Chapter 5
Politics, Economy and Social Processes from the early Sixteenth to the end of the
Eighteenth Centuries
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and After
As discussed in unit four, the revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for control
over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities. This was followed by
a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian
and Muslim clerics. While maladministration and exploitation of periphery made military mobilization
possible, religion provided ideological justification for the wars. However, the interest to control trade
routes lay at the heart of the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that
continued for over two centuries, culminating in the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543
As a prelude to this conflict, among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and
anarchy was intensified and a new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came from
Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of Imam Ahmed, alias “the lefthanded,” are
obscure. He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout
Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila. He was a devout Muslim. He soldiered for
Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
According to local tradition, the Imam withdrew to the countryside, upon the death of his source
of inspiration, Garad Abun, and started calling for devotion to the teachings of Islam. Here came
fundamental change in the cause of the confrontations. After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power under
circumstances discussed above, the battles were not just fought for control of the long-distance
trade route going through Zeila but mainly because there was environmental pressure among the
Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom. For
centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to high plateaus for
better and enough pasturelands and attempted to do so but only to be held back by the Christian
army. With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of eastern Ethiopia,
between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, raiding and counter-raiding at water holes or
animal rustling intensified.
1
It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral
communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He
convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian
Kingdom and resolve their pressing material needs while at the same time guarding Islamic
doctrines and practices from the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to gain
acceptance as Imam and consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom.
Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven. Assisted by the elderly
Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and
even advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth century.
As a result, most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal were made tributaries to the Christian
Kingdom.
However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong
enough for military confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a
campaign against the Christian Kingdom in [Link] Imam’s army fought fiercely and
controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and
putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.
In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical
problems, the leadership of the army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to
defeat Adal’s force. On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highlymotivated but small-sized army
faced no such logistical challenges. The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the most decisive
engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo. After the victory, the
Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom including
Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash. By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s
empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior. As he
penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative
2
bureaucracy constituted from his own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian
territories.
One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del
Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her
father. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to have marched
even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. Indeed, she delivered her
two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.
On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the reigning king,
LebneDengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive .His son and successor, Gelawdewos
(r. 1540-1559), continued to face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had
received Turkish musketeers. In the meantime, based on earlier request made by LebneDengel in
1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian
court in [Link] force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray. In
the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was
beheaded.
An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's wife
Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the
army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers. After the success,
Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to repulse any future attack by the force of
the Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army camp. On the part of the
Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under the leadership of Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how
to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited resources, the monarch
employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army. Imam Ahmed’s army
could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility because they did not know where the
attacks came from. On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he
was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
3
Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to
him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the northern and central plateau.
Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward
them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth relations with the
Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-1520s territories and
tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different
areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had
established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, the control over the Muslim dominated areas
was not an easy task. In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from the
retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo
advance into the center. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn alWaazir Mujahid was ready to
wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted
Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and
reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq
revolted and allied with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to
defend his terittory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama,
Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and
restored the territories.
The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of consequences. One of the most
obvious was the huge human and material cost. It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate
and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the way for an easy infiltration and
success of the Oromo population movement. On the positive side, it should be restated that the
war had arguably resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia. Linguistic and
religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural
groups were one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension. Middle Eastern powers including the dominant Ottoman
Empire who were the intermediaries of the international trade were adversely affected by the
4
discovery of a new sea route to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498. They tried to counter the
Portuguese encroachment into the East, while Portugal for its part began to look toward the
Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally, reviving the old "semi-spiritual quest" for Prester
John. From the first decade of the sixteenth century, messengers were sent. However, actual
military alliance did not take place because Ethiopia was not a sea power to give a meaningful
maritime support to Portugal against the Ottoman Turks. On its part, the Christian Kingdom
asked Portugal’s military assistance against its Muslim rival.
Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian Kingdom and
Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed. In 1540, the Imam turned
to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two
hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
As with the state, the church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate of Adal. The
destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the Church and by
extension its service as an ideological arm of the state. At the same time, the monarchy could not
count on the traditional political and military apparatus to withstand the continued expansion of
the Oromo deep into the Christian Kingdom and then to consolidate the Christian Kingdom.
Thus, revival was sought in the church.
The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as
a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost territories. In 1557,
several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to
expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore
separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of
Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect
human nature inseparable from the divine. The leading members of the mission who played key
role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez
and Alfonso Mendez.
The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the
rest of the society would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with
5
the missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of
Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith. Minas and Sertse-Dengel,
who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and
the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts. The Jesuits got relative success with
Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism. Yet Za-
Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-Dengel was
overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who met a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos
(r. 1607-32).
Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute, integrated the
Oromo with the forces of the central government to consolidate his power and stabilize the
country. Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez. In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced
it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several antiCatholic voices
mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered
reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass. Besides, he called for
the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male circumcision and the observance of the
Sabbath. Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. The
reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the
emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by
the Jesuits.
After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of
falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation. Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion, expelled
the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent
supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos. Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas
introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the country from all Europeans for about a
6
century and a half. Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations
with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that
no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom. As a result, in 1647, he concluded an
agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should
block any European from entering in to his territory. By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore
peace and order. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning
of the nineteenth century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques
Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint. Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being
the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It wasdominant in Tigray and
Lasta. Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the eternal
birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam. Sost
Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity
as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect
was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. Population Movements
The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in shaping the
history of Ethiopia and the Horn. population movements occurred in the Horn due to various
reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions. People moved from place to place due
to pull and push factors, which can be summed up as natural and social. Specifically, people
move out from their habitats in search of resources and better living environment in general. In
Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be attributed to the region's long
socio-political conditions involving military conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
Population movements of the medieval period had extensive effects including the integration of
peoples across ethnic and religious lines. Major outcomes of population movements during the
7
period under consideration include religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling
of peoples. Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage of peoples, change of abode, original
culture and evolution of new identities.
5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement of
the Argoba, Afar and Somali. In addition, pressure on the environment was a major factor for the
population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and hence
were affected by the consequences of the military conflict. These peoples moved back and forth
in response to the ongoing military conflict.
The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the
Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the
sultanate of Shewa moved further to the east as the result of the pressure from the Christian
Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the center of
Muslim resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar
and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a
target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of conflict. This was
because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba territory. As a result, the
Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the destruction of sultanates and
dispersion of the people.
The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until
they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being actors in the
conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different directions to avoid the
risk of the conflicts. Their pastoral economy helped the Afar to survive the destructive effects of
the wars of the sixteenth century.
8
The Somali: their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes during medieval
period. Prior to the sixteenth century wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates, there was environmental pressure on Somali inhabited areas. The population
movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam. However,
the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their home base
following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot be better understood without
considering the Gadaa system. The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo
socially organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories, maintained
law and order, and managed their economies. This section reflects on the operation of the Gadaa
system in relation to the Oromo population movement of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear
that for long the society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs
through the Gadaa institution. The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early
sixteenth century, the system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were well organized.
Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before the
sixteenth century movement.
Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved
from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization. Time computation and recording history
was based on the eight-year segment of time. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa
period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations represented
an era. Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure were those of Bidiri Dhoqqe.
Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed through
known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-Daye
(warden), each of which survived for an era. Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during
various eras because of various internal and external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu
9
Gadaa was instituted after interruption for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at
Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of all
lineages, clans and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion. In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of
arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).
The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets delineating
members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age- grades and five
classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political framework that
institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations
amongmembers of a grade. The system helped the members of age-sets to develop a consistent
and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class
(generation class or set) forty years after their fathers and were initiated into the next higher
grade every eight years. The following table shows a common version of age-grades and roles
associated to them.
Table II: Age-grades and their roles
Gadaa-grade Age Roles
Dabale birth-8 years Socialization
Game 9-16
Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators and ritual
leaders
10
The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as Abba-
Gadaa literally “father of the period” who was assisted by several elected representatives from
among the generation set. These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of
the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba
Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power transfer
and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,
which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from childhood to old age i.e.
guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba)
and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred power. They
involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving and others. The
kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class.
The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next
every eight years. With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo
territories, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:
The Five Gadaa Classes
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudena Robale
Kilole Birmaji
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.
Furthermore, the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the
11
thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to
leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
In the early decade of the sixteenth century, when the population movement began, the Oromo
were already organized under Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took
northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya.
When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa, they took westward and
penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed northwards to the lakes
region of the Rift Valley.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e Melba
(1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali
while Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River. The Kilole (153846) controlled
Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (154654) advanced to Waj
and Erer. The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora
forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo. The Harmufa (1562-70)
fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1570-
78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force. The Birmaji
(1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti
regiment. The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-
18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday
moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia. In addition to the wars between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates, the organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa
system played crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement.
In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centers. Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda
Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major
Gadaa centers. Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e
Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. Gadaa leaders
12
such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of
Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective
areas.
However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father
of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides,
they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending their delegates to Madda-
Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the
political influence of the Ethiopian state.
In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula including land. Land holding
system to regulate resource and their interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye
system. The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of land.
Accordingly, place names were given the names of pioneers as markers of qabiyye rights.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities
The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the major factors for
the people's interactions across regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict
times. The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,religious
expansion, and territorial expansion and population movements. One of the major consequences
of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the population movement of the
sixteenth century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities in
Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movement of the period relatively covered extensive
geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions from
south to north and from east to west. It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the
Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south. Similarly, the wars of
Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the
expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.
One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that it put an end to the wars between
the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of the Christian state. At
larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century brought far-
reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background. The Oromo
13
integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the child enjoyed
equal rights and privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting
non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that
such membership entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan.
The adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits. The process significantly
contributed to the social cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions. A number
of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language.
Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the people with whom they
came into contact. The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems and the integration
of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim cultures. It is important to mention the rise of nobles
in the northern Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and
the making of modern Ethiopia.
14
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
Somali: The Somali people inhabited vast territory in the Horn. For long, the Somali practiced
pastoral economy and moved between places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient
pasture. Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town located in the southern
Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis together
during the thirteenth century. The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success
depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian Kingdom. Somali contingents also played
important role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal against the Christian kingdom.
Historically, a council known as shir governed the society. The decision making process was
highly democratic in which all-adult male were allowed equal access and participation. These
councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure that acted as an
enforcement of law and justice. The council governed wide-ranging affairs including resource
allocation, marriage, trade and crime. As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders)
was the highest political council mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.
Afar:The Afar predominantly lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although
some have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea. The Afar had an indigenous governance
system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy. The Afar people werefirst
mentioned by Ibn Said. During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland territory near
Bab el-Mandeb.
The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as Maduna and Abasa.
Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the sixteenth century, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad. Awsa Sultanate
succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash. The latter polity had come into
existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa. At some point
after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin
Adam's recorded ascension to the throne. The Sultanate was subsequently reestablished by
Kedafo around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty. Primary symbol of the
Sultan was silver baton. Awsa’s economy mainly depended on BatiGinda’e trade route. Later it
became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfire.
Argoba:Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient. There are two versions on the
origin of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that they descended from the followers of
the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat. The second version
claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants. More
plausibly, the Argoba are one of the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam very early
from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
The Emirate of Harar
15
Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn. In the
sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577
when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used
Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in 1527.
Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the sultanate of
the Harari developed.
In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the Oromo
established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It wasstrengthened
by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in supervising
Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir. The emirate grew in importance to
be a steady center of Islamic culture and power. Its economic power grew as it controlled trade
routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its authority was established over the
surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic
teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent an expeditionary force
in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade. Although it was later restored, and ruled
by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for two years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion
to the region shortly followed in 1887.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Part
The Kingdom of Shewa
The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and
eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat. The second king was
Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his
capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he was killed by the Karrayu
Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha
Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his
capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-1808) conquered
Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda. The dynasty became very
strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During
his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce”
with the British in 1841.
Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft. Near the
capital, Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba administered by the
Shewan court.
Gurage: The Gurage are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage. The first are also
known as Sebat Bet [Link] latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo
[Link] staple crop in Gurage land is enset.
The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. It is known as
the Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane. There was,
however, no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent
groups displayed corporate rights, obligations, and influence.
Kambata:
16
By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary state
of Kambata which means, “this is the place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in). The first
one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland around Mount Hambericho in the
heartland of Kambata territory. The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace
their homeland from Sidama highlands.
If the above processes led to the formation of the nucleus of the state, the ethno-genesis of
Kambata also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the region at
different times. Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the area
between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian Empire. In
1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army, which furthered the interaction of
peoples. At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and conscious of the
name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in the region. The
people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same language called
Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba,
Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.
The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The
council had seven members each representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at the
top, the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.
Hadiya: The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century. It was mentioned
in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in
thefederation of Zeila. The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was
largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable Muslim
population. By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya
after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet” Bel’am aligned with the
then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.
From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, Hadiya’s political importance was considerable
with sizable population and vast territory. In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo. To stabilize
the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya,
who became an important historical figure, married Emperor ZaraYaqob. Another Hadiya leader,
Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but was suppressed in
1568/9.
The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and the Oromo population movement until Hadiya's incorporation
into the Imperial state in the late nineteenth century. After these two major historical events
especially the latter, Hadiya’s population became more diverse. However, descendants of the old
Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena
and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and
Badowacho. As with the Kambata and Sidama, the Hadiya language belongs to the Highland
East Cushitic family and their languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.
5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
17
Sidama Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia occupying
lowlands in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that cut through Lakes Hawasa and Abaya in the
eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and Arroressa districts. Agriculture, although
practiced traditionally, remained the basis ofSidama’s economy. Enset and coffee are Sidama’s
important food and cash crops respectively.
The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote exercised
political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders called Songo.
Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and submitted their
decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written constitution, rules were known
by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. He was selected for his ability as
a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma could not
participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma handled
cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits. He also performed other rituals such as
circumcision and marriage.
Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades each
lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa. Candidates
for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha under the
leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The gaden settled disputes within his
Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama society together with the Mote.
Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of the
Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate truth)
to judge the right and wrong. Although it was not written and defined with strict enforcement
mechanisms, people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization by the society.
Gedeo: Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The dominant
tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo (father
of Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven sons of
Daraso. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte (senior house)
where the first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-clans and the secondcalled sase
batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans. Each clan was
exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional medicine or
leadership.
The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70year
cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one
Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the next age
set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the top, Abba
Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed. Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared a
very close language, their economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso:
18
The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn
who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of the term is a
“heavily forested hill/ area.” A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was covered by dense
forest, had been the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying environment along
Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. Konso attracted the attention of local
and international researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human
settlement sites in the world.
Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers practiced a
fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized agricultural technology. The location of
mainland Konso within mosquito infested hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the Great East
African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture. Farmers combined crop
production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil conservation techniques
notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged and hilly areas into
permanent cultivation. Farmers were also adept at selecting plant varieties that withstood harsh
climatic conditions. Such complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to produce sufficient
food on small plot of land for their sustenance. Besides agriculture, Konso’s economy depended
on bee keeping and craftworks. All of these activities attest the ingenuity of local adaptation
strategies.
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
Wolayta:The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia and their
powerful kingdom, which first emerged as a state in the thirteenth century. According to local
traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the area was inhabited by
different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja. The state flourished in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries because of successful wars that the Wolayta fought
against their neighbors and the material, human and territorial gains thereof. At the apex of the
social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors. From the
thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-
Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla seems to
have ruled until the end of the fifteenth century. It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so
called because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.
The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation cover
for the most part of the year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it to his
dependents. In practice, land relationships were ordered according to three basic principles of
social organization i.e. kinship, polity and social status. Accordingly, rights overland were vested
in the lineage group, the crown (royal estate) and the nobility. There were also communal lands
allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all members of the society except artisans
had equal access. The king rewarded people with land on grounds of gallant deeds in battle and
other important contributions to the state. By grants of land or by threats of dispossession the
reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the state. Except those who worked on the royal estate,
landholders paid tribute to the king. The dominant food crop was enset.
Kafa: According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in the fourteenth century. Around
mid seventeenth century, the state had come to prominence. The ruling Minjo dynasty and the
medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion might have forced the
19
ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity and the
royal title tato to Kafa.
As with a number of Cushitic and some Semitic peoples of the south, Kafa’s economy was based
on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working on their land,
peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with the support of slaves who were
acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for debt. As far as trade is concerned, a
prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the Gibe region. Major trade items, such
as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported via markets like
Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the kingdom expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo,
Maji, Nao, She and Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the Tato with
his major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to
southeast. The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho
served to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well.
The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The Gojeb
also served as natural protection against external invasion and it might have contributed to their
relative independence until 1897.
Gamo:Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe
Mountain and beyond. Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the geze (highland)
and the bazo (lowland). The highlands were densely populated while people who escaped
coercion by the state at the political center largely settled the lowlands which also served as
hunting fields. A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the
Gamo highlands. The laws had their origin in a belief that everything was connected and bound
in a delicate balance. Together they formed a natural resource management system that governed
everything from interpersonal relationships to the conservation and preservation of pasture,
forest, soil, and water.
The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize and
sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands. Other crops grown in the highlands included
barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage. Besides farming, most farmers keptcattle for food,
farming and manure, which they needed for successful agriculture. Craft making, pot making,
tanning and metalworking were other modes of the subsistence system. These people had
developed their own indigenous knowledge and technologies in manufacturing different types of
tools and weapons, traditional musical and funeral instruments, weaving colorful textiles etc.
The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth century in the praise
songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30). The song mentioned the Gamo as one of the tributary states to
the monarch. The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from control by the Christian Kingdom
after war with the Muslim sultanates weakened the latter. Between the sixteenth and the
nineteenth centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and organized in different
communities called dere. The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared three
essential features. These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered
sacrifices and symbolized the unity of the people. 2) every dere had its own initiates called
20
halaqa and; (3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters
were discussed and disputes solved.
Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo people was made possible through initiation or
election and baira, a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in opposition to each
other as well as complementarily. Through initiation or election the dulata (assembly) elected
married men to positions that were known by different names from one dere to another. In some
dere it was called halaqa, in others it was known by the name huduga or maga. Election to this
office was open to all married men and accorded representatives with provisional political
authority. The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions on different social, political
and many other important matters. The assembly had also the power to impose sanctions as
penalty on individuals or groups who committed serious crimes or violated the community’s
social regulations and cultural values.
The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority according
to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans each having a system of
individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege over lineage
members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levelsof the
community. The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept of kawo refers to the first
rank status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and primogeniture. The
kawo represented the unity of dere and played an important role in relations with the outside
world.
Dawuro:
Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland and plain at
Gojeb and Omo river basins. The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed agricultural
activities. The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.
Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and
Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos. The area was also home for people
that came from neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta, Kucha, Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and
from places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa. A political alliance through royal marriages
was one important factor that facilitated the movement of people from neighboring territories
into Dawuro.
By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty
chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and
the Kafa high mountains in the west. Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati
Irashu and Kati Halala were famous. Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of Kafa. During
his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta. He is known for his stone fortifications, which he
oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center
of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at
21
Enfranz in 1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in such places
as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo. Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established
his political seat there.
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Among the major reforms
during these periods were the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and the
establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problems stemming from power rivalry.
Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of
reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was
in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was
also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by
Bakafa in 1721. Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followersand his wife
Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed
increased involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army as will be discussed
shortly.
From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the
reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab
was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the growing power
of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of
Tigray who was politically astute and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing
the situation but refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by
the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras
Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked
the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts
for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but
also in cultural developments. Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments. This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela. The cultural
achievements of the period led some writers to describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian
Renaissance.
Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years,
Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library,
towers, fortifications and churches of various size and shapes.
In the city’s compound, in addition to the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there
are different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa
22
and Regent Queen Mentewab. The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before the
reign of emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle atabout 1586, as could be
seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz. The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually
have two strides and almost square, circular domed corner towers. Not only castles, but the
building of bridges are said to be predate the reign of Fasiledas. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said
to have built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise
erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
Painting: this period is known as for the production of a wealth of religious paintings on
manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories. The churches built by
Queen Mentwab were known for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also known for its
traditional medicine, music and poetry.
Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance trade
routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and
salt were used as medium of exchange. Daily markets were commonly held in the city. With
spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like Indians, Greeks
and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. Inaddition to its political
and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel.
Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church until the middle of the nineteenth
century. Many of the Orthodox churches which served as education centers, known for their
excellence in teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical chanting were centered at Gondar.
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual political power was in the hands of different
regional lords. The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in
1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to dominate the other regional lords.
These measures made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771. Under
the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability but several regional lords evolved. The
main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. When compared to each other the “Yejju
dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. In 1826,
Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of
23
Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. The period of Zemene Mesafint was
brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to
1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
absence of effective central government;
the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
rivalry and completion among regional lords to assume the position of king-maker;
establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;
Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state
due to doctrinal disputes;
Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy.
In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature, arts,
architecture etc during the period.
24