don’t be

shy of confrontation. For leading a smooth career, be prepared to put up a fight.

5. Be firm, but not obdurate. Adopt new ideas, and views, but don’t be fickle. Be broad
minded, but not …..

6. Extend the area of friends. The acquaintances should be accepted on the principle of
reciprocal respect. There are bound to be people with feelings of animosity, jealousy
and rivalry. You should carry on your work fearlessly and impartiality.

7. Authenticity of information an facts is crucial in science writings. In case of any

doubts, check and confirm your facts.

8. Ensure conformity with the IPR (Copy right act), patent laws, nuclear energy
information regulations, and all other acts and laws which relevant to Press.
9. If some disclosure has been made to you on the condition of anonymity, respect the
confidence.

10. Attend promptly to the views and complaints of the readers and the audience. Make
all possible amends. Correction of lapses, or publication of contradiction does not
detract the reputation of a journalist.

11. In virtue of his professional work, a science journalist is likely come in c contact of
high placed and influential persons. But these contacts should not be exploited for
selfish and personal gains.

12. Independent thoughts / views, self respect, impartiality, and faculty of

discrimination, are the essential qualities for a science journalist.

13. A science journalist should own up the responsibility for the scientific news or
information published, or exhibited, disseminated. He should also respect
confidentiality.

14. A science journalist should always be ready to disseminate new information which
may advance the public good. He should always be ready to purvey information of
topical interest.

15. Indigenous science journalism, specially in Hindi, is still in its infancy. In the interest
of its rapid development, it is necessary make new and bold experiments.

16. A science journalist has a duty in public interest to collect and disseminate
complete and correct information in case of any technology disaster or an epidemic.
This is besides his duty to communicate commonly useful information concerning every
day life.

17. A science journalist should present, besides high profile and elitist science
information, knowledge of interest to a man in the street or in the fields.

18. A consensus has been built at the international level that the positive, constructive
and welfarist aspects of science and technology should be projected with greater
emphasis. The negative and destructive aspects of science should not be
sensationalized.

19. The science writers already established in the field should take it as their to guide,
encourage and promote the up coming and fledgling writers. There are only a handful of
science writers in India, more particularly in Hindi or other vernacular press. They
should cooperate with and support each other instead of indulging in leg pulling. In fact
the field of science journalism is so vast that emergence of new writers is not likely to
affect the prospects of the old established writers. The introduction of new writers and
their new ideas, will on the other hand, infuse new life and vigour in the field of science
journalism in India.

20. It is essential for a science journalist to be an avid reader. He should have studied
the basic literature. But at the same time it is very important for him to read
international science journals, proceedings and reports. Not only that he commit all the
information to his memory, he should make notes for future reference.

21. One should not make use of material already published or reproduce it verbatim. It
amounts to plagiarism. It may be violation of IPR. Where ever unavoidable, it is better to
report it in one’s own words. In any case, one is the honour bound to acknowledge the
source.

6.00 Future directions and Prospects

The science journalism has already made a mark for itself which has won media’s
recognition also. Now the need is for a national consensus on the professional duties
and code of conduct and ethics for the science journalists. It will lead to an established
code of conduct, acceptable to government and non government organizations, and to
the international bodies of science journalists.

7.00 Comprehension Test

1. Write a note on duties and code conduct of Science journalists.

2. Is it necessary to frame a different Code of Conduct for the Science journalists ? OR

Should the common Code of conduct be accepted for the Journalists in general and the
Science Journalists ?
 1.00 Rules and Laws related to Science Journalism

Basically, every citizen is governed by the rules and laws in

accordance with the Constitution and socially accepted customs of his country. It has
been observed that quite often the science journalists hold themselves aloof from the
main stream journalists. But they have to watch that in their writings they do not violate
the rules and laws applicable to their profession, which are same for them and the
journalists at large. It is necessary for all the journalist to avoid irresponsible, way ward,
and willful conduct. Ignorance of the laws and limitations is no excuse.

It is neither necessary nor practically possible to give them here an exhaustive

knowledge in this respect. Therefore, an attempt is being made to give them a working
knowledge in broad outlines of the more salient aspects of the legislations or
regulations concerning the practice of journalism.

This part will also cover the penalties, honours and prizes, privileges, and immunities,
facilities and restrictions, schemes, official organizations, commissions and
committees related to the press or profession of journalism.

1.01 Laws, Facilities, Privilaeges, Organisatios

In the book “Law of the Press in India”, Durga Das Basu has stated that the Laws of the
Press are those specialised legislations which are applicable to the individuals or
establishments which deal with the printing or publication of certain material. For the
purpose of these laws, the material printed in a printing press, or any other printing
device, or mimeographed (cyclostyled), or xero-graphed will be equally covered.
2.00 Freedom of speech and expression

Freedom of speech and expression is one of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Constitution of India. Though there is no separate provision for the rights of Press, but
the freedom of Press is covered under this particular guarantee. But this freedom of
Press does not mean license to publish any and every thing. The XVI amendment of the
year 1963 contemplates seven exceptions. These restraints are ( 1 ) National security ( 2
) Friendship with foreign countries ( 3 ) Public order ( 4 ) good conduct and morality ( 5 )
Contempt of Courts ( 6 ) Defamation and libel ( 7 ) Provocation for violence. This
freedom of speech and expression is liable to be suspended during promulgation of
Emergency. But is automatically restored and revived on the withdrawal of Emergency.
The science journalists should also be careful that while they are bold in their discharge
of their duties, they do not trespass the legal bounds.

Defamation

Under the provisions of section 499 of the Indian Penal Code of 1860 every citizen of the
Republic of India has a right to defend his honesty, reputation, fame, and honour. The
relevant section read s follows ;

“Whoever, by words either spoken or intended to be read, or by signs or by visible

representations, makes or publishes any imputation concerning any person intending to
harm, or knowing or having reason to believe that such imputation will harm, the
reputation of such person, is said, except in the cases herein after excepted, to defame
that person.”

The attack on one’s reputation can also be described as libel and slander. These can
attract criminal as well as civil action against the offender, as may be warranted in the
circumstances of the case. In case of defamation, IPC sections 500 and 501 prescribe
punishment by way of simple imprisonment extending to two years, or fine, or both.
 Therefore, the science journalists also should remain alert
and be careful not to make any allegations on the basis of hear say and unconfirmed
rumours. Some times the journalist labour under the belief that they can hood wink law
by using phrases such as, ‘It is said or heard’, ‘It is believed’, ‘It is in the news’, ‘It is the
talk of town’, and such like things. But the fact is that it provides no escape from
criminal liability. Propagation of defamatory matter is also an offence. The reporter as
well as the editor and the publisher all become liable for action. Great care should be
taken to avoid grave allegations against an individual, scandalous news against a
person or an institution, raising doubts against the integrity, or professional capabilities
of a person, unconfirmed reports about the ailments, physical deformities, or using
twisted caption to sensationalise a news, defamatory comments on some particular
social or religious group, imputations against a deceased person which are liable to hurt
the feelings and sentiments of his relations, publication of the photograph of a person in
such a place as to make him a butt of humiliation or ridicule, or distorting one’s name
with mischievous intentions. In fact its scope is wide.

There are certain exception clauses in law to offer protection to a journalist against the
charge of defamation. It is not defamation to impute anything which is true concerning
any person, if it be for the public good, that the imputation should be made or
published. It is not defamation to express in good faith any opinion whatever respecting
the conduct of a public servant in the discharge of his public functions, or respecting
his character, so far as his character appears in that conduct, and no farther. It is not
defamation to express in good faith any opinion whatever respecting the conduct of any
person touching any public question and respecting his character, so far as his
character appears in that conduct, and no farther.

In this manner there have been enumerated in all ten exceptions in the Indian Penal
Code, which provide a safe ground to a journalist. But one should always equip one self
with authentic proofs and grounds in his defence to back up his allegations or charges,
whenever needed. The basic thing is the good faith, good conscience, in bonafide public
good. There should be no malafide, malice, vengefulness, or self interest.

A critical review of a book, or an exhibition or a Mela (Fair), etc. does not fall under the
purview of the law. In case of reporting on some body in police custody, before the
matter becomes sub judice, care should be taken to qualify the reporting by phrases like
‘allegedly’ etc., because a person is innocent until the Court does not prove otherwise.

3.00 Privileges of Houses of Legislature

No action is attracted against a journalist before any court of law or before any of the
Houses for reporting exact original proceedings. A case for the breach of the Privilege of
House is made out if the reporting is distorted, or is accompanied by contemptuous or
derogatory comments tending to lower the dignity of the august body.. Malicious and
vindictive allegations on a Member of Legislature or Parliament, or malafide comments
on his conduct, if it forms part of the proceedings of the House, may amount to breach
of Privileges depending upon the circumstances. Publication of confidential
proceedings of the House or any of its committee, or of the Proceedings, reporting of
which has been banned by the Speaker or Chairman, or the publication of documents
before their presentation in the House will also constitute breach of Privilege.

The right to publish the Proceedings of the Houses of Legislature are governed by the
State Legislature Proceedings (Protection of Publication) Act X of 1977 (which was
earlier an Act of 1956).

Contempt of Court

The new law related to Contempt of Courts has been

enacted in the year 1971. In the light of the provisions of this Act, the following acts or
circumstances constitute contempt of court. Any charge of impropriety or
incompetence against a judge, any attempt to denigrate his character or conduct,
questioning the impartiality of a Court, assailing the dignity or sanctity or impartiality or
jurisdiction of judiciary, publishing reports about matters sub judice, which tend to
mislead or prejudice the public, or influence the mind of the judges or the jury,
untruthful or surreptitious publication of court’s proceedings, or of the matter before
the court, or of the court proceedings or part thereof, or publishing the photograph of an
accused against the orders of the court, all tantamount to Contempt of Court.

The Contempt of Court is ‘Criminal’ as well as ‘Civil’. The civil contempt covers willful
non compliance of the decisions or directions of the court, or of a decree, or a writ of
the court, defiance of the judicial proceedings, violation of an undertaking given on
oath.

The criminal contempt has been already explained above.

The contempt of court can attract imprisonment upto six months, or a fine upto Rs. two
thousand, or both. The Courts can waive all penalties if they are satisfied with the
apology tendered by the contemnor.

4.00 Registration of News Papers or Books

According to the Registration of News Papers or Books Act of 1967 an application is to

be made before the District Magistrate, wherein five alternative names for the proposed
magazine or newspaper are suggested by the applicant. The District Magistrate
forwards the application to the Registrar of the Press, who approves one of these names
and intimates the District Magistrate accordingly. The District Magistrate there upon
informs the applicant, who files a Declaration or an affidavit before the District
Magistrate or a sub Divisional Magistrate.

The acceptance of the Declaration will be treated as lapsed cancelled in case it is not
followed by publication of the said Weekly within six weeks, or any other class of
newspaper within three months, or during the period of three months, it is published for
less than half times of its due frequency, in case of weekly, half weekly, or fort nightly.
The acceptance will also cease in case it ifails to appear for one year continuously at
any time.

It is compulsory to show on every number of the newspaper or magazine, information

on printer, publisher and place of publication. In case the name of the editor has been
wrongly shown, the rightful incumbent should represent his claim before the sub
divisional magistrate with proof and obtain a certificate to this effect. If there is a
demand from the Registrar of Press, or any other authorised person, the magistrate has
the right to declare a Declaration in valid or null and void after carrying out an enquiry.
However, an appeal can be preferred against any such order within 60 days.

It is binding to send one copy of every published newspaper or magazine to the

Registrar, and two copies to the state government free of cost. A lapse in this regard
attracts a fine of rupees fifty. Non compliance of any Press laws or regulations, makes
the editor and the printer liable to a fine of two thousand rupees and imprisonment of
six months. it is compulsory to immediately inform the magistrate in case a person
ceases to be the printer, or publisher, or editor of a newspaper or a magazine, otherwise
a fine upto rupees two hundred can be imposed on the defaulter. An annual declaration
of the full details concerning the paper or the magazine, in the prescribed format is to
be submitted to the Registrar of the Press in the month of February. This is to be notified
in the concerned paper or magazine in the first number following the submission of
Declaration. A fine of rupees five hundred can be imposed on submission of wrong
information to the Registrar of the Press. It is also enjoined by the Delivery of Books and
News papers Act of 1954 that five copies of every paper or magazine be sent to national
level libraries. The purpose behind it is to make evaluation of the papers and magazines
published.

5.00 Official secrets Act 1923

Violation of the prohibitive provisions of this Act met with severe penalties, which may
be in the nature of imprisonment from years to 14 years. This law is applicable to the
citizens of India residing in India or in a foreign country, or to the government officials.
Such actions, which may endanger the national security, include trespassing (entering
without authorization) into a prohibited zone or premises, or taking its photographs, or
making sketches or maps or models or to make it available or accessible directly or
indirectly to the enemies of the country. If a paper or magazine is found guilty of such an
action, the relevant copie can be proscribed, and if deemed necessary, the publication
of the paper or the magazine can be stopped.

5.01 The Act to control quackery or magical treatments (Act of 1954)

The object of this Act is to protect the uneducated, simple and gullible persons from the
potentially pernicious effects and machinations of publicity of illegal, obscene,
improper, dishonest or otherwise objectionable material. Medicines or procedures for
clandestine abortion, promising conception, or curing period irregularities, or birth of a
male child, or curing impotence, or curing insanity, leprosy, epilepsy etc. fifty four items
have been enlisted in this category. Advertising or recommending or guaranteeing
medicines or drugs not authoritatively approved, magic potions or procedures, tantra -
mantras, ganda, taviz, etc. come within its ambit.

But writings with a scientific or responsible social purpose remain out side the pale of
this Act. Advertisements conforming to the prescribed parameters, or duly authorized
are no offence. The government can withdraw permission to carry any advertisement if
deemed damaging to public good. The advertisers, editors, publishers, and printers, all
are collectively or collaboratively guilty in such cases. The offender under this Act can
suffer imprisonment upto six months or fine or both. The repeating offender can be
given one year’s imprisonment or / and fine.

5.02 Act concerning Publications harmful to the Youth (Act of 1956)

The object of this Act is to protect minors and adolescents from the likely harm from the
unhealthy publications. Such publications mean the magazines, pamphlets, leaf-lets,
newspapers, or publications which depict through pictures, or with the help of pictures,
or entirely with pictures, crime, violence, cruelty, or detestable or horrible feelings.

Publications of this nature may affect the impressionable

minds of the young people and incite them to indulge in crime, violence and cruelty.
Therefore, it has been found expedient in the interest of maintaining a clean society, to
ban publication of material tending to incite / provoke criminal tendencies. The
government has to elucidate sustainable grounds for passing such an order. Therefore,
any publication proposed to be banned has to be examined by an experts committee
before it is banned or / and penalized. The aggrieved party is entitled to challenge such
an order in appeal within sixty days, before the Hon’ble High Court. A search for the
recovery of banned material is to be ordered by a magistrate of first class, and an officer
not below the rank of a sub inspector of police can be charged by the magistrate with
the authority to search and seize the banned material. The order to destroy the banned
publication also has to be passed by a magistrate of the first class. A person is liable to
imprisonment up to six months or / and a fine, if he is found guilty of selling, hiring or
distributing in any manner, or producing such a material with the intention of selling, or
hiring or distributing it or of public display, or advertises such a material.

5.03 Act of 1955 related to the offer of competition and prizes

This law has been enacted in order to regulating the award of prizes on various types of
puzzles published in the papers or magazines. This category of contest includes diverse
forms of puzzles, such as, Cross words, filling up the blanks, or pictorial puzzles etc.

These contests need permission of the licensing authority appointed by the

government. But contests offering prizes exceeding rupees one thousand are
prohibited. For obtaining a licence an application is to be made on the prescribed form
before the competent licensing authority and the necessary formalities are to be
fulfilled. In accordance with the terms and conditions laid down, the licensing authority
may grant or reject the application. In the latter case explicit grounds are to be assigned
for the rejection. Working without licence or violation of any of the rules entails
imprisonment up to three months or / and fine.

Those who conduct such contests are required to periodically submit the accounts of
earnings and expenditure before the licensing authority. Failure to do so or submission
of false statements incurs imprisonment for one month or / and a fine of rupees five
hundred. It is open to make an appeal to the government against such a punishment,
but recourse can not be taken to a remedy in any court of law.

The Supreme Court of India has banned any contest which may be essentially in the
nature of gambling being dependent on play of luck and chance. These include those
puzzles whose solutions have been prepared in advance. The winners are chosen by
tallying their answers with the ready solutions, or by draw of lottery.

The government is empowered to proscribe the copies of such publications as may be

violating the laws, or terms and conditions of licensing.
5.04 Press Council Act of 1978

The Press Council Act currently in force was promulgated in the year 1978 by the
Parliament with the object of improvement and development of the News Papers and
News Agencies in India and to protect the freedom of Press in India. The Press Council
appointed in virtue of the provisions of this Act comprises a Chair person and 28
members, including one member from the field of science.

The very wide ranging mandate of the Press Council include, preservation of freedom of
Press, make a code of conduct for the journalists working for newspapers, and news
agencies, compatible with the dignity of the profession, engender and promote spirit of
responsibility and of public good and service, ensuring a standard of public taste,
promoting the sense of civic responsibilities, rights and duties, watching the constraints
affecting flow of news of importance and of interest to the public, evaluation of financial
assistance given to the newspapers and agencies by the foreign missions and agencies,
watching the circulation and impact of papers and magazines published by foreign
organizations or embassies, coordinating between the workers of different categories
involved in the production and distribution in the newspapers.

It is laid down that action in any court of law stands against the chairman and the
members of Press Council, in respect of their functioning in good faith. The Council is
enjoined to submit an annual report to the government.

5.05 The Indian Copy Right Act of 1957 (or Intellectual Property Rights Act)

The object of this Act is to protect the interests of the authors and publishers. It is an
infringement of the provisions of this Act to reproduce, use or publish in part or in total
any work created by somebody, without obtaining from him the right to do so, or to
claim or to give an impression as if it were his own creation. An unauthorized or
unacknowledged dramatic presentation on stage of somebody’s work, or a stage
recitation of somebody else’s work also amounts to an offence under this Act. This Act
acknowledges, confers and protects proprietory rights and interest of the author or
creator of an intellectual or artistic work, like the story, novel, poem, drama, article,
musical composition, photograph, picture, painting, movie film, gramophone record,
video or audio recording, results of research and investigation, or creation of one’s
labour, intellectual or artistic pursuits, and so on. This protection remains available to a
person during his life time and till fifty years after his death.

The journalists and editors should be particularly cautious in regard to the copy right
issue. Of course, the reported and published news is not a matter of copy right. It is
meant for wide dispersal. Though the treatment, the style, the language, the
presentation of certain matter do make it distinct and different. The public speeches
and statements are not subject of copy right. But the write ups, articles and the
photographs published in a newspaper come within the purview of copy right Act. In
case of news photographs, generally either they are the work of hired or commissioned
photographers, or are under an agreement with an gency or syndicate. Syndicated
photographs may be published in more than one paper. In such cases the name of the
photographer or of the source is published. In any case, they are legally authorized.

While writing a book review extracts from the book can be cited in support of the views
of the critic, without making it infringement of copy right. A casual and brief
reproduction from some body’s writing, duly acknowledged does not amount to an
offence. Publication of the proceedings and judgment of an open court with the object
of news reporting, are not violation of copy right.

A dramatised or stage show of a work, or a presentation in a different language, or a

show in the form of a pantomime (dumb show), or transforming as a dance drama, or
presentation as an abridged version, all are covered under the copy right Act. Pictorial
representation of a piece of writing is also subject to copy right Act. An abridged version
may be treated as an original work only if the second writer puts in enough creativity,
imagination, talent, discriminatory faculty to transform it significantly, and lend it an
originality. Mere compilation of parts from the original work does not make any thing
original. The international copy right Act also takes cognizance of this type of work and
prohibits it.

5.06 Working Journalists Act of 1965

According to this Act the definition of working journalists covers, editor, news editor, sub
editor, feature writer, correspondent (reporter), cartoonist, news photographer, proof
reader etc. Staff of the establishment engaged entirely in managerial or administrative,
or supervisory duties, or government servants do not come in the category of working
journalist. This Act provides for the terms and conditions regarding the service, duty
hours, payment of gratuity and so on related to working journalists only.

Regarding the termination of services of a working journalist by the employer, six

months notice is mandatory in case of editors and three month notice in case of other
working journalists. This Act has laid down specific rules for the payment of gratuity
also. The entitlement to gratuity is earned by a terminated employee if he has served for
more than three years, or he quits on attaining age of pension, or if he voluntarily
tenders resignation on completion of a minimum of ten years of service, or he meets
sudden death.

A working journalist cannot be compelled to work for than 140 hours ina span of four
consecutive weeks. It also binding on the employer to give twenty four hours continuous
rest every seven days. The leave rules provide that besides the casual leave and the
gazetted holidays, earned leave entitlement on full pay will not be less than 1 / 11 th of
the total period served. Medical leave on half pay could be claimed for 1 / 18 of the
completed service.

A pay commission has been constituted to review from time to time the salaries etc. of
the working journalists. This pay commission is composed of two representatives each
of the employer and the working journalists. There are three independent members, one
of them being the judge of the High Court or the Supreme Court, may be serving or
retired, who is the designated by the government as the chair person of this
Commission.

6.00 The Print Line

It is mandatory to show the names of the editor, printer and the publisher of the press
and the address of the office, on any page (generally the last page) of every copy of the
newspaper. This is called the print line and is mandatory to give legitimacy or legal
validity to the authority of the newspaper officials.

7.00 Indian Patents Act of 1970

The first law on patents was enacted in the year 1856. Subsequently it went through
numerous amendments. However, In the year 1970 was enacted a new law of Patents.
This Indian Patents Act confers upon an inventor the right to obtain a patent on his
invention. This ensures his right to the particular invention to the exclusion of any body
else. He becomes entitled to put his invention to commercial use or to transfer to some
other party the right to make commercial use of it, under a licence, with certain
limitations or fully and finally for some economic consideration, i.e., a royalty.

Under the provisions of this law, patent can be claimed only for an item, originally
invented by the person. The item should not have been in use earlier, nor should it have
been published earlier. Some times enthusiastic inventors are found eager get into
news pre maturely. But a science journalist should be cautious that publication of
details of an invention, before its originality an genuineness is verified or before a patent
is obtained, may some time give rise to certain complications and controversies. Some
times claims turn out to be fake. At others, disclosure of details without the protective
cover of patent may induce an unscrupulous person to duplicate the invention for his
own advantage or even apply for a patent.

An example of a fake is claim the much publicized case of table top cold fusion.
Similarly, many cases have been found where dishonest inventors claimed and
demonstrated so called alternative fuels. A historical example is that of the invention of
telephone by Graham Bell. He had disclosed the technology of his device without
applying for a patent. In the result several persons tried to manipulate a patent in their
name. Graham Bell had to fight a tough legal battle to prove his very genuine case.
Luckily he succeeded. Some times, however, more than one person, not knowing each
others work, almost at the same, stumble upon inventions or discoveries which are
essentially the same, as happened in the case of DNA structure. At other times, there
have been instances where there had been a patent existing since very long, but
another person in ignorance of the same, genuinely invented or discovered the same
thing again. A move to get a patent before its public disclosure, in most of the cases may
save such a predicament. Therefore, it is advisable for a journalist to avoid publicising
inventions before they are patented.

7.02 The Nuclear Energy Regulation of 1954

This Regulation bars the publication of any information, any write up, any sketch or
photograph, any models or any proposals regarding any nuclear energy plant installed,
or proposed to be installed in India. Under this law it is prohibited to communicate any
information on running such a plant. No body can issue or receive information in this
regard without the permission of an authority of the Union Government. This regulation
does not apply to a plant which does not generate, develop or use nuclear energy. This
regulation is not applicable to the cases where an authority has already notified any
information in the public interest, without violating any restrictions. This regulation also
bars entry to such prohibited areas, or taking a photograph, or making a sketch or map
thereof. Hence, the science reporters should bear in mind the restrictions imposed in
this behalf.

8.00 The Press Commissions

The first Press Commission was institute in the year 1950. It had submitted its report in
1954. Steps were taken to implement some of its recommendations. subsequently the
second Press Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Justice K.K.
Mathew. Its voluminous 2,500 page report was submitted to the government on April 3,
1982. most of the recommendations had been approved by majority votes only. There
are certain cases of recorded dissents also. Some of its recommendations are briefly
described below.

Efforts be made to achieve amicable relations between the Press and the government.
A News papers Development Commission be appointed for the development of the
small and medium newspapers. News paper enterprises be given a status different
from other industries and commercial interests. Judicial officers be appointed between
the newspaper owners and the editors. The basic rules be framed and applied
according to the number of pages of the newspapers. A definite proportion of the share
of news and advertisements be fixed for the big, medium and small newspapers. The
newspaper industry be kept free from the influence of foreign capital. Astrological
forecasts and pictorial (illustrated) stories be not published in the newspapers. Misuse
of the image of womanhood be stopped in newspapers. The government should
determine a definite advertisement policy. The Press Information Bureau be revamped.
The Press laws be revised. The journalist be not extended the facility of government
accommodation. Tapping of telephones be prohibited. But special permission may be
given in cases involving national security, investigation of serious crimes and public
order.

8.01 Facilities available to the Journalists

The state and the union governments extend certain special facilities to the press and
the journalists. Some of them are being described below in brief.

Paper known as news print is made available to newspapers on quota basis at a

subsidized rate under the policy of ‘Supply of news print quota’. A newspaper has to
make an application for this purpose on a prescribed Form, to the Registrar of Indian
News Papers, West Block, 8 Rama Krishna Puram New Delhi.

Government advertisements are given on preferential basis to the newspapers, subject

to certain terms and conditions. The newspapers have to meet the prescribed criteria.
In this reference, there are certain special provisions for the science magazines. In order
to availing this facility from the central government, the newspapers have to apply in the
prescribed manner to the DAVP (Department of Audio Visual Publicity), situated at third
floor, PTI Building, New Delhi, alongwith the copies of the newspaper or the magazine
for the last six months. The enlistment entitles the paper to get advertisements for one
year. Thus it s to be renewed every year. In case of the state governments, application is
to be through the Directorate of Information and Public Relations of the state.

The newspapers and the journalists are entitled to land allotment and loans in the
category of industries. They get telephone connections on priority basis. There are
special postal rates for the dispatch of newspapers and the magazines. For this purpose
the newspaper has to be registered with the office of the superintendent of post offices.
This facility is not available for newspapers older than one month. Railways also offer a
concessional tariff for the transport of newspapers and magazines.

Similarly, the journalists are also entitled to certain facilities. Special concessional rates
are available to them for the telegraphic dispatch of news or reports. For this purpose
the post and telegraph department issues a card to the journalists on the
recommendation of the newspaper concerned. The state governments grant
recognition to certain journalists at the district head quarters. These approved
journalists are accorded a special status. They get various facilities, like the free travel
on state transport department buses, for which they are issued Travel Coupons. For
being admitted to this category, application is to be made to the Director, Information
and public relation, on the prescribed Form with the recommendation of the editor of
the paper or the magazine.

Press accreditation is also issued at the head quarters of the information department of
the government of India. This is called press accreditation. In this regard one has to
apply on the prescribed Form at Press Information Bureau, government of India, Shastri
Bhawan, New Delhi. Accredited journalists enjoy certain privileges like the access to the
Parliament to watch its proceedings, preference in interviewing distinguished persons
or the visiting foreign dignitaries. The Press Information Bureau provides them with
copies of government notifications, and interesting articles and features on issues of
topical interest. Photographs and blocks are also provided. The science journalists
should not fail to avail themselves of the facilities provided by the government.

The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research has instituted annual grants up to Rs.
25,000.00 for five years for running popular science magazines in Hindi and other Indian
languages. The National Council for, Science and Technology Communication,
Department of Science and Technology, also gives a grant of upto one lac rupees. For
this purpose one has to apply on the prescribed Form along with the Propsal.

8.02 Organisations

A number of organizations and agencies are working for safe guarding the interests,
promoting the welfare, and regulating the functioning of the journalists. These exist from
the district level to national and international levels.

In the country, Akhil Bharatiya Samachar Patra Sammelan (All India News Papers
Conference) started in the year 1940. In the year 1939, The Indian and Eastern News
Paper Society was launched as a central orgaisation of the journalists of India Burma
(Myanmar) and Cylone (Sri Lanka). The Indian Languages News Papers Association was
established at Bombay in the year 1941. The editors of the Industrial journals and
Bulletins, published by the 156 Industrial houses, was born with a view to exchanging
their experiences. This Organisation gives an award every year to the best industrial
journal. Audit Bureau of Circulation came into being in the year 1948 with the
cooperation of Publishers, Advertisers, and Advertising Agencies. This Organisation
certifies the actual circulation number of the papers or magazines brought out by their
members. This statistics is accepted by the government also. The Press Guild of India
established in the year (195 …) is a social and cultural body of the journalists of India.
The Association of the Working Journalists was launched in Delhi in 1969. Lately was
established in Delhi the Young Journalists Association.

The International Journalists Union has recently launched ‘International Club of

Journalists interested in Science and Technology’ on June 3,. 1948 at Copenhagen in
Denmark. Journalists and Associations of Journalists from 114 countries are its
members.

The Indian Science Writers Association has been established in Delhi with its head
office at PTI Bhawan. U.P. Science Reporters Association (Uttar Pradesh Vigyan
Samvad-data Sangh) has been established under the chairmanship of Sr Jagdish
Chandra Ranjan. The idea of organizing a national level organization of science
journalists is awaiting its materialization.

9.00 Comprehension Test

1. Write a note on the organizations or institutions in India working for the Science
writers and science journalists. What achievements are expected from their efforts ?

2. Discuss in details any five acts related to science journalism.

3. Write short notes on :

a ) Nuclear Energy Regulation 1962

b ) The Act 1954 to control quackery or magical treatments.

4. Write a short note on the latest legislation having a direct bearing on science
journalism.
1.00 Objectives

The object of this Unit is to post the upcoming science journalists with brief information
regarding available short term and long term training programmes in science journalism
at different institutions, universities and other centers. Placement or employment
following the training is an important issue. The present Unit seeks to impart information
on this aspect also, albeit in brief. Science journalism has already established it self as
a distinct subject. It is in view of this that many government and non government
departments have been giving awards to outstanding achievements in this field.
Concise information on all these aspects is proposed to be laid out in this Unit.

1.01 Main Points

This Unit is going to cover the following areas:

1. Training

2. Training Programmes - Short Term and Long Term

3. Training Institutes

4. The scope/opportunities for employment and self-employment

5. The areas for Employment

6. The organisations giving awards in the field of science journalism

2.00 Preface

The present position is that though there exist in certain organizations posts related
science writings, or science communication, yet they have been filled up either by
personnel qualified in pure science or non science journalists. Besides absence of a
well conceived plan and policy in this behalf, appointment of unqualified and
incompetent persons on the posts of science journalist, is an important reason for poor
science awareness. This is a matter of satisfaction that from the point of view of
competent scientists and technologists, India occupies third place in the world. But
India lags much behind from the point of view of popularization of science and in
science to the common people. Now, of course, initiatives are being taken in this
respect also.

3.00 Training

The capacity to work in any field comes from two sources. One is from the natural, in
born talent, and the other is the earned or acquired competence. In the former case, a
person manifests amazing talent by birth, without having received any training. But such
talented persons are not commonly found. Therefore, in the modern times various
professions are being manned by personnel, who have acquired the requisite skill by
formal training or by practical experience. Of course, training gives outstanding
performance capability to a person who is naturally gifted. As far as science journalism
is concerned, persons at present working the field are mostly those who have natural
aptitude or inclination. Some of them have entered the profession simply because they
found a job opportunity there. Till lately there had been no formal training programme in
science journalism. Now there are a few programmes available, but they are mostly
through English medium. Training for science journalism in Hindi or any other
vernacular language still are rare. Even so the curricula for science journalism have no
where been systematically developed and structured. Bharatiya Rashtriya Vaigyanic
Pralekh Poshan Kendra, New Delhi ( Indian National Centre for support in Science
Documentation and Reprography) in 1964 had started a modern training programme.
This has taken the shape of a two year programme called ‘Soochna Vigyan Pathyakram
(Information Science Programme). The October 1980 number of ‘Communicator’ in
Report has enlisted 21 Indian Agriculture Universities which offer programmes in
Agriculture Science Journalism, or degree or post graduate programmes in Agriculture
Science Journalism or Agriculture Science Communication. There are four programmes
at Govind Ballabh Pant Agriculture and Technical University, Pant Nagar, Nainital. There
are three programmes available in Agriculture Journalism, Agriculture Communication,
and Television and Photography, at the Indian Institute of Agriculture Research, New
Delhi. Agriculture College, Akola (Maharashtra) runs Degree and Post graduate courses
in Agriculture Journalism. A joint programme in Agriculture Communication and
Journalism is being run at Assam Agriculture University, Jorhat, Assam. Two courses in
Agriculture Communication are being offered by Chandrashekhar Azad Agriculture and
Technology University, Kanpur. A two year PG Course, for [Link]. (Journalism) is available
at Punjab Agriculture University, Chandigarh.

Delhi University had started a short two month course in Science Journalism in 1984.
The News Association Pool of Non Aligned Nations Association had organized a Science
Writing Workshop in 1985. The Society for Information Science has been organizing
workshops on science journalism. Thus will be found sundry programmes for science
Journalism. In fact the above information is not to be taken as exhaustive.

For quite some time, training workshops on science

publications and video film making, at various levels, are being organized. NCERT
(National Council for Education and Technology Research, New Delhi, has been
organizing from time to time workshops on TV and Educational programmes.
Workshops on Indian Science Journalists had been conducted by ISWA (Indian Science
Writers Association) from 1 to 4 August 1989 at Delhi, and at Bangalore from 7 to 10
August 1989. Workshops for regional science writers had been run by the Kannad State
Council of Science, from 22 to 26 October, 1989 at Tirtholi, Karnataks, and from 16 to 20
October 1989 at Raichur. Institute of Development Journalism, Karjat (Maharashtra)
organized a workshop for Science Writers on popular science writings in Marathi, from 7
to 9 June (year?).

A short term training programme for science communicators was run from 16 June to 31
July 1989 by Science Association of Bengal, Kolkatta, in which 32 trainees participated
including 6 women. In these training programmes there was active support from
National Council for Science and Technology Communication. This Council has trained
more than 250 science writers in more than 10 workshops on science journalism.
Regular training in science journalism in real sense was started at Jamia Milia, Delhi in
1987 on trial basis as one year evening courses, with the assistance of National Council
for Science and Technology Communication. In the year 1988 a course was started in
Advanced PG Diploma in Science Journalism by Madurai Kamraj University, Madurai.
Pondichery University, Pondichery in 1989 started a course for PG Diploma in Science
Communication.

A nine day short training programme of Science Journalism in Hindi was conducted by
the Indian Institute of Mass Communication in January 1987. It could have been
developed and enlarged into a regular and longer training programme to fill up the
almost complete absence of training in Hindi journalism. If we intend adequate
propagation and dissemination of fast growing sciece, we will have prepare a
professionally trained man power in science journalism, because the self trained
science journalists, and that in a small number, can not cope with the need and the
demand of the times.

4.00 Employment

A book entitled ‘Science writing as a career’ was brought out in the year 1973 by Press
Institute of India. It is noteworthy in as much as it shows that science writing and
science journalism have already been recognized as employment oriented studies. At
present competent / capable science journalists have sufficient employment / job
opportunities in public as well private sectors. In fact to day almost every
communication media needs a science communicator. There are ample opportunities
for science journalists in Hindi also. Now the number of science journals published in
the country is sufficient. Thus career opportunities in editorial or reporting are many. Lot
of literature, even in Hindi, is produced by organisations like the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Indian Space Research
Organisation, Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Environment, publish large
quantities of literature in English as well as in Hindi.
 The foremost source of employment in science journalism
is to be found in science journals - popular, research, in - house – which are published in
government and non – government sectors. Next source is the general news papers or
magazines which carry scientific information also. To day it is the usual practice for
these publications to give some science related material or report important science
events. Therefore, there exist jobs for science sub editor or science reporter. The third
source of employment is the houses that publish books on science. People with
background in science writing are involved at different stages in the production of
science books. There are many government organizations which publish scientific
literature.

Various scientific bodies engage public relations officers media / press officers. Their
duty is to give exposure to the work being done, and also to maintain liaison with other
establishments. Thus this is also good field for science journalists. Another important
field is Akash Vani and Door Darshan. Many of the centers of Akash Vani and Door
Darshan produce and present programmes related to science and technology. Mostly
they a specialized unit for this purpose, or they entrust the work to a programme
executive or a producer with a scientific background. There are a number of jobs in
many of the departments of the central or the state governments, or in private
institutions, where services of science journalists are useful. Professionally trained
science journalists are specially successful in places like science information services,
library services, feature services and the like.

Many of the foreign embassies in India disseminate in Hindi information regarding the
scientific achievements of their country. Naturally, they Indian workers for this purpose.
The British embassy brings out a bulletin in Hindi by the name “British Vaigyanik evam
Arthik Sameeksha”. Some of the international and United Nations organizations also
publish scientific reports or journals in Hindi. World Health Organistion in India has
started a bulletin “Swasthya Samachar Seva”. These activities also make use of science
journalists.

There is another field for the science journalists to work, that is the free lance work.
Undoubtedly it is a very challenging job. But many people have been able to carve out
respectable and profitable place for themselves like Gunakar Mule and Shukdev Prasad
etc. in Hindi science journalism. The scope of free lance science writing is very wide.
The demand for popular science books is on the increase. The general news papers and
magazines also welcome write ups and features on science subjects of common
interest. Since there is a gap between the demand and availability of science
publications, there is a good scope for trained science journalists with competence and
initiative to venture establishing new science journals. Government grants and bank
loans can also be available for supporting such enterprises.

Hence, those who aspire to adopt science journalism as a career, have ample
opportunities in the government or private sectors, or as a free lance writer, and also as
an entrepreneur. In fact the training institutes should start assisting in placement. In the
present circumstances information on vacant situations can be obtained from news
papers, general or Empoyment News. It is also helpful to prepare portfolio giving the CV
and information regarding the work done. This can be circulated to the corporates and
also can be put on Web.

5.00 Honours and Awards

In recognition of the critical importance of science writings and journalism, a number of

government an non government organisations have instituted awards on out standing
science writings or reporting. For long UNESCO has been giving an international level
award for science writings in English. For excellence in journalism, including science,
the Kalinga Foundation has been giving Kalinga Prize. Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO) of the UNO, every year on International Food Day, has been rewarding good
programmes on Akash Vani or Door Darshan on a prescribed subject, in Indian
languages. In order to encouraging popular science writings, the CSIR had started
award of prizes in 1973. Some how the scheme could not continue. Another scheme
was the ‘Sarita - Mukta Lok Priya Vigyan Lekhan Puraskar’ for rewarding good writings in
all the magazines of the country.

In recent times noticeable progress has been made in this direction. With a view to
encourage science writings in Hindi, the Department of Science and Technology since
1986 has started giving prize for good books on popular science in Hindi. Prizes are
being awarded every year by Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, to original works on
Forestry related subjects. Bhabha Prizes have instituted by department of Nuclear
Energy, for out standing writings in Hindi. The Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) has started Vikram Sarabhai Awards for Hindi writings on nuclear energy related
subjects. Department of Environment also gives awards to Hindi writers on environment
related subjects. CSIR also plans to reward its officers and workers for science writings
in Hindi. Indian Council of Agriculture Research also gives Dr Rajendra Prasad Prize for
popular writings on agricultural Sciences. It also gives prizes for good articles in the
Magazine ‘Kheti’.

Dr Gorakh Prasad Prize is given by Vigyan Parishad, Prayag for good articles appearing in
the Magazine Vigyan. Otherwise also this Parishad has been rewarding good Science
writers in Hindi. The Department of Electronics gives financial assistance for writing
Hindi books on Electronics. It also gives awards for good writings on Electronics in
Hindi. At the third International Hindi Conference in 1983, prominent Hindi authors were
rewarded, and with them two Hindi Science writers, Dr Satya Prakash and Professor
Phool Dev Sahai Verma were also rewarded. It has been hailed as a beginning of good
tradition.

National Council for Science and Technology Communication, has started three kind of
awards. Firstly, a prize of rupees one lac for popularization of Science; secondly, for the
best coverage in mass media of science and technology, will be given a prize of rupees
50 thousand; and lastly, for popularization of science among children, will be given a
prize of rupees 50 thousand. These prizes have been instituted with the object of
popularization of science, and for engendering a scientific temperament among the
masses, and also for giving recognition to best efforts for promoting popular science.
Naturally, it includes all type of popular science writing, publication and broadcast or
telecast.

A contest by the name of ‘Akhil Bharatiya Hindi Vigyan Lekhan Pratiyogita’ is organized
every year by the ‘Hindi Vigyan Sahitya Parishad, Mumbai’. Kendriya Sachivalaya Hindi
Parishad has also started such a tradition. Recently Vigyan Parishad, Prayag has started
Whitekkar Prize for articles written on history of Science. Department of Ocean
Development has started a scheme for awarding prizes on Hindi books on Oceanology.

All such steps are building up a good environment for the writings and publication of
science literature in Hindi. But still the number of writers being attracted to this field is
small. It is hoped that Hindi Science writers and others with potential will make their
contribution to this genre of writing.
6.00 Comprehension Test

1. What is the importance of professionalised training in Science journalism ? Write a

note on important training programmes and facilities available in the country.

2. Discuss the avenues and opportunities for employment for a science journalist.

3. Write a note on honours and awards at the national and international levels for the
science journalists.