CHAPTER 4

2 Marks Questions (40–50 words, 2–3 lines each)

Q1. What is sensation?

Ans. Sensation is the basic psychological process of detecting and encoding
information from the environment. It provides immediate experiences such as
“loud,” “blue,” or “warm” when a sensory organ like eyes or ears is stimulated.
It is the first step of cognition.

Q2. Define absolute threshold with example.

Ans. Absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus required to be
detected by sense organs 50% of the time. For example, the faintest sound a
person can hear in a quiet room represents the absolute threshold of hearing.

Q3. Name the seven sense organs in human beings.

Ans. Human beings have five external senses—eyes (vision), ears (hearing),
nose (smell), tongue (taste), and skin (touch). Additionally, two internal senses
are present: kinesthetic system (movement of body parts) and vestibular system
(balance and body position).

Q4. What is attention?

Ans. Attention is the process of selectively focusing on certain stimuli while
ignoring others. It includes alertness, concentration, and search. For example,
focusing on a teacher’s voice while ignoring background noise is an act of
attention.

Q5. State one external and one internal factor affecting selective attention.
Ans. External factor: Intensity – bright lights or loud sounds catch attention
easily.
Internal factor: Motivation – a hungry person quickly notices food-related
stimuli even if they are faint.

Q6. Define sustained attention.

Ans. Sustained attention, also called vigilance, is the ability to maintain focus
on a stimulus for long periods. For example, an air traffic controller constantly
monitors radar screens to avoid accidents, showing high levels of sustained
attention.

Q7. What is span of attention?

Ans. Span of attention refers to the number of items a person can attend to at a
brief glance. Miller suggested the “magic number” 7 ± 2, meaning an average
person can attend to about 5–9 items at one time.
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Q8. What are monocular cues?

Ans. Monocular cues are depth perception cues that work with one eye.
Examples include relative size, interposition, aerial perspective, linear
perspective, and motion parallax. These cues are often used in paintings to
create the illusion of depth.

Q9. Define perceptual constancy.

Ans. Perceptual constancy is the stable perception of an object despite changes
in sensory input. For example, a white sheet of paper looks white in both
sunlight and dim light, showing brightness constancy.

Q10. What is an illusion?

Ans. Illusion is a misperception caused by incorrect interpretation of sensory
input. For example, in the Muller-Lyer illusion, one line appears longer than the
other even though both are of equal length.

3 Marks Questions (60–80 words, 4–5 lines each)

Q1. Explain difference threshold with an example.

Ans. Difference threshold (DL) is the minimum difference required between
two stimuli to notice them as different 50% of the time. For example, adding
sugar granules to already sweet water until one can sense a change in sweetness
shows DL. It highlights sensitivity of sense organs to changes.

Q2. Describe two properties of attention.

Ans. Two main properties are:

1. Alertness – readiness to respond, like a runner at the start line.

2. Concentration – focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others, like a
student listening to class while ignoring outside noise.
These properties help us use attention effectively in daily life.

Q3. List three external factors that affect selective attention.

Ans. (i) Size – larger stimuli catch attention quickly.
(ii) Intensity – bright or loud stimuli are noticed easily.
(iii) Motion – moving objects are more attention-grabbing than still ones.
These external stimulus features make them stand out among competing inputs.

Q4. Differentiate between bottom-up and top-down processing.

Ans. Bottom-up processing starts with parts of a stimulus, like colour and
shape, which combine to form a whole object. For example, recognising a dog
by its legs and fur. Top-down processing starts with prior knowledge,
CHAPTER 4

expectations, or experience. For instance, identifying an animal as a dog first

and then noticing details like its ears.

Q5. Define vigilance with an example.

Ans. Vigilance or sustained attention is the capacity to maintain focus on a
stimulus over long time. For example, a security guard watching CCTV screens
must sustain attention to detect unusual activity. Factors like clarity of stimuli
and regular appearance intervals improve vigilance.

Q6. Explain how motivation influences perception.

Ans. Motivation affects perception by shaping how individuals interpret stimuli.
For instance, a hungry person tends to perceive ambiguous pictures as food
items more often than someone who is not hungry. Similarly, desires and needs
guide perception toward satisfying goals.

Q7. What is Gestalt psychology’s main proposition about perception?

Ans. Gestalt psychologists proposed that perception occurs in organised wholes
rather than isolated parts. They argued that the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts, and our brain automatically organises stimuli into meaningful figures
using principles like proximity, similarity, and closure.

Q8. Mention three monocular cues of depth perception.

Ans.

1. Relative size – smaller objects appear distant.

2. Interposition – objects covering others appear nearer.
3. Linear perspective – parallel lines seem to converge in the distance.
These cues allow perception of depth using only one eye and are
commonly used by artists.

Q9. What is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)?

Ans. ADHD is a behavioural disorder mostly seen in children. It involves
impulsivity, excessive motor activity, and inability to sustain attention. Such
children are easily distractible, perform poorly in academics, and face social
problems. Behavioural training and reinforcement are often used for
management.

Q10. Define apparent movement illusion with example.

Ans. Apparent movement illusion occurs when stationary images appear to
move. For example, in cinema, motionless frames are projected in rapid
sequence, creating the illusion of continuous movement. This phenomenon is
known as the phi phenomenon.
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4 Marks Questions (80–100 words, 4–8 lines)

Q1. Explain functional limitations of sense organs.

Ans. Sense organs work only within limited ranges. For example, our eyes
cannot see extremely dim or bright light, and ears cannot hear very faint or very
loud sounds. A stimulus must have an optimal intensity to be noticed. These
limitations are studied in psychophysics. Thus, while our sense organs provide
information about the environment, their range is biologically restricted, which
means we miss many stimuli beyond our detection threshold.

Q2. Differentiate between selective and sustained attention with examples.

Ans. Selective attention is focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others, such
as listening to a teacher and ignoring outside noise. It is influenced by stimulus
features (size, intensity) and personal factors (motivation). Sustained attention,
or vigilance, is maintaining focus for a long period, like an air traffic controller
monitoring signals. The main difference is that selective attention involves
choice, while sustained attention involves continuity of focus over time.

Q3. Explain the span of attention.

Ans. Span of attention refers to the number of items a person can attend to at
one glance. Miller suggested a span of 7 ± 2 items, known as the “magic
number.” For example, a person can easily remember a four-digit number plate
at a glance. The span can be measured with a tachistoscope and varies slightly
among individuals, depending on practice and cognitive ability. It is widely
applied in designing advertisements, notices, and vehicle numbers.

Q4. Explain four Gestalt principles of organisation.

Ans. Gestalt psychologists suggested several principles:

1. Proximity – nearby objects are seen as a group.

2. Similarity – objects similar in form/colour are grouped together.
3. Closure – gaps in figures are mentally filled to form a whole.
4. Continuity – continuous patterns are perceived instead of disconnected
ones.
These principles show that humans organise visual information into
meaningful wholes rather than perceiving isolated parts.

Q5. What are binocular cues of depth perception?

Ans. Binocular cues depend on both eyes.
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1. Retinal disparity – each eye sees a slightly different image; the brain
interprets differences as depth.
2. Convergence – when looking at a close object, eyes turn inward; brain
uses this muscular cue to judge distance.
These binocular cues allow accurate perception of depth in three-
dimensional space and are vital in daily activities like driving or sports.

Q6. Case Study – Attention

While preparing for exams, Riya tries to focus on her book but hears loud TV
noise from the next room. She feels distracted but then manages to concentrate
only on her reading.
Q: Identify the type of attention Riya is using. Explain with reasons.
Ans. Riya is using selective attention because she is filtering out irrelevant TV
noise and focusing only on her study material. This shows her ability to
concentrate on one task while ignoring other distractions. Her motivation to
succeed in exams also supports selective focus.

Q7. What are perceptual constancies? Explain types with examples.

Ans. Perceptual constancy refers to stable perception of objects despite changes
in sensory input.

● Size constancy – a person doesn’t appear smaller when seen from far.
● Shape constancy – a plate remains circular whether viewed from front or
side.
● Brightness constancy – a white paper looks white in sunlight and dim
light.
These constancies help maintain consistency in our perceptual world.

Q8. What are socio-cultural influences on perception?

Ans. Perception is shaped by cultural experiences. Hudson found African
villagers struggled with pictorial depth cues. Eskimos differentiate many snow
types, and Siberian herders identify subtle shades in reindeer fur. Similarly,
Westerners are more prone to Muller-Lyer illusion, while Africans are more
prone to vertical-horizontal illusion. These examples show that socio-cultural
background modifies perceptual learning and habits.

Q9. Explain linear perspective, interposition, relative size, and aerial

perspective as monocular cues.
Ans.

● Linear perspective – parallel lines seem to converge in the distance.

● Interposition – one object covering another appears closer.
● Relative size – smaller objects appear farther away.
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● Aerial perspective – distant objects look hazy due to particles in air.

These cues create depth on two-dimensional surfaces like paintings.

Q10. Case Study – Perception

Rahul looks at a drawing where two lines of equal length appear unequal due to
arrows at their ends. He insists one line is longer even after measurement.
Q: What is Rahul experiencing? Explain.
Ans. Rahul is experiencing the Muller-Lyer illusion, where perception
misinterprets visual input. This occurs because of cultural experiences with
enclosed spaces and right angles. Such illusions show that perception is not
always accurate but influenced by interpretation habits.

6 Marks Questions (120–150 words, 8–10 lines or more)

Q1. Explain theories of selective attention.

Ans. Three major theories explain selective attention:

1. Filter theory (Broadbent, 1956): Many stimuli enter sensory receptors,

but only one passes through a selective filter for higher processing.
2. Filter-attenuation theory (Triesman, 1962): Other stimuli are not fully
blocked but weakened. Personal stimuli like hearing one’s name may slip
through even when weak.
3. Multimode theory (Johnston & Heinz, 1978): Attention is flexible and
can select at sensory, semantic, or conscious stages. Early selection
requires less effort, late selection needs more effort.
These theories highlight that attention is limited in capacity and must
prioritise important stimuli over others.

Q2. Differentiate selective and sustained attention with factors affecting

each.
Ans. Selective attention is choosing one stimulus among many, while sustained
attention is maintaining focus on a stimulus over time. Selective attention is
influenced by external factors (size, intensity, novelty, motion) and internal
factors (motivation, interest). For example, a student hears their name even in
noise. Sustained attention depends on clarity of stimulus, predictability of
appearance, and duration of exposure. For example, radar readers require
vigilance for hours to detect signals. While selective attention allows us to filter
distractions, sustained attention ensures long-term focus, both being vital in
daily functioning and academic success.
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Q3. Explain socio-cultural influences on perception with suitable examples.

Ans. Culture shapes how people interpret stimuli. Hudson’s African subjects
had difficulty recognising objects in pictures and understanding depth cues, as
they were unused to pictorial representation. Eskimos perceive many kinds of
snow that others cannot. Siberian herders can differentiate many shades of
reindeer skin. Illusion studies also prove cultural influence: Africans are more
prone to vertical-horizontal illusion, while Westerners are more prone to
Muller-Lyer illusion due to rectangular environments. These studies show
perception is not universal; rather, it is influenced by learning, culture, and
environment. Socio-cultural experiences thus modify habits of perceptual
inference and shape how people construct their perceptual world.

Q4. What are perceptual constancies? Explain in detail with examples.

Ans. Perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive objects as stable despite
changes in sensory input. Three types are:

● Size constancy – An approaching friend does not appear to grow bigger

even though retinal image enlarges.
● Shape constancy – A door looks rectangular whether open or closed,
despite change in retinal image.
● Brightness constancy – Objects like paper appear white both under
sunlight and in dim light.
These constancies allow humans to perceive a consistent and meaningful
world, ensuring stability of perception. They prevent confusion in
changing sensory conditions and help us act effectively in daily life.

Q5. Case Study – ADHD

Rohit, a 9-year-old boy, is restless in class, does not follow instructions, and is
easily distracted. His teachers complain he cannot focus on lessons and often
interrupts others. At home, parents also find it difficult to manage his
hyperactivity.
Q: Identify the disorder. Explain its characteristics and management.
Ans. Rohit shows symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD). Characteristics include impulsivity, excessive motor activity,
distractibility, and inability to sustain attention. It is more common in boys.
ADHD can persist into adulthood if unmanaged. Biological, dietary, and social
factors contribute to it. Treatment includes medication like Ritalin (though with
side effects), and behavioural management programmes such as reinforcement,
structured tasks, and cognitive behavioural training (stop-think-do). With proper
support, children can learn reflective behaviours and manage attention better.

Q6. Explain monocular and binocular cues of depth perception with

examples.
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Ans. Monocular cues work with one eye and include relative size (smaller
objects look distant), interposition (overlapping objects), linear perspective (rail
tracks converge), aerial perspective (distant mountains appear hazy), light and
shade, relative height, texture gradient, and motion parallax (objects close move
faster). Binocular cues require both eyes:

1. Retinal disparity – slight difference between retinal images helps

estimate depth.
2. Convergence – inward turning of eyes indicates closeness of an object.
Together, monocular and binocular cues help convert two-dimensional
retinal images into three-dimensional perception.

Q7. Case Study – Perception

In a village, children unfamiliar with pictures are shown a drawing of a man
spearing an antelope, but they fail to interpret the depth or action correctly.
Q: What does this example show about perception?
Ans. This case shows socio-cultural influences on perception. Hudson’s study
in Africa revealed similar results where people from pictureless environments
found it difficult to interpret depth cues and identify objects in pictures. Lack of
cultural exposure to pictorial representation affects perceptual learning. This
proves perception is not universal but constructed through cultural background,
habits, and experiences.

Q8. Explain illusions in detail with examples.

Ans. Illusions are misperceptions caused by incorrect interpretation of sensory
input. They are universal but vary with culture.

● Muller-Lyer illusion – two equal lines appear unequal due to

arrowheads.
● Vertical-horizontal illusion – vertical line appears longer than horizontal
of same length.
● Apparent movement illusion (phi phenomenon) – stationary pictures
projected rapidly (as in cinema) appear moving.
Illusions prove perception is not always veridical; instead, it is shaped by
brain interpretation, environmental features, and prior experiences.

Q9. Case Study – Gestalt Perception

A student looks at a picture of dots arranged in columns and perceives them as
groups of columns, not individual dots.
Q: Identify and explain the principle involved.
Ans. The student is experiencing Gestalt principle of proximity, where objects
close to each other are perceived as belonging together. Gestalt psychology
argues that perception organises stimuli into meaningful wholes. Other
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principles include similarity, closure, continuity, and figure-ground segregation.

Together, these principles explain how humans naturally structure their
perceptual world into organised forms.

Q10. Explain role of perceiver in perception.

Ans. The perceiver actively constructs perception using personal factors.

● Motivation – hungry people see food-related objects in ambiguous

images.
● Cultural background – Eskimos differentiate many types of snow.
● Expectations (perceptual set) – if a milkman usually comes at 5:30, a
knock at that time is perceived as him.
● Cognitive style – field dependent individuals perceive globally, while
field independent perceive analytically.
Thus, perception is not passive but shaped by needs, experiences, values,
and attitudes.

2 Marks Case Study Questions (40–50 words answers)

Q1. While listening to music through headphones, Priya suddenly notices the
smell of burning food from the kitchen. Which process allowed her to detect
this new stimulus?

Ans. Priya used selective attention. Her brain shifted focus from music to the
stronger, more relevant stimulus (smell of burning food), ensuring her safety.

Q2. During a quiz competition, Rahul quickly noticed his name being called
despite loud cheering. Which attention theory explains this?

Ans. This is explained by Filter-attenuation theory. Even weak but personally

relevant stimuli like one’s own name can bypass the filter and capture attention.

Q3. A child mistakes a coiled rope in a dimly lit room for a snake. What process
is involved?

Ans. The child is experiencing misperception or an illusion, where sensory

input is wrongly interpreted due to low clarity and prior fear associations.
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Q4. While travelling in a car, distant trees appear to move slowly while nearby
poles appear to move quickly. Which cue explains this?

Ans. This is due to motion parallax, a monocular depth cue, where closer
objects move faster across the retina compared to distant ones.

Q5. Anjali studies late at night. Despite ticking of a clock, she focuses only on
her textbook. What type of attention is this?

Ans. Anjali shows concentration, a property of attention, as she excludes

irrelevant sounds while focusing on her study material.

3 Marks Case Study Questions (60–80 words answers)

Q1. In a crowded market, Aarav instantly notices a bright red sale banner
among many advertisements. Which factor influenced his attention?

Ans. Aarav’s attention was guided by external factors—specifically, intensity

and size. Bright, large, or contrasting stimuli are more likely to capture selective
attention in environments with competing inputs like markets.

Q2. Sneha is hungry. While walking on a street, she instantly notices the aroma
of samosas from a food stall, ignoring other smells. Which factor influenced her
perception?

Ans. Sneha’s internal motivational state influenced her selective attention.

Hunger heightened her sensitivity to food-related stimuli, making the aroma of
samosas stand out among competing smells.

Q3. During a football match, a goalkeeper focuses on the ball while ignoring
crowd noises. What kind of attention is he showing?
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Ans. The goalkeeper is using selective attention, concentrating on the relevant

stimulus (ball) and filtering out distractions like audience noise. This selective
focus ensures better performance in a demanding situation.

Q4. A student sees a 3D movie where objects appear to pop out of the screen.
Which perceptual process explains this?

Ans. This is explained by binocular disparity, a depth cue where slightly

different images from both eyes are combined by the brain, producing the 3D
experience.

Q5. Reena looks at a half-finished circle and perceives it as a complete figure.

Which principle is applied here?

Ans. Reena is using the Gestalt principle of closure, which fills in missing
information to perceive a complete, meaningful figure.

4 Marks Case Study Questions (80–100 words answers)

Q1. During a lecture, Rohan takes notes while occasionally checking his phone
for important messages. What type of attention is this? Explain.

Ans. Rohan is showing divided attention, where focus is split between two
tasks: listening to the lecture and checking messages. This is possible because
one task (note-taking) may be partly automatic, freeing cognitive resources.
However, divided attention is less efficient when tasks are new or complex.

Q2. A traffic policeman easily notes down a speeding car’s number plate even
at a glance. Which psychological concept is involved here?

Ans. The concept is span of attention. Humans can attend to about 7 ± 2 items at
one glance. Vehicle number plates are designed within this range, enabling
quick perception and memory.
CHAPTER 4

Q3. A new employee in an office initially finds typing difficult but, after
practice, can type while talking to colleagues. Which attentional process is at
play?

Ans. This demonstrates automatic processing and divided attention. With

practice, typing becomes automatic, requiring less conscious effort. Thus,
attention can be shared with another task like conversation.

Q4. Case Study – Perception

Meera looks at two different chairs, one close and one far. The farther chair
looks smaller, yet she perceives both as the same size. Identify and explain the
principle.

Ans. Meera is showing size constancy. Despite changes in the retinal image due
to distance, our brain perceives familiar objects as stable in size. This constancy
helps maintain consistent perceptions of everyday objects.

Q5. Case Study – Attention

Arjun is preparing for a competitive exam. He manages to concentrate on

solving questions for two hours without losing focus, despite occasional
background sounds.

Ans. Arjun is showing sustained attention or vigilance. It refers to maintaining

concentration on a task for long periods. Factors like his motivation, clarity of
tasks, and controlled environment help him sustain focus despite distractions.

6 Marks Case Study Questions (120–150 words answers)

Q1. Case Study – Socio-Cultural Influence

Riya, who grew up in a rural area with open fields, finds it difficult to interpret
architectural blueprints during her design course, while her urban classmates
find it easier. Explain the perceptual process involved.
CHAPTER 4

Ans. This case highlights socio-cultural influence on perception. Perceptual

learning and habits differ across cultural backgrounds. Urban students, exposed
to pictures, drawings, and blueprints from an early age, interpret 2D pictorial
cues like linear perspective better. Riya, accustomed to natural open
environments, lacks such prior exposure, making the task harder. Just like
Hudson’s findings, cultural environment shapes perceptual skills. This shows
perception is not just biologically determined but also shaped by environment,
experience, and culture.

Q2. Case Study – Illusion

During a photography class, students are shown two lines with arrow tips facing
inwards and outwards. Most report one line as longer, even after measuring
them equal. Explain the concept involved.

Ans. The students are experiencing an illusion, specifically the Muller-Lyer

illusion. Illusions are misperceptions caused by incorrect interpretation of
sensory input. This illusion occurs due to brain’s habitual interpretation of depth
and enclosure in built environments. It proves perception is not always accurate
but influenced by environmental experiences and expectations. Such illusions
are universal but vary in strength across cultural contexts, showing how
perception involves both stimulus features and cognitive interpretation.

Q3. Case Study – Attention Deficit

A teacher notices that one of her students, Kunal, constantly moves around,
interrupts peers, and struggles to complete tasks despite being intelligent. He
often loses focus even on simple instructions. Identify the issue and explain
management.

Ans. Kunal shows symptoms of ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder). It includes impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inability to sustain
attention. Such children face academic and social challenges. Biological,
dietary, and psychological factors may contribute. Management includes
medication like Ritalin (though with side effects), behavioural strategies
(structured learning, reinforcement), and cognitive training (stop-think-do).
With proper guidance, children can improve focus and control impulsivity.
ADHD shows how deficits in attentional processes impact daily functioning.
CHAPTER 4

Q4. Case Study – Perceptual Constancy

While flying in an airplane, passengers see houses and cars as very small, but
still recognise them as normal-sized objects. Which perceptual principle
explains this? Discuss.

Ans. This is explained by size constancy, a type of perceptual constancy.

Despite changes in retinal image size due to distance, perception of object size
remains stable. Constancies (size, shape, brightness) allow us to perceive the
world consistently. Without them, every change in lighting, distance, or angle
would confuse us. For example, a door looks rectangular whether open or
closed (shape constancy), and a paper looks white both in dim light and sunlight
(brightness constancy). These constancies are crucial for adaptive interaction
with the environment.

Q5. Case Study – Depth Perception

While playing cricket, a fielder correctly judges the distance and speed of the
ball to catch it. Which perceptual processes explain his accuracy?

Ans. The fielder uses depth perception cues. Monocular cues like relative size
and motion parallax help estimate distance when seen with one eye. Binocular
cues like retinal disparity (slight difference between eyes’ images) and
convergence (eye muscles adjusting for near objects) provide precise depth
information. These cues convert two-dimensional retinal images into three-
dimensional perception. Depth perception is essential in sports, driving, and
daily navigation, proving its adaptive value.