Kanwar Randeep Singh

Post Graduate Govt. College

Sector – 11, Chandigarh
Introduction to Computers
 A Computer is an electronic device,
operating under the control of instructions
stored in its own memory that can accept
data (input), process the data according to
specified rules, produce information
(output), and store the information for
future use.
Characteristics of Computers
 Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the
rate of millions of instructions per second. Some
calculations that would have taken hours and days to
complete otherwise, can be completed in a few
seconds using the computer. For example, calculation
and generation of salary slips of thousands of
employees of an organization, weather forecasting that
requires analysis of a large amount of data related to
temperature, pressure and humidity of various places,
etc.
Characteristics of Computers
 Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of
accuracy. For example, the computer can
accurately give the result of division of any two
numbers up to 10 decimal places.
 Diligence: When used for a longer period of time,
the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It can
perform long and complex calculations with the
same speed and accuracy from the start till the
end.
Characteristics of Computers
 Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and
information can be stored in the computer and also
retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data
can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory.
Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and
compact disk can store a large amount of data
permanently.
Characteristics of Computers
 Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can
perform different types of tasks with the same ease. At
one moment you can use the computer to prepare a
letter document and in the next moment you may play
music or print a document. Computers have several
limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that
it has been programmed to do.
History of Computers
 The computer as we know it today had its beginning
with a 19th century British Mathematics Professor
name Charles Babbage.
 He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this
design that the basic framework of the computers of
today are based on.
First Generation Computers
 The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge
and expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were
used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating
system and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape
were used as output and input devices in this generation;
 Some of the popular first generation computers are;
 ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
 EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
 IBM-701
 IBM-650
Vaccum Tubes
First Generation Computers
Second Generation Computers
 The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor
computers. These computers used transistors which were cheap,
compact and consuming less power; it made transistor computers
faster than the first generation computers.
 In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary
memory and magnetic disc and tapes were used as the secondary
storage. Assembly language and programming languages like
COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and
multiprogramming operating systems were used in these
computers.
 Some of the popular second generation computers are;
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
Transistors

Second Generation Computers

Third Generation Computers
 The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs)
instead of transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of
transistors which increased the power of a computer and
reduced the cost. The computers also became more reliable,
efficient and smaller in size. These generation computers used
remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as
operating system. Also, the high-level programming languages
like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were
used in this generation.
 Some of the popular third generation computers are;
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
Integrated Circuits

Third Generation Computers

Fourth Generation Computers
 The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) Circuits; a chip containing millions of
transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and
affordable. These generation computers used real time, time
sharing and distributed operating system. The programming
languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this generation.
 Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
VLSI

Fourth Generation Computers

Fifth Generation Computers
 In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI
technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor
chips with ten million electronic components. This generation
computers used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this
generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
 Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook
Microprocessor

Fifth Generation Computers

Classification of Computers
 Computers differ based on their data processing
abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data
handling and functionality.
 Computers are either General Purpose or Specific
Purpose.
 According to functionality, Computers are classified
as :
Analog Computers
 Analog Computers
➢ An analog computer is a form of computer that uses
continuous physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved.
Digital Computers
 A computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system.
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
 A combination of computers those are capable of
inputting and outputting in both digital and analog
signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost
effective method of performing complex simulations.
Types of Computer
Super Computer
Mainframe Computer
Mini Computer
Micro Computer
Super Computer
 The fastest and most powerful type of computer
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed
for specialized applications that require immense
amounts of mathematical calculations. For example,
weather forecasting requires a Super Computer. Other
uses of supercomputers include animated graphics,
fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
and petroleum exploration.
Super Computer
Mainframe Computer
 A very large and expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a
simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the
bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top,
mainframes are just below supercomputers.
Mainframe Computer
Mini Computers
A midsized computer in size and power,
minicomputers lie between workstations and
mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction
between large minicomputers and small mainframes
has blurred, however, as has the distinction between
small minicomputers and workstations. But in general,
a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
Mini Computers
Micro Computers
 A microcomputer is a computer in which the CPU
(central processing unit, the brains of the computer) is
contained on one single chip, a microprocessor,
input/output devices and storage (memory) unit. All
these components are important for a proper working
of microcomputer.
Micro Computers
Applications of Computers
 Education
 Health & Medicine
 Entertainment
 Business
 Sports
 Artificial Intelligence
 Weather, GPS
Block Diagram of a Computer
 Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in
to the computer system. You should know that computer is
an electronic machine like any other machine which takes
as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving
out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data
from us to the computer in an organized manner for
processing.
 Storage: The process of saving data and instructions
permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into
the system before the actual processing starts. It is because
the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is
so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the
same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage
unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or
the primary storage of the computer system is designed to
do the above functionality. It provides space for storing
data and instructions.
 Processing: The task of performing operations like
arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The
Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions
from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations
based on the instructions given and the type of data
provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
 Output: This is the process of producing results from the
data for getting useful information. Similarly the output
produced by the computer after processing must also be
kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to
you in human readable form. Again the output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.
 Control: The manner how instructions are executed and
the above operations are performed. Controlling of all
operations like input, processing and output are performed
by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all
operations inside the computer.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly

known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as
the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that
takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations
and directs different parts of the computer functions by
activating and controlling the operations.
 Control Unit (CU)

➢ The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which

acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper
fashion. Control Unit is responsible for co coordinating
various operations using time signal.
➢ The control unit determines the sequence in which
computer programs and instructions are executed. Things
like processing of programs stored in the main memory,
interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for
other units of the computer to execute them.
➢ It also acts as a switch board operator when several users
access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates
the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they
perform the input and output.
 Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

After you enter data through the input device it is

stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed
by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations
performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is
transferred to ALU from storage unit when required.
After processing the output is returned back to storage
unit for further processing or getting stored.
Hardware
 Computer Hardware is the collection of physical parts
of a computer system. This includes the computer
case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes
all the parts inside the computer case, such as the hard
disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others.

INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES

Input Devices
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Scanner
 Joy Stick
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Character Reader
 Digitizer
 Track Ball
 Light Pen
 Microphone
Output Devices
 Monitor
 Printer
 Plotter
Software
 Software is a collection of instructions that enable the
user to interact with a computer, its hardware, or
perform tasks. Without software, most computers
would be useless.
 Type of Software
➢ Application Software
➢ System Software
Firmware
 Firmware is data that is stored on a computer or other
hardware device's ROM (read-only memory) that
provides instruction on how that device should
operate. Unlike normal software, firmware cannot be
changed or deleted by an end-user without the aid of
special programs and remains on that device whether
or not it's on or off.
Disk Operating System
 A disk operating system is a computer operating
system that can use a disk storage device, such as a
floppy disk, hard disk drive, or optical disc. A disk
operating system must provide a file system for
organizing, reading, and writing files on the storage
disk.
 Short for Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-
DOS is a non-graphical command line operating
system derived from 86-DOS that was created for IBM
compatible computers.
 MS-DOS originally written by Tim Paterson and
introduced by Microsoft in August 1981 and was last
updated in 1994 when MS-DOS 6.22 was released.
 MS-DOS allows the user to navigate, open, and
otherwise manipulate files on their computer from a
command line instead of a GUI like Windows.
Get into the DOS
 Open a DOS window by following the steps
below:
➢Click Start.
➢In the Search or Run line, type cmd (short
for command), and press Enter.
Key Tips for DOS
 DOS and the Windows command line are not case sensitive.
 The files and directories shown in Windows are also found in the
command line.
 When working with a file or directory with a space, surround it
in quotes. For example, the directory My Documents would be
"My Documents" when typed.
 File names can have a long file name of 255 characters and a
three character file extension.
 When a file or directory is deleted in the command line, it is not
moved into the Recycle Bin.
 If you need help with any of command, type /? after the
command. For example, dir /? would give the options available
for the dir command.
Internal Commands
 An internal command is an DOS command that is
stored in the system memory and loaded from the
[Link] or [Link].
 All the internal commands are part of the shell that
could be [Link] or [Link] (depending on
your version of DOS or Windows) and are not separate
files on the hard drive.
External Commands
 An external command is an DOS command that is
not included in [Link]. External commands
are commonly external either because they require
large requirements or are not commonly used
commands.
 Many of the external commands are located in the
Windows\system32 or Winnt\system32 directories. If
you need to locate the external file to delete it, rename
it or replace it, you can also find the file through DOS.
Information Representation
 Computers are classified according to functionality, physical
size and purpose.
 Functionality, Computers could be analog, digital or hybrid.
Digital computers process data that is in discrete form whereas
analog computers process data that is continuous in nature.
Hybrid computers on the other hand can process data that is
both discrete and continuous.
 In digital computers, the user input is first converted and
transmitted as electrical pulses that can be represented by two
unique states ON and OFF. The ON state may be represented
by a “1” and the off state by a “0”.The sequence of ON’S and
OFF’S forms the electrical signals that the computer can
understand.
Binary System in Computers
 It has proved difficult to develop devices that can
understand natural language directly due to the
complexity of natural languages. However, it is easier
to construct electric circuits based on the binary or ON
and OFF logic. All forms of data can be represented in
binary system format. Other reasons for the use of
binary are that digital devices are more reliable, small
and use less energy as compared to analog devices.
Binary Information
Bits, Bytes, Nibble and Word
 Bits: It can be defined as either a binary, which can be
0, or 1. It is the basic unit of data or information in
digital computers.
 Byte: A group of bits (8 bits) used to represent a
character. A byte is considered as the basic unit of
measuring memory size in computer.
 Nibble: It is half a byte, which is usually a grouping of 4
bytes.
 Word: A two or more bits make a word. The term word
length is used as the measure of the number of bits in
each word. For example, a word can have a length of
16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits etc.
Bits in Computer Processor
 With early computer processors (e.g., 8088 and 80286)
the processors were 16-bit processors, which means the
processor were capable of working with 16-bit binary
numbers (decimal number up to 65,535).
 Anything larger and the computer would need to break
up the number into smaller pieces. Later processors
where 32-bit, which are capable of up to 32-bit binary
numbers (decimal number up to 4,294,967,295).
 Today's computers are 64-bit, which are capable of up to
64-bit binary numbers (decimal number over 18
quintillion).
How much is 1 byte, kilobyte,
megabyte, gigabyte, etc.?
Data Measurement Size
Bit Single Binary Digit (1 or 0)
Byte 8 bits
Kilobyte (KB) 1,024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1,024 Kilobytes
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 Megabytes
Terabyte (TB) 1,024 Gigabytes
Petabyte (PB) 1,024 Terabytes
Exabyte (EB) 1,024 Petabytes
Number System in Computers
 The technique to represent and work with
numbers is called number system.
 Decimal number system is the most common
number system.
 Other popular number systems include Binary
Number System, Octal Number System,
Hexadecimal Number System.
Types of Number System
 Non-Positional Number System
 In this each symbol represents the same value.
Example:- Roman Number System
➢ 1 for I, 2 for II, 3 for III, etc.
➢ There is no zero in this number system.

 Positional Number System

 They use few symbols called digits. These symbols represent
different values depending upon the position they occupy in the
system.
Examples: -
➢ Decimal Number System
➢ Binary Number System
➢ Octal Number System
➢ Hexadecimal Number System
Decimal Number System
 Decimal number system is a base 10 number
system having 10 digits from 0 to 9.
 This means that any numerical quantity can be
represented using these 10 digits.
 Decimal number system is also a positional
value system.
 This means that the value of digits will depend
on its position.
Example of DNS
 Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value
of 7 in all three numbers is different−
➢ In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 102
➢ In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 101
➢ In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 100
➢ The weightage of each position can be represented as
follows −
Binary Number System
 The easiest way to vary instructions through
electric signals is two-state system – on and off.
 On is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is
not actually no signal but signal at a lower
voltage.
 The number system having just these two digits –
0 and 1 – is called binary number system.
 Each binary digit is also called a bit.
 Binary number system is also positional value system,
where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as
displayed here.

 In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least

significant bit (LSB) and leftmost digit is called most
significant bit (MSB).
Octal Number System
 Octal Number System has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
and 7.
 Octal number system is also a positional value system
with where each digit has its value expressed in powers of
8.
Hexadecimal Number System
 Hexadecimal Number System has 16 symbols – 0 to 9
and A to F where A is equal to 10, B is equal to 11 and so
on till F.
 Hexadecimal number system is also a positional value
system with where each digit has its value expressed in
powers of 16.
Number System Relationship
Hexadecimal Decimal Octal Binary
0 0 0 0000
1 1 1 0001
2 2 2 0010
3 3 3 0011
4 4 4 0100
5 5 5 0101
6 6 6 0110
7 7 7 0111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
Number System Relationship
Hexadecimal Decimal Octal Binary
A 10 12 1010
B 11 13 1011
C 12 14 1100
D 13 15 1101
E 14 16 1110
F 15 17 1111
ASCII
 The most widely used alphanumeric code is American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
 ASCII is a 7-bit code that has 128 (27) possible codes.
 The complete set of characters or symbols are called
alphanumeric codes. The complete alphanumeric code
typically includes −
➢ 26 upper case letters
➢ 26 lower case letters
➢ 10 digits
➢ 7 punctuation marks
➢ 20 to 40 special characters
Unicode
 Unicode is an international coding system designed to be
used with different language scripts. Each character or
symbol is assigned a unique numeric value, largely within
the framework of ASCII.
 In contrast, this is what Unicode officially aims to do −
Unicode provides a unique number for every character,
no matter what the platform, no matter what the
program, no matter what the language.
Memory in Computers
 Computer memory is of two basic type –
➢ Primary memory / Volatile memory
➢ Secondary memory / non-volatile memory.
Classification of Computer Memory
Classification of Computer Memory
 RAM: Random Access Memory
➢SRAM: Static Random Access Memory
➢DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory
 ROM: Read only Memory
➢PROM: Programmable Read only Memory
➢EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read only
Memory
➢EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Read only Memory
SRAM vs DRAM
ROM
 PROM (Programmable Read only Memory) – It can be
programmed by user. Once programmed, the data and
instructions in it cannot be changed.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read only Memory) – It
can be reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it to
ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous
data.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only
Memory) – The data can be erased by applying electric
field, no need of ultra violet light. We can erase only
portions of the chip.
RAM vs ROM
RAM ROM

Temporary Storage Permanent Storage

Store data in GB. Store data in MB.

Volatile Non-volatile

Used for normal Used for startup process

operations of computer. of computer.
Writing data is faster Writing data is slower.
Magnetic Disk
 A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a
magnetization process to read, write, rewrite and
access data.
 The Magnetic disk is made of a set of circular
platters. It is covered with a magnetic coating and
stores data in the form of tracks, spots, and
sectors.
 Hard disks, zip disks, and floppy disks are common
examples of magnetic disks.
 Floppy Disk

Hard Disk

ZIP Disk Magnetic Tape

Optical Disks
 An optical disk is any computer disk that uses
optical storage techniques and technology to read
and write data.
 It is a storage device in which optical (light) energy
is used.
 It is a computer storage disk that stores data
digitally and uses laser beams to read and write
data.
 It uses the optical technology in which laser light
is centred to the spinning disks.
 Compact Disk – 650-700
MB
Digital Versatile Disk –
4.7 GB (Single), 8.5 GB
(Dual)
Blu-ray Disk – 25 GB
(Single), 50 GB (Dual)
Optical Disk
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
 A hard disk is a memory storage device.
 It is secondary memory in the computer system.
 It comes in size of GigaByte or more.
 It is fitted into the CPU.
Physical HDD (Internal)
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Points about HDD:-
 Seek time – The time taken by the R-W head to reach the
desired track from it’s current position.
 Rotational latency – Time taken by the sector to come
under the R-W head.
 Data transfer time – Time taken to transfer the required
amount of data. It depends upon the rotational speed.
 Controller time – The processing time taken by the
controller.
 Average Access time – seek time + Average Rotational
latency + data transfer time + controller time.
 Note: Average Rotational latency is mostly 1/2*(Rotational
latency).
 In questions, if the seek time and controller time is not
mentioned, take them to be zero.
 If the amount of data to be transferred is not given, assume
that no data is being transferred. Otherwise, calculate the time
taken to transfer the given amount of data.
 The average of rotational latency is taken when the current
position of R-W head is not given. Because, the R-W may be
already present at the desired position or it might take a
whole rotation to get the desired sector under the R-W head.
But, if the current position of the R-W head is given then the
rotational latency must be calculated.
How to calculate Capacity of HDD?
➢ Consider a hard disk with:
4 surfaces
64 tracks per surface
128 sectors per track
256 bytes per sector
➢ Capacity of HDD will be:-
Disk capacity = surfaces * tracks/surface * sectors/track *
bytes/sector
Disk capacity = 4 * 64 * 128 * 256
Disk capacity = 8 MB
What is the Data Transfer Rate of HDD?
 The disk is rotating at 3600 RPM, what is the data transfer
rate?
60 sec -> 3600 rotations
1 sec -> 60 rotations

Data transfer rate = number of rotations per second *

track capacity * number of surfaces (since 1 R-W head is
used for each surface)

Data transfer rate = 60 * 128 * 256 * 4

Data transfer rate = 7.5 MB/sec
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) vs Solid
State Drive (SSD)
Parameter HDD SSD
HDD stands for Hard SSD stands for Solid
Full Form
Disk Drive. State Drive.
SSD does not
HDD contains contains, mechanical
Components moving mechanical parts, only
parts, like the arm. electronical parts like
ICs.
HDD has longer R/W SSD has shorter R/W
R/W Time
time. time..
HDD has higher SSD has lower
Latency
latency. latency.
 HDD supports fewer SSD supports more
I/O operations per
I/O operations per I/O operations per
second
second. second.
HDD has SSD do not has
Fragmentation
fragmentation. fragmentation.
HDD is heavier in SSD is lighter in
Weight
weight. weight.
SSD is more compact
Size HDD is larger in size.
in size.
In HDD the data In SSD the data
Data Transfer transfer is transfer is random
sequential. access.
 HDD is less reliable
due to possibility of
mechanical failure,
Reliability SSD is more reliable.
like head crash and
susceptibility to
strong magnets.
HDD is cheaper per SSD is costlier per
Cost
unit storage. unit storage.
HDD is older and
Time of Release SSD is newer to use.
more traditional.
HDD can produce
noise due to SSD does not
Noise
mechanical produces noise.
movements.
Cache Memory
 Cache memory increases the accessing speed of CPU.
It is not a technique but a memory unit i.e a storage
device.
 In cache memory, recently used data is copied.
 Whenever the program is ready to be executed, it is
fetched from main memory and then copied to the
cache memory. But, if its copy is already present in
the cache memory then the program is directly
executed.
 Hardware manages the cache memory.
Virtual Memory
 Virtual Memory increases the capacity of main
memory.
 Virtual memory is not a storage unit, its a technique.
In virtual memory, even such programs which have a
larger size than the main memory are allowed to be
executed.
 The size of virtual memory is greater than the cache
memory.
 Operating System manages the Virtual memory.
Sequential Access Memory
 It is a class of data storage devices in which the
information is read in a sequence.
 SAM devices are generally Magnetic Storage Devices
or Optical Devices.
Direct Access Memory
 It is a method that allows an input/output
(I/O) device to send or receive data directly to
or from the main memory, bypassing the CPU
to speed up memory operations.
 The process is managed by a chip known as a
DMA controller (DMAC).
System Software
 System software is a type of computer program that
is designed to run a computer’s hardware and
application programs.
 The system software is the interface between the
hardware and user applications.
 The operating system (OS) is the best-known example
of system software. The OS manages all the other
programs in a computer.
Types of System of System Software
Operating System Software
Language Translator
Utility Software
Operating System
 Operating System is a program designed to run
other programs on a computer.
 It is considered as the backbone of a
computer managing both software and
hardware device.
 Operating systems are responsible for each
and everything from the control and allocation
of memory to input from external devices and
output to computer display.
Different types of O.S
 General Purpose O.S
 Special Purpose O.S
 Batch Processing O.S
 Single Use O.S
 Multi-User O.S
 Multi-Programming O.S
 Multi-Processing O.S
 Multi-Threading O.S
 Real Time O.S
 Embedded O.S
Language Translator
 It is another system software which convert
the high level language to machine level
language for the purpose of machine
understanding.
 The Machine can only understand the machine
level language or binary language 0's & 1's.
The language translator rectify the errors
within the program through different ways.
Types of L.T
Compiler
Interpreter
Assembler
Utility Software
 Utility Software is a kind of system
software designed to help, analyze,
configure, optimize and maintain the
computer.
 A single piece of utility software
is usually called a utility or tool.
Application Software
 A software which is developed to help the
user to perform specific tasks is called
application software.
 It is generally a program or collection of
programs used by end users.
 It can be called an application or simply an
app.
Examples of A.S
 Word processing software
 Database programs
 Entertainment software
 Business software
 Educational software
 Computer-aided design(CAD) software
 Spreadsheet software etc.
Programming Languages
A programming language is a set of
commands, instructions, and other syntax use
to create a software program.
 Languages that programmers use to write
code are called "high-level languages." This
code can be compiled into a "low-level
language," which is recognized directly by the
computer hardware.
Generation of Languages
 The First Generation Languages are Low-level
Languages or Machine Languages.
 The second-generation languages are also low-level
assembly languages. They are sometimes used in
kernels and hardware drives, but more commonly
used for video editing and video games.
 The third-generation languages are high-level
languages, such as C, C++, Java, JavaScript, and Visual
Basic.
Generation of Languages
 The fourth-generation languages are languages that
consist of statements similar to statements in a
human language. Fourth generation languages are
commonly used in database programming and scripts
examples include Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, and SQL.
 The fifth-generation languages are programming
languages that contain visual tools to help develop a
program. Examples of fifth generation languages
include Mercury, OPS5, and Prolog.
Translators
 A translator is a computer program that
performs the translation of a program
written in a given programming language
into a functionally equivalent program in
a different computer language, without
losing the functional or logical structure
of the original code
Types of Translators
 If the translator translates a high-level language into
another high-level language, it's called a source-to-source
compiler.
 If the translator translates a high-level language into a
lower-level language, it is called a compiler.
 If the translator translates a high-level language into an
intermediate code which will be immediately executed, it
is called an interpreter.
 If the translator translates target/machine code into a
lower-level language, it is called a decompiler.
 If the translator translates assembly language to machine
code, it is called an assembler.
Compiler
Compiler is a software which
converts a program written in
high level language (Source
Language) to low level language
(Object/Target/Machine
Language).
Types of Compiler
 Cross Compiler that runs on a machine ‘A’ and
produces a code for another machine ‘B’. It is
capable of creating code for a platform other
than the one on which the compiler is running.
 Source-to-source Compiler or trans-compiler
or trans-piler is a compiler that translates
source code written in one programming
language into source code of another
programming language.
Phases of a Compiler
Interpreter
 An interpreter is a computer program that is used
to directly execute program instructions written
using one of the many high-level programming
languages.
 The interpreter transforms the high-level program
into an intermediate language that it then
executes, or it could parse the high-level source
code and then performs the commands directly,
which is done line by line or statement by
statement.
Cold Boot
 When you turn the computer off and
back on, you're performing what's called
a cold boot.
 During a cold boot, the computer runs
self tests on its hardware and loads its
operating system before it's ready for you
to use.
Warm Boot
 When you restart the system without
interrupting power, it's a warm boot.
 A warm boot is usually done from the
operating system and doesn't initiate the
computer's self test routine.
 To perform a warm boot, click the power icon
on the Start screen, if shown, and then click
"Restart.”