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Chapter 1: Testing Basic English Usage

This chapter covers Standard English, the accepted form of English in both speaking
and writing, established by lexicographers and English language faculty at
prestigious universities. Following these rules signals education, facilitates clear
communication, and ensures your message isn't misinterpreted. Standard English
usage will be tested on the GED® Reasoning Through Language Arts test.

1.1 Capitalization
To correctly use capital letters, follow these guidelines:

The first word in a sentence is always capitalized.

Example: Many books have been written about ecology.
Main words in titles of movies, plays, books, stories, magazines, newspapers,
and songs are capitalized. Short words like a, an, the, and, but, or, for, in, from,
to, and into are not.
Examples: The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, Detroit Free Press, Your
Child from Birth to Age Three, Acquainted with the Night, I Have a Dream
Proper nouns (names, companies, places, holidays) are always capitalized.
Examples: Great Lakes, Indian Ocean, The National Hockey League,
Metropolitan Stadium, Lake Erie
Titles like mayor, principal, aunt, and governor are capitalized when they
appear before a name but usually not when they follow a name or are used
without a name, except for high office holders.
Examples: Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Queen Elizabeth, The
President
Do not capitalize the names of seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter) unless
they are part of a proper noun or title.
Use the "proper noun" test: If the word or phrase is the name of a person,
place, or thing, it should be capitalized.
Examples: "my uncle" is fine, but "Uncle Leo" is capitalized.

1.2 Punctuation

End Marks

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End marks are punctuation marks that go at the end of a sentence:

End Mark Usage Example

Many varieties of tulips are

Period (.) After most statements and abbreviations
available.
After commands or statements showing Stop! The performance
Exclamation (!)
excitement or strong emotion was magnificent!
Question Mark What is the capital of
For questions
(?) Idaho?

Commas
As a general rule, commas indicate where readers would pause in a sentence if they
were reading it aloud.

After introductory dependent clauses beginning with words like if, when,
because, after, before, although, or other conjunctions.
Example: Whenever danger threatens, small animals hide in their
burrows.
After two or more introductory phrases.
Example: At the back of the restaurant, there is a private room for parties.
To separate three or more items in a list.
Example: The children rushed down the stairs, out the door, and into the
yard.
To separate two or more words describing a word that follows.
Example: The telephone operator had a pleasant, cheerful, clear voice.
To separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction:
and, but, nor, for, or, so, and yet.
Example: Bruce usually felt at home in the wilderness, yet tonight he was
afraid for some unknown reason.
To set off transitional or parenthetical expressions.
Example: My mother, on the other hand, is not feeling well.
To set off modifying phrases.
Example: Christiana Ferrell, the new art teacher, is starting on Monday.

Commas After Introductory Elements

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In general, a comma should follow an introductory word, phrase, or clause to

separate the introductory element from the main part of the sentence.

Introductory
Example
Element

Introductory Yes, listing your ideas can be very helpful. However, making a list is
words only the first step.
Introductory Giving it some thought, carefully draw up a guest list. On the day
phrases of the party, do as much as you can first thing in the morning.
Introductory
Before you make a list, decide what kind of party you will have.
clauses

A subordinate clause at the end of the sentence generally does not require a comma.

Example: Decide what kind of party you will have before you make a list.

Commas in a Series
When three or more items are listed in a series, place commas between the items.
The comma before the final and or or is optional.

Example: Keith, Darnelle, Marisol, and Doug are ready to take the GED® Test.

To use commas between the items in a series, count the number of items listed and
subtract one; this is the number of commas you should use.

Comma Errors to Avoid

Do not use a comma between the subject and the verb.
Incorrect: Park College, is the school Doug hopes to attend.
Do not use a comma between two subjects, two verbs, or two other items
joined by and or or.
Incorrect: Science, and math are hard subjects for Keith.

1.3 Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that is missing either a
subject or a predicate (which contains a verb).

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Example of fragment missing a subject: Threw the ball. (Corrected: Josh threw
the ball.)
Example of fragment missing a predicate: The big red rooster. (Corrected: The
big red rooster charged into the hen house.)

1.4 Run-ons and Comma Splices

Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is two independent clauses combined without proper
punctuation.

Ways to correct a run-on:

Break the run-on into two separate sentences.

Make a compound sentence (add a coordinating conjunction and a comma).
Make a complex sentence (add a subordinating conjunction and, if necessary, a
comma).

Comma Splices
A comma splice occurs when two sentences are joined with just a comma.

To correct a comma splice, add a coordinating conjunction after the comma.

You can also correct a comma splice using the methods described above for
correcting a run-on. You can also join two related ideas with a semicolon.

1.5 Modifiers
Modifiers are words and phrases used to add descriptive details.

A modifier might be a word like sweaty, a verb phrase like dragging the heavy box, a
prepositional phrase like from the storage room, or a clause like that we packed this
morning.

Dangling Modifiers

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A dangling modifier is a word or phrase at the beginning of the sentence

that has no clear subject to describe.

To correct a dangling modifier:

Turn it into a subordinate clause.

Make the word that the modifier describes into the subject of the sentence.

Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is poorly placed in the sentence; it is not clear
which word it modifies, or it modifies the wrong word in the sentence.

To correct a misplaced modifier, put the modifier next to the word it describes.

1.6 Parallel Structure

When you write a sentence that lists two or more words, phrases, or
clauses, the elements in the list must be in the same grammatical form,
which is known as parallel structure.

Not parallel: The hostess prepared for her party by cooking, cleaning, and to
decorate.

Parallel: The hostess prepared for her party by cooking, cleaning, and decorating.

1.7 Improving Awkward Sentences

Writers create awkwardness when they choose words poorly or arrange them so that
the meaning of the sentence is not expressed well. Always make sure that the
sentence flows in a logical manner and can be understood easily.

1.8 Eliminating Informal or Nonstandard Words

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Spoken English often differs from written English. Spoken English tends to be more
casual and informal. When you are editing a text, you need to eliminate these less
formal and nonstandard words or expressions in order to make the written text more
formal. Contractions and slang should not be used in formal written Standard
English.

1.9 Subject-Verb Agreement

In the present tense, subjects and verbs must agree in number.

Subject Verb Form Example

I, you, we, they, plural Base form of the verb (no -s They walk to
nouns ending) school.
He, she, it, singular nouns Base form of the verb + -s She walks to school.

Collective nouns (army, crew, crowd, staff, family, herd, or flock) are usually singular.

Example: The army is a good place to learn discipline.

Some nouns that end in -s may look plural, but in fact, they are not.

Example: Politics is an interesting topic.

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person:

Category Examples

Everyone, each, anyone, someone, no one, nobody, either, neither,

Singular
one, everyone
Plural Both, few, many, several
Singular or
Some, any, none, all, most
Plural

Agreement with a Compound Subject

A compound subject is made up of two or more subjects joined by and or or.

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When two or more subjects are joined by and, the compound subject is plural.
Example: Tricia and her sister are caring for their mother.
If two subjects are joined by or, the verb agrees with the subject closer to it:
Example: A health aide or a nurse visits each day.
When subjects are joined by either . . . or or neither . . . nor, the verb agrees with
the subject closer to it.
Example: Neither the sisters nor their brother has medical training.

Interrupting Words
Sometimes a word or group of words comes between the subject and the verb. In
that case, locate the subject by asking yourself, "What is this sentence really about?"
Mentally cross out the interruptor. Then make the verb agree with the subject.

Inverted Structure
Checking subject-verb agreement can be tricky when the sentence structure I
inverted—that is, when the subject comes after the verb. Most questions and
sentences that begin with here or there are inverted.

1.10 Verb Forms and Tenses

A verb is a word that indicates action or being. Each verb has four forms.
A regular verb follows a consistent pattern to create each verb form.

Verb Form Example (look)

Base Form look

Present Participle looking
Past Form looked
Past Participle looked

The forms are used to create different verb tenses, or times:

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Tense Structure Example

Simple Present Base form or base form + -s I look; she looks

Simple Past Past form I looked
Simple Future will + base form I will look
Present Perfect has/have + past participle I have looked
Past Perfect had + past participle I had looked
Future Perfect will have + past participle I will have looked
Present Progressive am/is/are + present participle I am looking
Past Progressive was/were + present participle I was looking
Future Progressive will be + present participle I will be looking
Present Perfect has/have been + present
I have been looking
Progressive participle
Past Perfect Progressive had been + present participle I had been looking
will have been + present I will have been
Future Perfect Progressive
participle looking

1.11 Pronoun Usage

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun refers to a
specific person, place, thing, or idea; a common noun is more general. A
pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. The antecedent is the noun that
is being replaced.

Pronoun
Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns
Type

Subject I, you, he, she, it We, you, they

Object Me, you, him, her, it Us, you, them
My, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, Our, ours, your, yours, their,
Possessive
its theirs

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

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Pronouns should agree with their antecedents, or the nouns they refer to. For
example, a pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number. If the antecedent is
singular, the pronoun should be singular. If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun
should be plural. For collective nouns (such as company, jury, family, team,
committee, union), you generally use the singular pronoun it.

It must be clear which antecedent a pronoun refers to. If necessary, use a noun in
place of the pronoun, or reconstruct the sentence.

1.12 Apostrophes and Possessive Nouns

Noun Type Rule Example

boy's desk, women's

Nouns Not Ending in s Use an apostrophe and s ('s) department, Picasso's
paintings
the teachers' association, the
Plural Nouns Ending in s Use an apostrophe alone (')
Beatles' albums
Singular Nouns Ending in Generally, add an
the bus's tires, Yeats's poetry
s apostrophe and s ('s)
Put only the last word in the
Compound Nouns her sister-in-law's birthday
possessive form
Joint Possession (two or Use the possessive form for Johnson & Johnson's
more persons) the last person named laboratory
Separate Possession Put each person's name in
Keats's and Shelley's poetry
(two or more persons) the possessive form

1.13 Transitional Words and Expressions

Transitional words and expressions help create a smooth coherence in a sentence or
paragraph. More importantly, they show the relationship between two ideas:

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Category Examples

meanwhile, so far, finally, at last, then, lastly, first, when,

Order or Time
next
Contrast or
but, however, in contrast, on the other hand, similarly, unlike
Comparison
Cause and Effect as a result, consequently, therefore, since, thus, because
in fact, for example, specifically, of course, that is, for
Example or Emphasis
instance
Addition also, additionally, besides, furthermore, in addition

1.14 Frequently Confused Words

Word Pair Correct Usage Example

its (possessive pronoun), it's Its nose is so cold. It's too late to
its / it's
(contraction of it is) get to the concert.
their (possessive pronoun), there The boys are eating their dinner.
their / there
(adverb), they're (contraction of they We should be there soon. They're
/ they're
are) away.
who's / who's (contraction of who is), whose Who's the one who wants to go
whose (possessive pronoun) swimming? Whose ticket is this?
to / too / to (preposition), too (also), two I am going to the bakery. Jeremy
two (number) has a new bike, too. There are left.
He knew the deal would not go
knew (past tense of to know), new
knew / new through. The new model is much
(latest or novel)
sleek.
passed / passed (past tense of pass or He passed the exam. The past
past approved), past (history) seems so romantic.

Chapter 2 Testing Reading Comprehension

This chapter covers how to comprehend written texts by identifying main ideas,
supporting details, inferences, conclusions, and generalizations.

2.1 Identifying the Main Idea in a Text

The main idea of a text is what it is mostly about.

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Sometimes the main idea is stated directly in a topic sentence.

Key Ideas:

The most important point of a passage is called the main idea.

Sometimes a main idea is stated, but often you must figure it out.
Supporting details point to and explain the main idea.

2.2 Supporting Details

Supporting details include facts, examples, descriptions, and specific
pieces of information that support the main idea.

2.3 Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions

To make an inference or draw a conclusion, you use evidence available in
the text to make a calculated guess that is supported by that evidence.

2.4 Identifying Textual Evidence

Some questions will ask you to identify evidence that supports an inference.

2.5 Conclusions and Generalizations

A generalization is a broad statement about a group or class.

When assessing a generalization, evaluate the writer’s evidence.

An important factor in thoughtful reading is distinguishing between faulty and
valid generalizations.

A conclusion is an idea figured out from different pieces of information.

You can use your knowledge of the real world to help you draw conclusions when
you read.

Chapter 3: Structure and Author’s Choices

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3.1 Sequence of Events

When reading texts, it is crucial to pay attention to the order in which events occur.
The GED® test may include questions that assess your ability to follow the sequence
of events in a text, potentially using a "drag and drop" format.

To determine the correct sequence, carefully revisit the text and trace the action step
by step.

Here is an example from Jack London’s White Fang. The task is to indicate the order
in which the following events took place:

The image above presents an "Order of Events" flowchart for students to arrange the
events in sequence. The events include White Fang looking into a teepee, Kiche
snarling at White Fang, White Fang backing away, and White Fang having no place
for Kiche in his life.

The correct order is:

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1. White Fang looks into a teepee.

2. Kiche lifts her lip at White Fang in a snarl.
3. White Fang backs away from Kiche.
4. White Fang has no place for Kiche in his life.

The completed chart looks like this:

This image displays a flowchart that sequences key events from White Fang. It
begins with White Fang looking into a teepee and concludes with him realizing Kiche
has no place in his life, providing a clear understanding of the story's progression.

3.2 Structural Relationships

Authors make choices about what information to include and where to place it to
develop ideas effectively. Each part of a text builds upon the preceding part,
contributing to the overall structure.

The GED® test may include questions about:

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How a sentence or paragraph contributes to the overall point.

How the structure shapes meaning, emphasizes ideas, and reinforces the
author’s purpose.
How one paragraph develops or refines a key concept.
How one idea is distinguished from another.
How the structure emphasizes a key idea or supports the author's purpose.

For example, consider General Dwight David Eisenhower's message to the troops
before the D-Day invasion. A question might ask how paragraph 1 conveys a key idea
of the message. The correct answer is that it emphasizes the vital importance of the
troops' effort to the world.

Another question might ask why Eisenhower included the sentence "The tide has
turned!" The correct answer is that this sentence gives the troops hope.

3.3 Author’s Language

The words an author chooses can significantly influence a text. They can help
understand relationships between ideas, provide clues to unknown words, suggest
subtle distinctions, and create tone.

Transitional Words
Writers use transition words to create relationships between ideas, enabling
different text structures.

Here are some common text structures and their purposes:

Text Structure Purpose

Cause and Effect Shows how one thing made another happen.
Compare and Contrast Illustrates similarities and differences.
Introduces an unfamiliar topic and follows with examples
Example
for understanding.
Pros and Cons Presents the benefits and deficiencies of a situation.
Chronological
Presents details in the order in which they occur.
Order/Process
Makes a statement and provides additional information or
Elaboration
explanation.

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For instance, consider a text about loggerhead turtles. The author might use the
word "However" to introduce the problem that bright artificial lights pose for
hatchlings, emphasizing that these lights add to the natural obstacles the turtles
face.

Context Clues
When encountering an unknown word or phrase, look for context clues in the nearby
text to figure out its meaning. These clues can be in the same sentence or
surrounding sentences.

For example, in the sentence, "There was a portentous feeling to the night," the
context clues (something dramatic and unforgettable was going to happen; rebels
might emerge and attack) suggest that "portentous" means "threatening."

Word Choice and Connotation

Writers carefully select words that have a connotation associated with a particular
image or feeling. For instance, "dog" has a neutral connotation, "mutt" has a negative
connotation, and "man’s best friend" has a positive connotation.

Shack: Negative connotation (small, poorly built, run-down).

Villa: Positive connotation (house in the countryside, vacation destination).

Figurative Language
Writers use figurative language to make their descriptions clearer and more vivid.

Simile: Compares two things using "like" or "as" (e.g., "His voice was like
velvet").
Metaphor: Implies a comparison between two things (e.g., "Life is a journey").
Personification: Assigns human characteristics to something non-human (e.g.,
"The storm was slashing at the windows").

Tone
Tone and mood are crucial aspects of a text. The author’s language and word choice
create a particular tone or mood that colors all the other aspects of the text.

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Tones can be:

Mysterious
Frightening
Ironic
Inspiring
Amusing
Ominous
Tragic
Peaceful
Lighthearted
Desperate
Formal
Angry

For example, in an excerpt from Herman Melville's Moby Dick, the conversation
between the stranger and Queequeg and the narrator has a mysterious and ominous
tone that foreshadows the tragedy of the book.

Replacing one word with another can significantly change the tone of a sentence. For
example, changing "urge" to "beg" in the sentence "Senators, I stand before you to
urge you to vote for my bill" makes the tone more desperate.

Chapter 4 Literary Text

4.1 Plot or Events in a Story

The plot is what happens in a story, comprised of events that build a storyline. A
typical plot includes a central problem and a resolution.

For example, in a story about Pat's house being full of animals, the central problem is
that Pat's mother wants to find homes for some of the pets. The resolution is that Pat
helps out at a pet hospital.

4.2 Characters
Characters are the heart of a story, shaping it and giving it meaning. Authors develop
characters through:

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Direct description
Actions and speech
What others say about them
How they interact with others

4.3 Theme
The theme is the central idea behind a story’s events and characters. It is rarely
stated directly and must be inferred from the story's elements.

Here are some examples of themes:

How a wronged person can obtain justice

How difficult it is to make peace between enemies
How a journey can bring wisdom to a traveler

For instance, in Sherwood Anderson's "Paper Pills," the theme is that only a few
know the sweetness of the twisted apples. The sentences from the story that best
represents its theme is "Only the few know the sweetness of the twisted apples."

4.4 Narrator Viewpoint

Characters and the narrator all have a point of view, seeing the story from different
perspectives. The reader determines the viewpoint based on what characters say and
do.

Chapter 5 Informational Texts

5.1 Foundational Texts

Foundational texts are historical documents related to the history of the United
States. Examples include selections from the Bill of Rights and the U.S. Constitution.

5.2 Inferring Relationships between Ideas

In nonfiction texts, writers connect ideas in specific ways to make a point or advance
a thesis. Common connections include:

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Cause and effect

Compare and contrast
Parallel ideas

Cause and Effect

To determine the cause of an event, ask "Why did this happen?"
To determine the effect, ask "What was the result?"

A cause-and-effect relationship exists when one event or idea influences

another.

For example, if you forget to fill your car with gas (cause), the car will stall (effect).
Here's an exercise to illustrate cause-and-effect relationships using the example of a
puppy:

Cause: The puppy is wild and energetic.

Effect: The owners take him to the park.
Cause: It's just the way a puppy is.
Effect: The puppy is so wild and energetic.
Effect: The activity in the park calms him and tires him out.
Cause: The puppy gets plenty of exercise.
Effect: A walk in the park has a calming effect on the puppy. Let's consider an
excerpt from "The Depression" to further understand cause and effect:
1. Why was the depression of the 1930s so important?
C. It affected nearly everyone.
2. Which of the following was an effect of the depression?
A. Many people lost the mortgages on their homes.
3. Which of the following was one cause of the depression?
B. Low worker incomes.
4. In the early part of the depression, what effect did government policies have
on the economy?
D. The very rich were helped.
5. One person who lived during the depression stated, “I can remember one
time, the only thing in the house to eat was mustard. . . . And we can’t stand
mustard till today.” This account supports which of the following ideas from
the passage?
B. The depression touched everyone.

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Compare and Contrast

Comparing and contrasting involves identifying the similarities and differences
between two or more subjects. Example:

Different animals hunt in different ways.

Dogs hunt with their noses, smelling food from far away.
Bats hunt with their ears, catching insects in the dark.
Falcons hunt with sharp eyes, spotting small movements from high above.
Rattlesnakes hunt by sensing heat, finding mice in the grass.

Question: What ideas are being contrasted in the passage?

C. hunt

Parallel Ideas
A parallel relationship equates two ideas, presenting them in an equal
form. It's often used for dramatic effect, particularly in speeches.

Example: John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address:

Asknotwhatyourcountrycandof oryou—askwhatyoucandof oryourcountry.

Author’s Viewpoint and Purpose

The author's viewpoint reflects their opinion or perspective on the topic, which
may be directly stated or implied.
The author's purpose is what they hope to achieve through their writing, such
as to entertain, express feelings, inform, or persuade.

Consider this excerpt:

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The Romanian capital of Bucharest was officially founded in 1495 by

Prince Vlad Tepes. This beautiful city, on the banks of the Dambovita
River, became prominent as the city from which he governed. While
Prince Vlad was notorious for his cruel treatment of his enemies—his
reputation inspired the Irish writer Bram Stoker to create the fictitious
Count Dracula—he was a wise and brave defender of the people over
whom he ruled.

Which statement best reflects the author’s view of Vlad Tepes?

C. Vlad Tepes has been unfairly portrayed. Consider this passage:

Until fairly recently in human history, the most popular medical

remedy for all manner of ailments was bloodletting. Leeches were
placed on the patient’s skin and allowed to drain from twelve to
eighty ounces of blood. Bloodletting was routinely used to treat
outbreaks of yellow fever in the 18th century. George Washington’s
troops, for example, were regularly leeched, though the process
could not have helped soldiers who were already weakened by cold
and an inadequate diet. Finally, in the last century, a French doctor
decided to find out if bleeding really did help. He observed 134
patients with a variety of diseases and concluded that bloodletting
was no help at all. After that, the practice dwindled. Today there are
only two or three conditions for which modern medicine might use
bloodletting. Bloodletting can be used to reduce a bloody swelling
or an abnormal buildup of iron in the blood.

Why did the author write this passage?

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A. to inform readers about a subject Read the following letter:

Dear Rosa: The Spring Book Sale is a great event. It has been held
for the past 10 years, and we hope the tradition will continue for at
least another 10 years. Alice Mann was the person to organize the
first book fair. Without her selfless work, the library would be in
much more difficult financial straits than it is today. The event is fun
for everyone who participates, including those who volunteer at the
booths. Although some people complain that it’s a lot to ask of
people to give up a Saturday for a cause like raising money for the
local library, I think you would agree that it is a rewarding
experience. This year we are looking for someone to coordinate the
fair. I understand you have experience doing such a thing. Would
you consider taking on the post? I will give you a call later in the
week to discuss this in greater detail. Best wishes, Tonia Rogers

What is the author’s purpose for writing this letter?

B. to ask if Rosa would coordinate this year’s fair

5.3 Analyzing Arguments

Persuasive texts use arguments to convince the reader. It's important to recognize
and analyze these arguments to determine if they are based on sound reasoning or
merely reflect the writer’s opinion. Consider President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s
First Inaugural Address:

I am certain that my fellow Americans expect that on my induction into

the Presidency I will address them with a candor and a decision which the
present situation of our Nation impels. This is preeminently the time to
speak the truth, the whole truth, frankly and boldly. Nor need we shrink
from honestly facing conditions in our country today. This great Nation
will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So, first of all,
let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear
itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed
efforts to convert retreat into advance. In every dark hour of our national
life a leadership of frankness and vigor has met with that understanding
and support of the people themselves which is essential to victory. I am
convinced that you will again give that support to leadership in these
critical days.

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What argument is President Roosevelt making?

C. The United States will surely overcome its current problems. Which
quotation from the text supports the argument?
C. “This great Nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper.”

Fact Versus Opinion

When analyzing arguments, distinguish between facts (provable) and opinions (not
provable). Consider this text about Frederick Douglass:

When African Americans traveled by train in the pre-Civil War era, they
were consigned to separate and inferior compartments, a demeaning
experience which infuriated Douglass. Whenever he traveled by train, he
made a point of occupying the most luxurious compartment in the white
section. On one memorable occasion, Douglass was traveling by train
through Massachusetts, comfortably seated in a carriage reserved
exclusively for Caucasian passengers. The conductor ordered him to leave
and Douglass, when told that the reason was the color of his skin, gave
no sign of complying but simply leaned back comfortably in his chair.
Soon six rough-looking trainmen appeared, and when Douglass still gave
no sign of leaving, they seized him. Douglass simply wrapped his arms
and legs around the seat. The six men heaved and struggled. Finally they
managed to work their opponent free, but not before large chunks of the
seat were ripped out. In the days that followed, Douglass stayed in the
nearby town of Lynn, where his ejection from the train was the exclusive
topic of conversation. Indeed, Lynn’s railway superintendent, fearing
further disturbances, commanded that all trains should bypass his town
until he could learn what Douglass would do next. Accordingly, for the
next few days, trains dashed through Lynn without stopping. Which
statement is based on opinion?

D. In the town of Lynn, people talked about nothing but the incident.

5.4 Source Reliability

Reliable information comes from dependable sources.

Bias is a tendency to lean toward one side over another. It can affect the
reliability of information.

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When evaluating a source, consider the author’s background and motives. For
example, when reading an article about the Battle of Lexington and Concord, a
scholarly article published in an academic journal is the most reliable source of
factual information.

A. a scholarly article on the battle published in a prominent academic journal

Classifying Sources:
Primary or Reliable or
Source Material
Secondary Unreliable

The text of the Declaration of Independence used

to describe the grievances of American colonists Primary Reliable
against the British government.
An eyewitness account of the terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001, in New York City used to
Primary Reliable
make an argument about the effectiveness of
citywide efforts to rescue victims.
A dramatic film about the leaders of civil rights
protests in the United States in the 1960s used to
Secondary Unreliable
support an argument about the passage of the
Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Holocaust survivor memoirs published by the
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum used
Primary Reliable
to describe conditions in Nazi concentration camps
during World War II.

5.5 Evaluating Claims

Claims can be valid or based on faulty reasoning, invalid sources, or may
be misleading.

Consider this excerpt:

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Good evening, Council members. I want to tell you a story about myself.
Four years ago, my wife bought me a bicycle. She thought I needed to get
more exercise. At first I was resistant, but with her support I started to
ride on the weekends. I realized how wonderful it was to be out of doors
and also to be exercising. Slowly I started to benefit from that exercise
with a more toned body, greater stamina, and improved circulation. Then
something hit me. My job is only two miles from my home. I decided to try
biking to work as often as I could and I just loved it. I still do love it. I get
up in the morning, have my breakfast, and then just take off. To be honest,
when it’s raining or snowing I take the car, but even in winter, when it is
clear, I cycle to work and the fresh cold air clears my head and makes me
feel so good. Did you know that according to the U.S. Census, some
500,000 people bike to work each day? I believe that number is growing
at a fast pace. In addition, according to a website called Environmental
Benefits of Cycling and Walking, there are about 2.8 million bike
commuters. I would estimate that at least a third of these people are
under the age of 16! They bike to and from school. Many of those counted
are in high school and others are in college. So that’s why I am making the
following proposal. We as a community should create bike paths along
the busiest roads. This would make bike travel so much safer for the
bikers and for vehicle drivers as well. It would also promote an activity
that helps people get and stay in shape. I have drawn up a petition which
has been signed by 412 people, and that’s without even trying. I know
that I could garner more than 1000 signatures if need be.

Which claim is most valid?

A. Some 500,000 people bike to work each day.

5.6 Rhetorical Techniques

Rhetorical techniques are verbal techniques used to capture an audience’s attention
and make arguments more persuasive. Common rhetorical techniques include:

Alliteration: Repetition of letters in words to draw attention.

Analogy: Comparison of one situation to another to make a point.
Enumeration: Making a list of items or breaking items into categories.
Repetition and parallelism: Repeating related statements in a parallel way.
Juxtaposition of opposites: Showing how things are different.
Qualifying statements: Showing that a statement may or may not be true.

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Consider this excerpt from President Barack Obama’s Keynote Address:

That is the true genius of America, a faith—a faith in simple dreams, an

insistence on small miracles; that we can tuck in our children at night and
know that they are fed and clothed and safe from harm; that we can say
what we think, write what we think, without hearing a sudden knock on
the door; that we can have an idea and start our own business without
paying a bribe; that we can participate in the political process without fear
of retribution, and that our votes will be counted—at least most of the
time.

What rhetorical technique does President Obama employ?

D. repetition and parallelism

5.7 Comparing Texts

Comparing two passages involves examining their similarities and differences in
terms of perspective, tone, structure, purpose, or overall impact.

Passage A
I have been studying the subject of school-uniform requirements and have
finally come to a conclusion based on what I have found. According to the
literature and studies that I have read, it is wise to require schoolchildren
to wear uniforms so that the playing field will be level for all students.
The studies I have read show that when children are required to wear an
issued uniform, they all look basically alike. If a uniform is not required,
some children will wear more expensive clothes and others will wear
hand-me-downs. Studies show that these differences in dress lead to
divisions among the students. Children whose clothes are similar—both
the well-to-do and the poorer children—will seek each other out. Children
in one group will not associate with children in another group. The
resulting class-conscious division can be detrimental to the future of a
child’s development. That is the conclusion that I have come to after
thinking long and hard about this subject.

Passage B

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I believe in my heart that children should be allowed to express

themselves. Even at a young age, being allowed to select the clothes they
wear helps children to develop their sense of individualism and identity.
This is why I am opposed to requiring uniforms in schools. Simply
dressing children in the same way will not keep some children from
associating exclusively with peers who are most like themselves socially
and economically. Uniforms just make children feel lost because they do
not have the ability to show who they are or who they would like to be.
Requiring uniforms would nip in the bud any sense of creative spirit and
would only cause resentment in children who might not feel that way
otherwise. I feel it is un-American to require school uniforms and I am
opposed to it completely. This is not something that we should be doing
to our children! The truth is that uniforms do not make children equal, as
some educators believe; they just stunt their growth.

How is the tone of Passage A different from the tone of Passage B?

D. Passage A has a more thoughtful tone than Passage B. How are Passage A
and Passage B similar in purpose?
A. want to convince readers that a particular idea is correct.

Informational Texts

Passage: The Hurricane by John James Audubon

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Various portions of our country have at different periods suffered severely

from the influence of violent storms of wind, some of which have been
known to traverse nearly the whole extent of the United States, and to
leave such deep impressions in their wake as will not easily be forgotten.
Having witnessed one of these awful phenomena, in all its grandeur, I will
attempt to describe it. The recollection of that astonishing revolution of
the ethereal element even now bringing with it so disagreeable a
sensation, that I feel as if about to be affected by a sudden stoppage of
the circulation of my blood. I had left the village of Shawaney, situated on
the banks of the Ohio, on my return from Henderson, which is also
situated on the banks of the same beautiful stream. The weather was
pleasant, and I thought not warmer than usual at that season. My horse
was jogging quietly along, and my thoughts were, for once at least in the
course of my life, entirely engaged in commercial speculations. I had
forded Highland Creek, and was on the eve of entering a tract of bottom
land or valley that lay between it and Canoe Creek, when on a sudden I
remarked a great difference in the aspect of the heavens. A hazy thickness
had overspread the country, and I for some time expected an earthquake,
but my horse exhibited no propensity to stop and prepare for such an
occurrence. I had nearly arrived at the verge of the valley, when I thought
fit to stop near a brook, and dismounted to quench the thirst which had
come upon me. I was leaning on my knees, with my lips about to touch
the water, when from my proximity to the earth, I heard a distant
murmuring sound of an extraordinary nature. I drank, however, and as I
rose on my feet, looked toward the southwest, where I observed a
yellowish oval spot, the appearance of which was quite new to me. Little
time was left me for consideration, as the next moment a smart breeze
began to agitate the taller trees. It increased to an unexpected height, and
already the smaller branches and twigs were seen falling in a slanting
direction towards the ground. Two minutes had scarcely elapsed, when
the whole forest before me was in fearful motion. Here and there, where
one tree pressed against another, a creaking noise was produced, similar
to that occasioned by the violent gusts which sometimes sweep over the
country. Turning instinctively toward the direction from which the wind
blew, I saw, to my great astonishment, that the noblest trees of the forest
bent their lofty heads for a while, and, unable to stand against the blast,
were falling into pieces. First, the branches were broken off with a
crackling noise; then went the upper part of the massy trunks; and in
many places whole trees of gigantic size were falling entire to the ground.

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So rapid was the progress of the storm, that before I could think of taking
measures to insure my safety, the hurricane was passing opposite the
place where I stood. Never can I forget the scene which at that moment
presented itself. The tops of the trees were seen moving in the strangest
manner, in the central current of the tempest, which carried along with it a
mingled mass of twigs and foliage, that completely obscured the view.
Some of the largest trees were seen bending and writhing under the gale;
others suddenly snapped across; and many, after a momentary resistance,
fell uprooted to the earth. The mass of branches, twigs, foliage, and dust
that moved through the air, was whirled onward like a cloud of feathers,
and on passing, disclosed a wide space filled with fallen trees, naked
stumps, and heaps of shapeless ruins, which marked the path of the
tempest. This space was about a fourth of a mile in breadth, and to my
imagination resembled the driedup bed of the Mississippi, with its
thousands of planters and sawyers, strewn in the sand, and inclined in
various degrees. The horrible noise resembled that of the great cataracts
of Niagara, and as it howled along in the track of the desolating tempest,
produced a feeling in my mind which it is impossible to describe.

1. What is the author’s viewpoint toward the storm?

B. He is in awe of the power of the storm.
2. Which quotation expresses an opinion?
D. “The mass of branches, twigs, foliage, and dust that moved through the
air, was whirled onward like a cloud of feathers, and on passing, disclosed
a wide space filled with fallen trees, naked stumps, and heaps of
shapeless ruins, which marked the path of the tempest.”
3. What primary cause-and-effect relationship is found in the text? Between the
A. storm and the trees
4. Why is this text reliable?
A. It was written by an eyewitness to the storm.

PASSAGE A: Chief Joseph

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Tell General Howard I know his heart. What he told me before, I have it in
my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our Chiefs are killed; Looking Glass is
dead, Ta Hool Hool Shute is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the
young men who say yes or no. He who led on the young men is dead. It is
cold, and we have no blankets; the little children are freezing to death. My
people, some of them, have run away to the hills, and have no blankets,
no food. No one knows where they are—perhaps freezing to death. I want
to have time to look for my children, and see how many of them I can find.
Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my Chiefs! I am tired;
my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands I will fight no
more forever.

PASSAGE B: Chief Seattle

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White Chief says the Big Chief at Washington sends us greetings of

friendship and good will. This is kind of him for we know he has little need
of our friendship in return. His people are many. They are like the grass
that covers vast prairies. My people are few. They resemble the scattering
trees of a storm-swept plain. The Great—and I presume— good White
Chief sends us word that he wishes to buy our lands but is willing to
allow us enough land to live comfortably. This indeed appears just, even
generous, for the Red Man no longer has rights that he need respect, and
the offer may be wise also, as we are no longer in need of an extensive
country. . . . To us the ashes of our ancestors are sacred and their resting
place is hallowed ground. You wander far from the graves of your
ancestors and seemingly without regret. Your religion was written upon
tables of stone by the iron finger of your God so that you could not forget.
The Red Man could never comprehend nor remember it. Our religion is the
tradition of our ancestors—the dreams of our old men, given in solemn
hours of night by the Great Spirit; and the visions of our sachems; and it is
written in the hearts of our people. . . . However, your proposition seems
fair, and I think that my people will accept it and will retire to the
reservation you offer them. . . . But should we accept it, I here and now
make this condition—that we will not be denied the privilege of visiting at
any time the tombs of our ancestors, friends and children. Every part of
this soil is sacred in the estimation of my people. Every hillside, every
valley, every plain and grove, has been hallowed by some sad or happy
event in days long vanished. The very dust upon which you stand
responds more lovingly to my people’s footsteps than to yours, because it
is rich with the dust of their ancestors, and our feet are conscious of their
sympathetic touch.

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5. In Passage A, what is Chief Joseph’s viewpoint on war?

A. He has been fighting in war long enough.
6. In Passage B, what is Chief Seattle’s view of the relations between whites and
Native Americans at the time when he spoke?
A. Native Americans had little power and were few in number compared
to whites.
7. How is the purpose of Chief Joseph’s speech different from the purpose of Chief
Seattle’s speech?
D. Chief Joseph is surrendering after being beaten in war, but Chief Seattle
is agreeing to go willingly into a reservation.
8. In what way is the perspective of Chief Joseph similar to the perspective of
Chief Seattle? They both
A. are concerned about their people’s future welfare.

PASSAGE A: Patrick Henry

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Sir, we have done everything that could be done to avert the storm which
is now coming on. We have petitioned; we have remonstrated; we have
supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves before the throne, and have
implored its interposition to arrest the tyrannical hands of the ministry and
Parliament. Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrance have
produced additional violence and insult; our supplications have been
disregarded; and we have been spurned, with contempt, from the foot of
the throne. In vain, after these things, may we indulge the fond hope of
peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any room for hope. If we wish
to be free—if we mean to preserve inviolate those inestimable privileges
for which we have been so long contending—if we mean not basely to
abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and
which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the glorious
object of our contest shall be obtained, we must fight! I repeat it, sir, we
must fight! An appeal to arms and to the God of Hosts is all that is left us!
They tell us, sir, that we are weak—unable to cope with so formidable an
adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or
the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British
guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by
irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual
resistance, by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive
phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot?
Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God
of nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the
holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are
invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, sir,
we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides over
the destinies of nations, and who will raise up friends to fight our battles
for us. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the
active, the brave. Besides, sir, we have no election. If we were base
enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. There is no
retreat but in submission and slavery! Our chains are forged! Their
clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war is inevitable—and
let it come! I repeat it, sir, let it come! It is in vain, sir, to extenuate the
matter. Gentlemen may cry, “Peace! Peace!”— but there is no peace. The
war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring
to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the
field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What
would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at

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the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what
course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!

9. What is Patrick Henry’s main argument?

A. War has really already started against Great Britain.
10. Which rhetorical technique does Patrick Henry use in paragraph 7 of Passage
A?
D. Repetition and parallelism
11. Which quotation from Passage A supports Patrick Henry’s claim that the
colonies are not weak?
C. “Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in
such a country as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which
our enemy can send against us.”
12. How does the timeline in Passage B complement Patrick Henry’s speech in
Passage A? It indicates
D. when his speech was given in relation to other events leading to war.

Chapter 6 RLA Extended Response

The Extended Response (ER) section of the GED® Reasoning Through Language
Arts (RLA) test requires you to analyze two nonfiction texts and write an essay
stating your opinion about which text offers the soundest arguments.

Your ER score makes up about 20% of your total RLA score. ER responses
are scored based on analysis, development and organization, and
writing conventions.

6.1 Understanding the Prompt

To understand exactly what you’re being asked to write about, carefully read the
prompt and identify:

The issue
The description of what you are asked to do
Instructions for completing the task

Unpacking a prompt means taking it apart in your mind and planning

how you are going to accomplish the task.

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Follow these five steps as you read the passage(s). At the end of the process, you
will have good information and ideas to use as you write your essay.

1. Scan the passage(s) to get a sense of what the passage(s) is/are about and note
how the information is organized.
2. Read the passage(s)
3. Use your whiteboard to write down questions that you have about the content.
4. Determine the author’s main argument, and write that down.
5. Evaluate the author’s argument. Did he or she provide good support or enough
evidence for it?

“Argumentation” refers to the assumptions, claims, support, reasoning,

and credibility on which a position is based.

6.2 Identify a Writer’s Arguments and Assumptions

A writer’s argument is a conclusion, which is supported by facts, details,
and other evidence.

A writer’s assumptions are his/her own beliefs about a certain topic that
he/she does not explicitly state in his/her piece

Your response to the writing assignment will be based on identifying a writer’s

argument. Read a short passage. Identify the writer’s conclusion about the topic and
the assumptions behind it.

Secondhand smoke is the smoke that comes either from the lighted end of
a cigarette, pipe, or cigar or from the exhalation of a smoker. Most people
consider secondhand smoke to be less dangerous than the nicotine that a
cigarette user intakes. However, the particles that come from the smoke of
the lighted end of a cigarette, called sidestream smoke, contain higher
concentrations of carcinogens, which are chemicals that cause cancer.
These particles can be breathed in easily by people around smokers,
especially in enclosed areas. Therefore, all restaurants should ban
smoking inside.

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1. What is the writer’s topic?

(1) secondhand smoke and its effects
2. What is the writer’s conclusion about the topic?
(2) Smoking should be banned inside restaurants.
3. Which of the following is the writer’s unstated assumption?
(2) Restaurants should take steps to protect the health of their patrons.

6.3 Develop a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement makes a claim and indicates that the passage will support
the claim with specific and relevant information.
A thesis statement differs from an opinion, which is a feeling or belief about the
topic of the passage.
A thesis statement is strengthened if it confronts any problems in a passage.
makes your argument clear
provides the reader with a road map of what you will be discussing
Compare these two statements about the clean coal selections from previous
article. Label the thesis statement with TS and the opinion with O.
____ I think that Passage A is better than Passage B because it does a
good job of explaining the new technologies and reminds us that coal is
responsible for half of our electricity.
____ I think that Passage B makes a better argument because it backs up
its conclusion with information about overuse of water, mountaintop
removal, and potential mercury poisoning.

The first statement is an OPINION The second statement is a THESIS STATEMENT

6.5 Collect Supporting Evidence

Formulate your thesis statement and collect supporting evidence while you
read by using the tools provided.
Gather supporting evidence that is specific and ties back to your thesis
statement.
Avoid facts that are interesting but not relevant to your central argument. Once
you have formulated your thesis statement, you need to use evidence from the
passage or passages to support your claim.

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6.6 Extended Response Scoring Rubric

Your extended response will be scored on a 0- to 12-point system. The extended
response is graded based on sets of writing standards called rubrics. There are three
rubrics, worth 2 points each. Your score on each one will be doubleweighted so that
the maximum point score is 12.

The first rubric will assess your analysis of arguments and the use of evidence
in your response.
The second rubric will assess the development of your ideas and the
organizational structure of your response.
The third rubric will assess the clarity of your writing and the command of
Standard English conventions in your response.

6.7 A Simple Structure for Extended Response

1. Beginning
State the main idea or position, starting with a topic sentence/thesis
statement that restates the question and sets the stage to answer the
prompt.
2. Middle
Key elements to include in the body of the essay, such as answering the
question first, providing important information from the author, and
including background information as required.
3. Ending
Emphasizes the importance of writing a closing that summarizes the
position taken or restates the thesis statement in a different way.

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