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 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar Heating Systems

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. The systems are composed of solar
thermal collectors and a storage tank, and they may be active, passive or batch systems. Solar
water heating (SWH) is the conversion of sunlight into renewable energy for water
heating using a solar thermal collector.

Active solar water heating systems

 Direct circulation systems

Pumps circulate household water through the collectors and into the home. They work
well in climates where it rarely freezes.
 Indirect circulation systems
Pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and a heat
exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. They are popular in
climates prone to freezing temperatures.

Passive solar water heating systems

 Integral collector-storage passive systems

these work best in areas where temperatures rarely fall below freezing. They also
work well in households with significant daytime and evening hot-water needs.
 Thermosyphon systems
Water flows through the system when warm water rises as cooler water sinks. The
collector must be installed below the storage tank so that warm water will rise into the
tank. These systems are reliable, but contractors must pay careful attention to the roof
design because of the heavy storage tank. They are usually more expensive than
integral collector-storage passive systems.

Solar Dryers

Solar dryers are devices that use solar energy to dry substances, especially food. There are
two general types of solar dryers: Direct and indirect.

Modern solar crop driers are still very simple, but also more effective and hygienic. The basic
components of a solar dryer are an enclosure or shed, screened drying racks or trays, and a
solar collector. The collector can be as simple as a glazed box with a dark colored interior to
absorb the solar energy that heats air. The heated air in the collector moves, by natural
convection or a fan, up through the material to be dried.
Solar Cooking

• A solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or
pasteurize food or drink.
• Concentrating sunlight: A mirrored surface with high specular reflectivity is used to
concentrate light from the sun onto a small cooking area.
• Converting light energy to heat energy: Solar cookers concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver such as a cooking pan. The interaction between the light energy and the
receiver material converts light to heat.
• Trapping heat energy: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside
the cooker from the air outside the cooker. Simply using a glass lid on your pot
enhances light absorption from the top of the pan and provides a greenhouse
effect that improves heat retention and minimizes convection loss.

Solar Power Satellite:

A solar power satellite (SPS) is a proposed satellite built in high Earth orbit that uses
microwave power transmission to beam solar power to a very large antenna on Earth where it
can be used in place of conventional power sources. The advantage of placing the solar
collectors in space is the unobstructed view of the sun, unaffected by the day/night cycle,
weather, or seasons. However, the costs of construction are very high, and SPSs will not be
able to compete with conventional sources unless low launch costs can be achieved or unless
a space-based manufacturing industry develops and they can be built in orbit from off-earth
materials.

Solar Power Generation:

The most obvious use of solar energy is to generate electricity for your home. You
can choose a full solar electrical system and completely remove yourself from the grid (local
power company), or you can choose a partial system using the grid as a back-up or night time
power. In a back-up system, the grid provides power only if there is no sunshine and the
batteries that store electricity for such times are dead. Night time power uses power from the
grid when the sun goes down.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly

using photovoltaic’s (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic’s convert light into an electric current using
the photovoltaic effect.

Solar water desalination

Solar desalination is a technique to desalinate water using solar energy. There are two basic
methods of achieving desalination using this technique; direct and indirect.

In the direct method, a solar collector is coupled with a distilling mechanism and the process
is carried out in one simple cycle. Solar stills of this type are described in survival guides,
provided in marine survival kits, and employed in many small desalination and distillation
plants. Water production by direct method solar distillation is proportional to the area of the
solar surface and incidence angle and has an average estimated value of 3-4L/m2/day.
Because of this proportionality and the relatively high cost of property and material for
construction direct method distillation tends to favour plants with production capacities less
than 200m3/day.
Indirect solar desalination employs two separate systems; a solar collection array, consisting
of photovoltaic and/or fluid based thermal collectors, and a separate conventional
desalination plant. Production by indirect method is dependent on the efficiency of the plant
and the cost per unit produced is generally reduced by an increase in scale. Many different
plant arrangements have been theoretically analyzed, experimentally tested and in some cases
installed. Indirect solar desalination systems using photovoltaic (PV) panels and reverse
osmosis (RO) have been commercially available and in use since 2009. Indirect solar
desalination by a form of humidification/dehumidification is in use in the Seawater
Greenhouse.

Solar Cooling

Photovoltaic’s can provide the power for any type of electrically powered cooling be
it conventional compressor-based or adsorption/absorption-based, though the most common
implementation is with compressors. For small residential and small commercial cooling (less
than 5 MWh/a) PV-powered cooling has been the most frequently implemented solar cooling
technology. Since PV cooling's cost effectiveness depends largely on the cooling equipment
and given the poor efficiencies in electrical cooling methods until recently it has not
been cost effective without subsidies. Using more efficient electrical cooling methods and
allowing longer payback schedules is changing that scenario.
 PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar cell:

 Solar cell is a photovoltaic device that converts the light energy into electrical energy
based on the principles of photovoltaic effect.
 Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials
1. Crystalline silicon
2. Cadmium telluride
3. Copper indium diselenide
4. Gallium arsenide
5. Indium phosphide
6. Zinc sulphide
Fabrication of solar cell:
• Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the
semiconductor material Silicon (Si). As the second most abundant element in earth`s
crust, silicon has the advantage, of being available in sufficient quantities.
• To produce a solar cell, the semiconductor is contaminated or "doped".
• "Doping" is the intentional introduction of chemical elements into the
semiconductor.
• By doing this, depending upon the type of dopant, one can obtain a surplus of either
positive charge carriers (called p-conducting semiconductor layer) or negative
charge carriers (called n-conducting semiconductor layer).
• If two differently contaminated semiconductor layers are combined, then a so-called
p-n-junction results on the boundary of the layers.

• By doping trivalent element, we get p-type semiconductor. (with excess amount of

hole)
• By doping pentavalent element, we get n-type semiconductor ( with excess amount of
electron)

• The generation of voltage across the PN junction in a semiconductor due to the

absorption of light radiation is called photovoltaic effect. The Devices based on
this effect is called photovoltaic device.
 •

Types of Solar cell

Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells
 The Monocrystalline silicon cell is produced from pure silicon (single
crystal). Since the Monocrystalline silicon is pure and defect free, the
efficiency of cell will be higher.
 In polycrystalline solar cell, liquid silicon is used as raw material and
polycrystalline silicon was obtained followed by solidification process. The materials
contain various crystalline sizes. Hence, the efficiency of this type of cell is less than
Monocrystalline cell.
 Amorphous silicon was obtained by depositing silicon film on the substrate like glass
plate. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1µm – the thickness of a human hair
for comparison is 50-100 µm. The efficiency of amorphous cells is much
lower than that of the other two cell types.
Material Efficiency (%)

Monocrystalline silicon 14-17

Polycrystalline silicon 13-15

Amorphous silicon 5-7

Advantages of solar cell

1. It is clean and non-polluting
 [Link] is a renewable energy
[Link] cells do not produce noise and they are totally silent.
[Link] require very little maintenance
[Link] are long lasting sources of energy which can be used almost
anywhere
6. They have long life time
7. There are no fuel costs or fuel supply problems
Disadvantages of solar cell
1. Solar power cannot be obtained in night time
2. Solar cells (or) solar panels are very expensive
3. Energy has to be stored in batteries
4. Air pollution and whether can affect the production of electricity
5. They need large are of land to produce more efficient power supply

PV SYSTEM INTEGRATED WITH POWER GRID

 Solar Array : Converts insolation to DC electric power.

 Blocking diode: To prevent battery discharge during no insolation.
 Battery storage : Solar generated electricity may be stored.
 Inverter / converter: Solid state inverter for conversion of battery voltage to AC power of
frequency and phase to match the utility grid.
 Appropriate switches and circuit breakers: Isolation of inverter output and utility grid for
protection.

APPLICATIONS OF PV CELLS

Lighting

The availability of low power DC lighting, such as low pressure sodium and fluorescent
lights, makes PV an ideal source for meeting remote or mobile lighting needs. Obviously,
lighting demands are greatest at night, making battery storage essential. PV systems are
currently used to provide lighting for billboards, highway information signs, public-use
facilities, parking lots, marinas, homes, vacation cabins, piers, and caboose lighting for
trains.
Solar Water Pumping:

A solar-powered pump is a pump running on electricity generated by photovoltaic

panels or the radiated thermal energy available from collected sunlight as opposed to grid
electricity or diesel run water pumps.

A photovoltaic solar powered pump system has three parts:

 solar panels.
 the controller
 the pump
The solar panels make up most (up to 80%) of the systems cost. The size of the PV-
system is directly dependent on the size of the pump, the amount of water that is required
(m³/d) and the solar irradiance available.
The purpose of the controller is twofold. Firstly, it matches the output power that the
pump receives with the input power available from the solar panels. Secondly, a
controller usually provides a low voltage protection, whereby the system is switched off,
if the voltage is too low or too high for the operating voltage range of the pump. This
increases the lifetime of the pump thus reducing the need for maintenance.
Voltage of the solar pump motors can be AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current).
Direct current motors are used for small to medium applications up to about 3 kW rating,
and are suitable for applications such as garden fountains, landscaping, drinking water for
livestock, or small irrigation projects. Since DC systems tend to have overall higher
efficiency levels than AC pumps of a similar size, the costs are reduced as smaller solar
panels can be used.
Finally, if an alternating current solar pump is used, an inverter is necessary that changes
the direct current from the solar panels into alternating current for the pump. The
supported power range of inverters extends from 0.15 to 55 kW and can be used for larger
irrigation systems. However, the panel and inverters must be sized accordingly to
accommodate the inrush characteristic of an AC motor.
 Solar Cookers
Working Principle, Construction, and Applications
Solar cookers are devices that use sunlight to cook food. They come in different types, but they all
have something that helps capture more sunlight and keep the heat inside. Inside the cooker, there is
a space like an oven where you can put the food to cook. Solar cookers can reach temperatures
between 90 and 150 degrees Celsius, and some can even go up to 230 degrees Celsius. With these
temperatures, you can cook almost any food as long as the sun shines.

Working principle of Solar Cookers

Concentrating sunlight: A special mirror surface is used to reflect and focus sunlight onto a
small cooking area. This helps to intensify the heat and create higher temperatures for cooking. While
sunlight can be concentrated to extremely high levels that can melt salt and metal, household solar
cookers are designed to achieve temperatures ranging from 65 to 400 degrees Celsius.

Converting light energy to heat energy: The concentrated sunlight is directed towards a cooking
pan or receiver. When the sunlight interacts with the receiver material, it is converted into heat energy
through a process called conduction. To maximize this conversion, materials that can conduct and
retain heat effectively are used. The pots and pans used in solar cookers should be matte black in
color as it helps them absorb as much sunlight as possible.

Construction of Solar Cookers

Here are the simplified steps for constructing a solar cooker:

1. Create a box shape using an aluminum sheet, following the size of a wooden box.
2. Paint the inside of the aluminum box black to help absorb sunlight.
3. Insert the aluminum box into the wooden box.
4. Attach a mirror to the lid and secure the lid to the wooden box using hinges.
5. Place a glass sheet on top of the box to trap heat inside.
6. Paint the cooking containers and tools black from the outside.
7. Fill the painted containers with food and put them inside the box.
With these steps, the glass sheet helps retain heat inside the box, while the mirror focuses sunlight,
heating the box. Now, your solar cooker is ready to prepare meals.

Types of Solar Cookers

The different types of solar cookers are :

(a) Box Type: Fig. shows the box-type cooker. The solar cooker is a rectangular box measuring 50 x
50 x 12 cm. It has insulation made of glass wool on the sides and bottom to prevent heat from
escaping. A reflector also helps increase the temperature inside the box by about 15-20 degrees
Celsius. The glass also helps maintain a steady temperature of around 160 degrees Celsius inside the
cooker.

During winter, you may need to adjust the position of the mirror to make sure it captures enough
sunlight. It’s important to note that cooking takes longer in winter compared to summer. The best
time for cooking is between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. when the sun is strongest.

(b) Focusing Type or Indirect Type: Fig. shows the focusing type cooker as a paraboloid. The
glass surface or aluminum foil is used as a reflector coating from the inside. The cooking pot is placed
at the focus of the paraboloid, where reflected rays get focused to heat the pot. The temperature of the
pot achieved is more than 200° C. The system is adjustable to track the sun.
(c) Collector Type (Community Cooker): These solar cookers are designed to cook food not only
during the day but also at night. They have a special feature called a collector and storage system.
During the day, the collector captures extra heat energy and stores it for later use. This stored energy
can be used to cook food at night. The figure illustrates how this device works. It has three modes of
operation: day cooking, day non-cooking period, and night cooking. These modes are controlled by
opening and closing different passages using a control valve.

Advantages of Solar Cookers

1. The fuel is the free source of the sun.

2. There are fewer thermal losses.
3. Nutrition value is maintained.
4. The heat required to change the chemical and physical structure is less than sensible heating in
the conventional method.

Disadvantages of Solar Cookers

1. People cook in the traditional way.

2. Cooking is only done during daylight hours.
3. People rely on sunlight for cooking.
4. There is no control over the cooking temperature.
5. It can be expensive to cook using this method.

Applications of Solar Cookers

Here are some applications of solar cookers:

1. Outdoor cooking: Solar cookers are commonly used for outdoor activities such as camping,
picnics, and barbecues. They provide a convenient and eco-friendly way to prepare meals in
open spaces without the need for traditional fuel sources.
2. Developing regions: In areas with limited access to electricity or cooking fuels, solar cookers
offer a sustainable solution for cooking food. They help reduce reliance on firewood, charcoal,
or fossil fuels, leading to environmental benefits and improved air quality.
3. Disaster relief: Solar cookers are often used in emergency situations or disaster-stricken areas
where conventional cooking methods may be disrupted. They provide a reliable and safe way
to cook food without requiring external fuel sources.
4. Food preservation: Some solar cookers can be used for food dehydration, which helps
preserve fruits, vegetables, and herbs by removing moisture. This method can extend the shelf
life of perishable food items without the need for electricity.
 Hydrogen Production Using Solar Energy
Introduction

Hydrogen is a clean, non-polluting fuel, but it does not occur naturally in free form and must be
produced from sources like water. Solar energy can be effectively used for hydrogen production,
offering an eco-friendly alternative to fossil fuels.

Methods of Hydrogen Production Using Solar Energy

There are three main solar-based methods:

I. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Electrolysis

Process:

 Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity.

 This electricity powers an electrolyzer, which splits water (H₂O) into hydrogen (H₂) and
oxygen (O₂).

Advantages:

 Mature and reliable technology

 Clean and modular
 Uses commercially available components

Limitations:

 Efficiency depends on solar radiation

 High initial cost of PV and electrolyzer setup

II. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting

Process:

 Semiconductor materials in a PEC cell absorb sunlight.

 They use the light energy to directly split water into H₂ and O₂.
 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting uses semiconductors to convert solar energy directly into
chemical energy, producing hydrogen and oxygen from water using a single device. Sunlight creates
electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor, with electrons reducing protons to form hydrogen and holes
oxidizing water to form oxygen at the electrode-electrolyte interface. Key challenges for practical
application include improving the stability and efficiency of photoelectrode materials to harness more
of the solar spectrum and prevent charge carrier recombination.

How PEC Water Splitting Works

1. Photoabsorption:
A photoelectrode (semiconductor) absorbs photons from sunlight.
2. Charge Carrier Generation:
The absorbed photons excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, creating
electron-hole pairs.
3. Charge Separation:
The photogenerated electrons and holes must be separated and prevented from recombining.
4. Redox Reactions:
 Reduction (Cathode): Electrons migrate to the cathode, where they reduce protons (H+) to form
hydrogen gas (H₂ ).
 Oxidation (Anode): Holes move to the anode and oxidize water (H₂ O) to form oxygen gas (O₂ ).

The key componenets of the system involves

Photoelectrodes:
Semiconductor materials (like TiO₂ , Fe₂ O₃ , or others) that absorb light and are responsible for
both light absorption and electrochemical catalysis.
Electrolyte:
A water-based solution that facilitates the movement of ions to maintain electrical neutrality and
enables the necessary reduction and oxidation reactions.
Catalysts:
Often incorporated to lower the high activation energy of the water-splitting reaction, improve
charge separation, and enhance overall efficiency.

Advantages:

 Direct solar-to-hydrogen conversion

 Potential for low-cost, high-efficiency systems
 Limitations:

 Stability of materials is a major concern

 Still in research and development stage

III. Solar Thermal (Thermochemical) Water Splitting

Process:

Thermochemical water splitting processes use high-temperature heat (500°–2,000°C) to drive a series
of chemical reactions that produce hydrogen. The chemicals used in the process are reused within
each cycle, creating a closed loop that consumes only water and produces hydrogen and oxygen. The
necessary high temperatures can be generated in the following ways:

 Concentrating sunlight onto a reactor tower using a field of mirror "heliostats," as illustrated
in the figure given below

Numerous solar thermochemical water-splitting cycles have been investigated for hydrogen
production, each with different sets of operating conditions, engineering challenges, and hydrogen
production opportunities. Two examples of thermochemical water splitting cycles, the "direct" two-
step cerium oxide thermal cycle and the "hybrid" copper chloride cycle, are illustrated in the figure
given below. Typically direct cycles are less complex with fewer steps, but they require higher
operating temperatures compared with the more complicated hybrid cycles.

 Uses concentrated solar energy (from mirrors or lenses) to achieve very high temperatures.
 These temperatures drive thermochemical reactions that split water into H₂ and O₂.
Advantages:

 High theoretical efficiency

 No electricity required
 Utilizes abundant solar heat

Limitations:

 Requires high-temp materials

 Complex system setup

Summary Table
Stage of
Method Electricity Needed Efficiency Cost
Development
PV
Yes Commercially used Medium High
Electrolysis
Low– Low
PEC No R&D phase
Medium (future)
Solar Thermal No Pilot projects High High

Advantages of Solar Hydrogen Production

 Environmentally friendly (zero emissions)
 Renewable and sustainable source
 Reduces dependence on fossil fuels
 Suitable for off-grid and remote areas

Challenges
 High initial capital cost
 Hydrogen storage and transport issues
 Intermittent nature of solar energy
 Low efficiency (in some methods)

Conclusion
Solar-powered hydrogen production is a promising and sustainable approach to meet future energy
needs. While PV electrolysis is currently the most feasible, PEC and solar thermal methods have
strong potential. With ongoing research and investment, these technologies can lead to large-scale,
green hydrogen production.
 Solar Thermal System Design (Design of Solar
Thermal)
The Solar Thermal Design and Installation guide is for any professional that is looking to learn more
about how to design and install solar thermal systems on residential and solar thermal applications.

It involves the following main steps,

 Selection of Location
 Measuring the hot water usage
 Measuring the size of storage tank
 Sizing the collectors
 Cost estimation
 Installation

Selection of location:

We have to make sure the roof has solar access and enough room for collectors. Solar access is simply
exposure to the sun from 9 am to 3 pm all year round and within 25 degrees, east or west, of true
south. It’s best not to have any shading at all, but solar thermal collectors are much less susceptible
to shading than photovoltaic systems. If you do have some shading, you can sometimes compensate
by installing larger collectors. How much room do solar collectors take up? Flat plate collectors are
typically larger and the average size is four feet by eight feet. A normal house will need two to three.

Measuring hot water usage:

Next, you need to measure hot water usage. Typically, one person uses 20 gallons of hot water per
day.( 1 Gallon of water = 3.78541 L) This is a good rule of thumb. This could be less–if there are five
people living in a home, they will probably only use 80 to 90 gallons instead of the expected 100.
However, some people could use much more water daily if they have any appliances or activities that
consume vastly more amounts of hot water than normal. It is key to collect this information during
the site visit.

Measuring the size of storage tank

Then measure the size of the solar storage tank. Sizing solar storage tanks is very simple–count one
gallon of storage per gallon of usage. This makes sense, right? Every day the goal will be to heat up
the water that the household will use, and then use that water. The tricky part is that since tanks only
come in standard sizes, it is recommended to round up. If you use 50 gallons of hot water and can’t
get a 50-gallon tank, purchase a sixty-gallon tank.

Sizing the collectors

Finally, you must size the collectors. In order to size collectors, you will look at this ratio; how many
square feet of collector is needed per gallon of storage. This ratio will change based on your climate.
In the northeast, the ratio is 1.5 to 2 square feet of collector per gallon of storage. This metric
internalizes climate data. Thus, in south climates you need less square feet of collector per gallon of
storage because it is hotter and there is more sun. To use the previous example, if you have a 60-
gallon storage tank, you need between 90 (60*1.5) and 120 (60*2) square feet of collector. There are
two more things to remember, though. First, this ratio only works with flat plate collectors. Second,
collectors only come in standard sizes. A common collector size is four feet by eight feet–equally 32
square feet. In that case, you would use three collectors, or 96 square feet of collector in total, which
is between your range of 90 and 120. If you had 4 by 10 foot collectors (40 square feet), you could use
3 collectors as well to get 120 square feet, still within the range.

Cost estimation

The next step is to calculate the cost of each equipment that varies based on the brand, size and place
to place. For example, the cost of two flat plate collectors (4 foot by 8 foot) and a 60 storage tank
would be priced around $10,000 in US, the cost of industrial water heater tank is around 1,25,000/-,
a residential water heater tank of 100 L capacity costs around 18,000/-, etc

Installation

The installation process involves the following steps

 L-Foot Attachment: Each L foot must be firmly mounted to rafters for structural support,
especially wind and snow loading.

 Square Rail: For aesthetic purposes its key that the rail is square. Also, many solar thermal
manufacturers premeasure each rail so they may not fit perfectly with the panels you've
specified if it’s not square. It's likely that if the rail is not square the panels will not fit.

 Panel Connection: The connection between panels is a must for pressurized systems. If the
connection is not 100% perfect fluid will leak from the system and it will begin to perform
poorly in a short amount of time. Good plumbers will pressure test the system with air before
they fill it with glycol
 Lineset Penetration: The linset (the piping or cabling used to connect different components
of the system) penetration is the point where most leaks will occur so it is critical that the
penetrations through the roof and the membrane used will keep water out.

Solar collectors used in Solar thermal system design

Mostly we use Flat plate or evacuated tube solar collectors. There are several design parameters to
consider while looking into flat plates or evacuated tubes. So we’ll go over a few:

Cost: Flat plate collectors tend to be cheaper than evacuated tubes because they are a simpler design
and easier to manufacture. This analysis however, is on a collector-to-collector level. Evacuated tubes
tend to be 10-15% more expensive than flat plates, but their processing costs are dropping.

Warranties: Generally speaking, you want to design these systems to last 40 years, and they should
be able to. The flat plate collectors will tend to have longer warranties–a 20-year warranty as
opposed to a 10-year warranty for evacuated tubes. This is presumably because of the level of
sophistication with the technology. Be sure to check with the distributor and manufacture of the
collector to see how long the warranty is.
Installation: Flat plat collectors are heavier, take up more room, and can be cumbersome to install
on certain roofs. Evacuated tubes tend to have lighter components and are easier to manage on the
roof. On the other side, evacuated tubes tend to be more fragile than flat plates.

Reliability: Flat plate collectors can only heat water up to 170-180 degrees Fahrenheit, which means
there is very little risk of overheating. Evacuated tubes, on the other hand, can heat water to well
over 250 degrees. For this reason, they are much more likely to overheat than flat plates, and you
need to be more concise with your design. If you’re using evacuated tubes, it’s always better to
oversize your storage tank rather than undersize it for this reason. Evacuated tubes are also used
more in colder climates because they are more efficient than flat plates in extremely cold
temperatures. In extremely warm climates, evacuated tubes have a very high chance of overheating,
so be careful if you’re in the southern states.

Water Use: In determining the best collectors to use, it will depend on what you’re going to use the
water for and how much you’re going to use. Evacuated tubes can heat large amounts of water very
quickly and can get the water above 180 degrees. So, if you have a sizable load, such as in commercial
or space heating situations, you may want to look into evacuated tubes. Flat plates work best with
domestic water. Their temperate range fits well within code for hot water usage. They can also be
used for space heating in low-heat hydronic applications, but you’ll need to size accordingly.

Snow: If you’re in the Northeast or Midwest, snow loading and production during the winter is a large
factor. Generally, evacuated tubes are not good at shedding snow. This is because the tubes are such
a good vacuum that they do not shed much snow. Flat plate, on the other hand, can shed snow easily
with just a little sunlight.

Structural Wind Loading: If you’re working on a job where the rafters are questionable, and you’re in
an area with significant wind loading, evacuate tubes tend to have the advantage.

Performance: If both types of collectors are placed side by side on the same roof, the performance is
based on the difference between the entering water temperature that you’re heating and the ambient
temperature. In other words, the performance depends on the temperature of the water coming from
the storage tank compared to the ambient temperature, i.e. the temperature of the surroundings. As
the variance increases (i.e. you’re in colder temperatures), evacuated tubes become more efficient.
Graph of efficiency and temperature ranges of various types of collectors
(radiation: 1000 W/m2).
 SOLAR PV SYSTEM DESIGN
A solar PV system design can be done in four steps:
 Load estimation
 Estimation of number of PV panels
 Estimation of battery bank
 Cost estimation of the system.
 Base condition:2 CFLs(18 watts each),2 fans (60 watts each) for 6hrs a day.

 The total energy requirement of the system (total load) i.e Total connected load to PV panel
system
= No. of units × rating of equipment = 2 × 18 + 2 × 60 = 156 watts

 Total watt-hours rating of the system

= Total connected load (watts) × Operating hours = 156 × 6 = 936 watt-hours

 Actual power output of a PV panel = Peak power rating × operating factor

= 40 × 0.75 = 30 watt

 The power used at the end use is less (due to lower combined efficiency of the system
= Actual power output of a panel × combined efficiency
= 30 × 0.81 = 24.3 watts (VA)
= 24.3 watts

 Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel in a day

= Actual power output × 8 hours/day (peak equivalent)
= 24.3 × 8 = 194.4 watts-hour

 Number of solar panels required to satisfy given estimated daily load :

= (Total watt-hour rating (daily load)/(Daily energy produced by a panel)
=936/194.4 = 4.81 = 5 (round figure)

 Inverter size is to be calculated as :

 Total connected load to PV panel system = 156 watts
 Inverter are available with rating of 100, 200, 500 VA, etc.
 Therefore, the choice of the inverter should be 200 VA.

COST ESTIMATION OF A PV SYSTEM

(a) Cost of arrays = No. of PV modules × Cost/Module

= 5 × 8000 (for a 40 Wp panel @ Rs.200/Wp) = Rs.40000

(b) Cost of batteries = No. of Batteries × Cost/Module

=1 × 7500= Rs.7500
(c) Cost of Inverter = No. of inverters × Cost/Inverter = 1 × 5000
= 1 × 5000 = Rs.5000
Total cost of system = A + B + C = 40000 + 7500 + 5000 = Rs.52500
[Additional cost of wiring may be taken as 5% of total system cost]

ASSUMPTIONS TAKEN FOR DESIGN

:
 Inverter converts DC into AC power with efficiency of about 90%.

 Battery voltage used for operation = 12 volts

 The combined efficiency of inverter and battery will be calculated as :

combined efficiency = inverter efficiency × battery efficiency = 0.9 × 0.9 = 0.81 = 81%

 Sunlight available in a day = 8 hours/day (equivalent of peak radiation.

 Operation of lights and fan = 6 hours/day of PV panels.

 PV panel power rating = 40 Wp (Wp, meaning, watt (peak), gives only peak power
output of a PV panel)

 A factor called „ operating factor‟ is used to estimate the actual output from a PV module.
[The operating factor between 0.60 and 0.90 (implying the output power is 60 to 80%
lower than rated output power) in normal operating conditions, depending on
temperature, dust on module, etc.]
 DESIGN OF BIOGAS PLANT
Biogas system design for cooking for a family of six members is considered here. The system design
includes the estimation of total gas required, amount of feedstock (or dung), required and the number
of animals required to have feedstock of a given amount.

Following assumptions are made for the design:

About 350-450 litres of biogas required per day per person for cooking (in engine about 450
litres/hp/hour of biogas is required)
Average production of dung per animal per day:
 Cow– 10 kg/day
 Bullock – 14 kg/day
 Buffalo – 15 kg/day
Other biomass night soil, sugar cane bagasse, maize straw, etc. can also be used)
 1000 litres of gas is equivalent to 1 m3 of gas.
 Average gas production from dung is about 40 litres/kg of fresh dung.
 Retention period of dung slurry in digester is 50 days.

AMOUNT OF GAS REQUIRED PER DAY

I. Number of family members =6 (adult). Considering 400 litre/day/person for cooking, total
gas required = 6 × 400 = 2400 litres/day or about 2.4 m3 gas/day.
II. Number of animals required to fulfil daily gas requirement = Amount of gas produced from a
kg of fresh dung = 40 litre/kg.
III. Total amount of dung required = Total gas required/Gas per kg of dung
= 2400/40 = 60 kg.
IV. Thus, in order to have 60 kg of dung no. of cows required = in order to have 60 kg of dung
no. of cows required = 60/10 = 6 cows.

DESIGN OF DIGESTER AND GAS HOLDER

In order to make slurry, water should be added to equal amount of dung.

 Total mass of slurry – Dung+ Water = 60+60 = 120 kg.

 Volume of slurry per day (specific gravity of slurry is about 1090 kg/m3)
= Total mass of slurry/Specific gravity
= 120/1090 = 0.11 m3
 Retention period of slurry = 50 days. Total volume of the digester = per day volume of slurry
× retention period = 0.11 × 50 = 5.5 m3 ~ 6 m3.
 Dimensions of the digester : Depth to diameter ratio should be between 1 and 1.3
 Gas holder tank dimension : The volume of the gas holder tank should be about 60% of the
per day gas volume.
 Various possible costs incurred in manufacturing of a biogas plant is given below:
 Component Capital cost (Rs.)
1. Gas holder and frame 5500
2. Piping and stove 1750
3 .Civil engineering construction 12000
Total cost of biogas plant 19250

SAVING DUE TO USE OF BIOGAS PLANT

Assuming that biogas is replacing the use of LPG in a household, following calculations can be done
to calculate the amount savings.
 The amount of LPG required is about 2kg/per person/month

 Total LPG required for 6 people for a month is 6×2=12 kg/month

 Cost of LPG per kg is about Rs. 24.

 Total cost of LPG (if used in place of biogas) = 12×24 =Rs.288 per month (this amount is
monthly saving.)

 Total yearly savings = 288 × 12 = Rs.3456 per year

 Therefore, the simple payback period is = Total cost of biogas plant/yearly savings
= 19250/3456 = 5.5 years
 ESTIMATION OF REQUIRED WIND TURBINE POWER RATING
Assume that annual energy requirement of an industry is 20000 kWh ,we calculate that what will be
the size of wind turbine that is required to be installed to meet the energy requirement.
Following assumptions are taken into account for estimation:
 Annual energy requirement – 20000 kWh
 Propeller type wind machine is used
 Coefficient of performance – 0.40
 Wind speed at 15 metre height is 5 metre/sec (if the turbine hub is placed at the height
other than 15 metre, the wind speed should be estimated as shown in „vertical‟ wind
speed variation section‟.
 Density of air – 1 kg/m3
 Capacity factor – 0.30 (i.e. 30% of the time, wind machine is producing energy at
rated power)
 Number of hours in a year 8760 hours.
The power density of wind (power per unit area)
= ½ × air density × (velocity)2
= 0.5 × 1 × (5 × 5 × 5)
= 62.5 watt/m.
Actual power density that will be converted to useful energy
= Cp × transmission loss × generator loss
Considering losses
• Coefficient of performance Cp = 0.40
• Transmission losses (rotor to generator) = 0.90
• Generator losses = 0.90
• Overall loss factor
= 0.40 × 0.90 × 0.90
= 0.324
• Actual power density
= 62.5 × 0.324
= 20.25 W/m2
• Annual energy density (useful)
= power density × number of hours per year
= 20.25 × 8760 = 177.39 kWh/m2
  The rotor size and turbine power rating estimation:
Total annual energy required 20000
= -------------------------------------- = ------------- = 112.75 m2 .
Useful energy density 177.39

 Radius of the rotor blade, (R)

πR2 = 112.75
R= 5.91 metre.
 Power rating of the turbine
= Actual power density × area of the rotor
= 20.25 × 112.75
= 2.28 kW
 Actual rated power of the turbine rating should be
= power rating / capacity factor
= 2.28/0.30
= 7.6 kW ~ 8Kw
Thus, a 8 kW rated power wind turbine will provide desired annual energy under given situation.
The cost of a wind turbine of per kW basis runs between Rs.30000 and Rs.50000. For the above
calculation a 8 kW wind turbine would cost about 8 × 40000 – Rs.320000.

Assumption made:
[The above power rating is based on the assumption that wind speed of 5 metre/sec will be available
throughout the year, 8760 hours, which is not the case, therefore we have taken the capacity factor
into account.]
 ORGANISATION OF POWER SECTOR IN INDIA
The subject Power is the concurrent list of Indian Constitution. As such, the responsibility of power
development lays both with the central and state governments.
In the central government, the „Ministry of Energy‟ looks after the development of electric
energy and lays down policies regarding generation, transmission, distribution and conservation of
electric energy. Under the Electric Supply Act, the Central electricity Authority (CEA) and State
Electricity Boards have been set up.
The functions of CEA are :
(1) Development of national power policy, formulations and coordination of plans of power
development,
(2) Techno-economic appraisal of projects, monitoring the implementation of projects,
(3) Ensuring efficient operation of power system, arbitration in certain matters promotion and
coordination of research and design activities in the power sector, providing assistance to state
governments and electricity boards, collection and publication of statically information relating to
power supply industry.
(4) Design and consultancy services and development of training program for power engineers.

(5) Regional electricity boards were set up in 1964 in each of the five regions for development of
integrated operation, initially between the states of the region with the ultimate aim of forming a
National grid. The five regional electricity boards are :

1. Northern Regional Electricity Board covering Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP Uttaranchal and Delhi, (head office New Delhi)

2. Western Regional Electricity Boards covering Gujrat, Madhyapradesh Chhatisgarh,

Maharastra, Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Havellu (head office Bombay).

3. Southern Regional electricity boards covering Andra Pradesh, kanrantaka, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, and Pondicherry (head Office Bangalore)

4. Eastern Regional boards covering Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa West Bengal ( head office
Calcutta)

5. North Eastern Regional Electricity Boards covering Assam, Manipur Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram (head office Shillong).

Regional load dispatch centres have been established to coordinate the activities of state load
dispatch Centre so as to ensure optimum utilization of generation and transmission facilities in the
regions. State Electricity Boards were set up in 18 states. These boards are mainly responsible for
generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in their respective states. These boards are
mainly responsible for generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in their respective
states. In the remaining states viz. Manipur, Tripura, Sikkim, Nagaland, Goa, Mizoram,
Arunachal Pradesh and all Union territories, there are no electricity boards and the generation,
transmission and distribution of electricity is looked after by state Electricity Departments. Now the
state electricity boards have been converted into corporations. The Central Government has also set
up many public sector undertakings for planning and setting up power projects.

 The national Thermal Power Projects corporation (NTPC) was set up in 1975 for planning,
execution and operation of large pithead power stations and associated transmission
networks.

 NTPC has set up many super thermal power station at Singruauli (UP), Korba (MP),
Ramagundem (AP), Faraka (WB), Vindhayachal (MP) and Rihand (UP).

 The 2000 MW units at Korba and some 219 MW units at other plants have been
commissioned. 500 MW units at Rihand and three 500 MW at Farakka have also been
commissioned.

 The National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC) was set up in 1975 to construct central
sector hydroelectricity projects, transmission lines and ancillary works. NHPC has set up
Baira Siul and Salal hydroelecricty project (J& K), Chamera Hydro Project (HP) and
Deighat Hydroelectric Project ( Nepal).

 The national Project and construction Corporation was set up in 1957 as joint venture of
central and state Governments for the execution of multipurpose river valley projects, power
projects and other project and other heavy engineering projects.

 The north Eastern Power Corporation (NEEPCO) was set up in 1976 to develop and set up
power projects in north-eastern region. It is setting up 150 MW Kopili hydroelectric project.
 The Damodar Velly Corporation (DVC) was set up in 1948 for proper development of
Damodar Vally in Bihar and West Bengal.

 The Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) was established in 1966 to manage Bhakra
and Beas projects in Northern region.

 The Nuclear Power Corporation was set up in 1987 to look after the development of nuclear
power. A target of 20 GW of nuclear capacity by the year 2025 has been set.

 The Rural electrification Corporation (REC) was set up in 1969 to promote and financial
rural electrification projects in the country. A large number of villages have been electrified
in each state and some states have achieved 100% rural electrification.

 Power Grid Corporation of India (earlier known as National Power Transmission

Corporation) was set up in 1990 to look after the development and operation of EHV
transmission system in the country.

 The ministry of Non-conventional energy sources looks after and promotes the research and
development of new and renewable sources of energy.
APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGIES THROUGH
WBREDA
The West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA) continues to implement one
of the country‟s largest broad-spectrum programmes covering the whole range of Renewable Energy
(RE) sources. The Programme cover providing of electricity to remote unelectricfied rural areas of
the state which are mostly located in Islands of Sundarbans, Forest areas of West Midnapur and
Bankura, hilly areas of Darjeeling.
The state of West Bengal is generating about 30 MW power through primary fuel – biomass,
wind, solar, mini hydel and a small portion of diesel.

MAJOR SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS OF WBREDA

 Installation of Solar Water Heaters

 Building Integrated Photovoltaic System
 Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste
 Installation of Solar Street Light in city roads

Over 50 MW of Renewable power generation capacities have been added in the state of West Bengal
so far. More than half a million people in the remote areas of the State are enjoying the benefits of
electricity which is highest in the country.

On an average, West Bengal receives Solar Energy to the tune of 16ookWh per sq. meter per year.

Solar Photo voltaic System Category of beneficiaries

Solar Lantern Individual Beneficiaries

Solar PV Street Lighting System All categories of non-commercial institutions

and organizations and also for community
use.
Solar PV home lighting system Individual Beneficiaries

Stand-alone Solar PV power plant Community use for village Electrification

Grid-Interactive solar PV power plant Institutional use for peak shaving and partial
demand catering.
SPV pump for irrigation and drinking Water Individual or community Use
supply

BIOGAS PROGRAM OF WBREDA

Biogas is a clean and convenient source of fuel generated from biomass, such as cow dung, human
waste etc through anaerobic fermentation process. 55% - 70% of this gas can be burnt in specially
designed stoves for cooking and in silk mantle for lighting purpose. It can also be used in fuel
engines.
The state of West Bengal has a potential to produce 1.5 million cubic meter of biogas every day
through digester route. Accordingly to estimate more than 200 MW power can be generated in the
state from digester gas and land fill gas.

Recently, WBREDA in association with MNRE and USAID, installed 2 X 30 kW biogas operated
micro turbine in Purulia District of West Bengal. The plant is under operation for last couple of
months. Micro turbines are highly reliable and almost noiseless with very low emission.

West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency and WBSEB have jointly set up 3MW
Mungpoo-Kalikhola Small Hydel Project. The project site is located at Ranju valley in Darjeeling
Hills, 100kms from Siliguri. Of the total cost 50% has been subsidized by MNES, Govt. of India.
The project has been competed in 2003.

SALIENT FEATURES OF MUNGPOO-KALIKHOLA PROJECT

 Installed capacity : 3x 1000Kw

 Name of the river : Kalikhola
 Water discharge : 20 cusecs
 Location : Namring Tea Estate
 Gross head : 718.3 M
 Pen – stock length : 1768 M
 Pen – stock material : Mild Steel
 Type of turbine : Pelton Wheel system
 Power evaluation : 33 k V system at Teesta Bazar
 Estimated Cost : Rs. 15.95 crores

WIND ENERGY PROGRAM OF WBREDA

 Wind Mapping Project

District Area of Installation

 Darjeeling Kurseong
 Coochbehar Sitalkuchi
 Jalpaiguri Hamiltongunj, Chalsa
 Uttar Dinajpur Islampur, dalkhola, Raigunj
 Murshidabad Salar, Bhagwangola
 South 24 Sagar, Frasergunj
Parganas

 Wind Monitoring Stations

[Link] island 8. Digha

[Link] island [Link]
[Link]
[Link]
 [Link]
[Link] hills
[Link] hills

 Wind Diesel Hybrid Project at Sagar Island.

There are about 700 Consumers in the power plant. The duration of power supply is for 6
hours during night time and varies according to local climatic conditions. For local
management of the consumer services and for capacity building, West Bengal Renewable
Energy Development Agency formed a local Beneficiary Society entitled “Sagar Island Wind
Diesel Hybrid Power Plant Beneficiary Society”.
DG sets are very common in India for generation of electricity in distributed mode. However,
with the high cost of diesel, DG sets are loosing its importance. In order to make DG sets
economically viable, WBREDA has installed one unique project in the country in the year
2003.
 The project comprises of diesel generator coupled through intelligent controller.
 It has been observed in windy season about 40% diesel could be saved. An intelligent
controller operates the project.
 At present more than 2500 consumers are getting electricity from the project.
Recently, one 150 kW Biomass Gasifier has been added into the project.
 Presently, diesel savings has been observed up to 85%.
 Other Distributed Generation Projects working in West Bengal.

 Biomass Gasifier Project – 500 kW at Gosaba.

 Small Hydel Project at Darjeeling [capacity - 500 kW]
8/4/25, 9:35 AM How to Design Solar PV System - Guide for sizing your solar photovoltaic system
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Solar PV system sizing

1. Determine power consumption demands

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy consumption of all loads that
need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:

1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day which
must be delivered to the appliances.

1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.

2. Size the PV modules

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing of PV module, the total peak
watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and climate of site location. We
have to consider �panel generation factor� which is different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation
factor is 3.43. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:

2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by 3.43 to get
the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.

2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system

Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules available
to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will be the
number of PV modules required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are installed, the system will perform
better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy
periods and battery life will be shortened.

3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter should never be
lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of Watts you will be using at one
time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or
compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array rating to
allow for safe and efficient operation.

4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically
designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for
years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days.
To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows:

4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.

4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

5. Solar charge controller sizing

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select the solar charge
controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is right for
your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current which is delivered to
the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV
array, and multiply it by 1.3

Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3

Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge Controller)

Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:

One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.
One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.
One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and off 12 hours.

The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

1. Determine power consumption demands

Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5 hours)
= 1,092 Wh/day

[Link] 1/2
8/4/25, 9:35 AM How to Design Solar PV System - Guide for sizing your solar photovoltaic system
Total PV panels energy needed = 1,092 x 1.3
= 1,419.6 Wh/day.

2. Size the PV panel

2.1 Total Wp of PV panel capacity = 1,419.6 / 3.4

needed
= 413.9 Wp
2.2 Number of PV panels needed = 413.9 / 110
= 3.76 modules

Actual requirement = 4 modules

So this system should be powered by at least 4 modules of 110 Wp PV module.

3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W or greater.

4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days

Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3

(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.

5. Solar charge controller sizing

PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.
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[Link] 2/2
© 2022 IJRAR May 2022, Volume 9, Issue 2 [Link] (E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138)

SOLAR POWER BATTERY CHARGER

Prof.A.A.Ghute1, Shyamal Dabhade2, Sagar Aware3, Kanchan Wadokar4,Santosh Kathole5, Vinaya
Khadse6
Assistant Professor1, Department of Electrical Engineering, P.R. Pote Patil Institute of Engineering and
Research, Amravati, India.
2,3,4,5,6
Student , Department of Electrical Engineering, P.R. Pote Patil Institute of Engineering and
Research, Amravati, India.

ABSTRACT:
A solar powered battery charger is presented, where a photovoltaic (PV) panel is used to convert
solar power into electric current and Solar Power Battery Charger is charges the batteries by controlling
the output power of the PV panel and current sensor monitors the charging current of the battery. In the
software, an optimal control algorithm is applied to see output current of pv panels and voltage of
battery. The simulation and experimental results are presented and compared. The applications of this
technique can be light electrical vehicles such as golf carts, scooters, airport utility vehicles, as well as
other renewable power stations where batteries are used for energy storage.

Keywords: ATMega328p Microcontroller, Solar panel, Charge controller, Arduino (NANO), Battery,
Current and Voltagesensors.

INTRODUCTION:
Applications of solar energy have been a research topic for decades. In recent years, it has attracted
even more interest due to the challenges on the environment, fuel source, and automotive industries.
Using solar power to charge batteries is not a new idea. A simple way to accomplish this is to connect a
photovoltaic (PV) panel directly to a battery. A charge controller limits the rate at which electric current
is added to or drawn from electric batteries. It prevents overcharging and protect against overvoltage,
which can reduce battery performance or lifespan and may pose a safety risk.
The advantages of such a system are the simplicity and low cost. This paper presents the design of a
solar powered battery charger with optimal controller. The goals of the proposed system are: 1) to
convert the solar power into electricity as much as possible under the varying weather condition; 2) To
charge the battery as fast as possible in accordance to the battery lifecycle condition. The application of
the proposed system can be light electrical vehicles such as golf carts, scooters, airport utility vehicles, as
well as other renewable power stations using batteries as energy storage.

IJRAR22B2582 International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR) [Link] 72

© 2022 IJRAR May 2022, Volume 9, Issue 2 [Link] (E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138)
The different non- conventional methods of power generation may be such as solar cells, fuel cells,
thermo-electric generator, solar power generation, wind power generation, geo- thermal energy, tidal
power generation etc. This project give idea about non- conventional Energy sources and why we are
going for that non-conventional energy sources. The proper uses of solar energy and its different
application which are using at home, defense sector, marines, remote area etc. Photovoltaic (PV) system
is one of the most reliable, efficient and economical renewable energy system used worldwide. This
system has long life, low maintenance cost and is free of pollution. Photovoltaic generation system is
widely used in stand-alone or grid-tied or hybrid system.

BASIC BATTERY CHARGING METHODS

In general there are so many battery charging control methods out of this constant voltage method is easy to
understand and implement. We have used “constant voltage method” in our model to charge the battery. A
constant voltage charger is basically a DC power supply which in its simplest form may consist of a step-down
transformer from the mains with a rectifier to provide the DC voltage to charge the battery. Such simple designs
are often found in battery chargers. The lead- acid cells used for cars and backup power systems typically use
constant voltage chargers. In addition, lithium-ion cells often use constant voltage systems, although these usually
aremore complex with added circuitry to protect both the batteries and the user safety.
PROPOSED SYSTEM:
The main motivation to use solar power by using solar power battery charger circuit independence
on availability of electricity outlet. It will provide easier, and cost- effective management. Controllers
work by slowly reducing the amount of power going into your battery as it approaches capacity .When
your battery is full, PWM controllers maintain a state of “trickle”, which means they supply a tiny
amount of power constantly to keep the battery topped off.

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Fig.1: Block diagram of solar power battery charger assembly.

We have used lead acid battery because it has large current capability to store electric power.
Another reason to choose lead-acid battery cause it is tolerant for overcharging. We used 2 batteries of
35 Amp hour whose voltages are 12 volts. A battery is a device that stores chemical energy within its
active materials and converts it directly into electric energy with the help convertor circuit by means of an
electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. When a battery is supplying power, its positive
terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source
of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is
connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy
products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy.

Specifications of solar photovoltaic panel:

Maximum Power(Pmax):100+-2% W
Current at maximum power:5.2 Amp
Short circuit current : 5.73 Amp
Voltage at maximum power: 19.37 Volt

WORKING OF THE PROTOTYPE:

The current coming from solar panels goes to the battery via solar power battery charger circuit and
battery stores that electric current in the form of chemical energy and converts it into electrical energy
when it is needed. The incoming current from photovoltaic plates initially we have relay which acts as
switch and when current exceeds its limit relay goes in off condition. Also to step downs the voltage for
charger assembly at 5 volt cause our components work in 5 volt only. Used microcontroller Atmega
328p prevent batteries from being damaged by overcharging and over-discharging by controlling the
current flow from [Link] regulates feeding current in batteries.
The ACS712 is a fully integrated, hall effect-based linear current sensor is used to measurement of

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 © 2022 IJRAR May 2022, Volume 9, Issue 2 [Link] (E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138)
current flowing through circuit and feeding the batteries. And to measure the voltage of batteries Voltage
Sensor is used. To show the measured data on screen we have used HD44780 LCD (16*2) LCD
[Link] monitors the amount of current and voltage in an object and display on LCD screen. Arduino
nano used for programming to show desired message and measured data on screen. Here we have done
programming in Embedded C. We have used 2 lithium ion batteries which are 35 Amp hours which
stores power.

EXPEREIMENTAL RESULTS:
Here are the hourly readings of current (feeding current) and voltages of battery

Sr. No Time Voltage (V) Current(Amp)

1 8:00am 8.97 3.42
2 9:00am 9.17 3.59
3 10:00am 9.52 3.87
4 11:00am 10 4.1
5 12:00am 11.5 4.67
6 1:00pm 12.38 5.1
7 2:00pm 12.74 5.1
8 3:00pm 12.93 4.72
9 4:00pm 13.10 4.34
10 5:00pm 13.22 4.12
11 6:00pm 13.24 3.65

APPLICATION:
The applications of solar energy can be bifurcated into three types i.e. Power, domestic and
agriculture. Few popular applications that can be listed under these are as follows:
1. Solar water heater
2. Tank collector
3. Portable solar still
4. Solar cooker
5. Solar steam cooker
6. Portable solar dryer
7. Solar pv street light

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CONCLUSION:
This project provides a comprehensive design and implementation details of pv based battery
charger system which is used to charge lead-acid battery in float charge mode as well as in bulk charge
mode. Mathematical model of pv module, synchronous buck converter and battery has been provided.
Experimental prototype of pv based battery charging module has been developed which is then tested in
outdoor environment. It has been observed that the battery is charged in bulk mode and in the said
charging mode. Experimental results demonstrate the charging of the battery.
In this project solar battery connect to the supply line parallel of the solar battery [Link] is
controls the power supply by using atmega 328p microcontroller .this system provides portable, reliable
power anywhere it is needed .From off-grid construction sites, to remote locations where power is not
accessible or affordable without associated with traditional fuel-driven generators.

REFERENCES:
[1]H. Fathabadi, “Novel photovoltaic based battery charger including novel high efficiency step-up dc/dc
converter and novel high accurate fast maximum power point tracking controller,” Energy Conversion
and Management, vol. 110, pp. 200–211, 2021.

[2] Y.-C. Chuang, “High-efficiency zcs buck converter for rechargeable batteries,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 2463–2472, 2021.

[3] S. Ketsingsoi and Y. Kumsuwan, “An off-line battery charger based on buck-boost power factor
correction converter for plug-in electric vehicles,” Energy Procedia, vol. 56, pp. 659– 666, 2021.

[4] S. Chiang, H.-J. Shieh, and M.-C. Chen, “Modeling and control of pv charger system with sepic
converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 4344–4353, 2021.

[5] S. Padhee, U. C. Pati, and K. Mahapatra, “Design of photovoltaic mppt based charger for lead-acid
batteries,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Emerging Technologies and Innovative Business Practices for the
Transformation of Societies (EmergiTech), 2021, pp. 351–356.

[6] B. Subudhi and R. Pradhan, “A comparative study on maximum power point tracking techniques
for photovoltaic power systems,” IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 89–98, 2021.

[7] T. Palanisamy, S. Mendelson and D. Cipris, "A smart charger for lead acid batteries", 172nd
Electrochem. Soc. Meeting, no. 132, 1987.

[8] Commercial charger, Westinghouse Davenset Rectifiers, England.

IJRAR22B2582 International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR) [Link] 76

 UNIT – II WIND ENERGY

Wind is simply defined as moving air. When the earth heats up from sunrays it releases wind,
this is a balanced reaction meant to cool the earth. The sun heat is felt more on dry land than
on the sea. The air expands and easily reaches maximum high altitudes, then cool air drops
down and moves as wind.

Wind energy is generated by converting kinetic energy through friction process into useful
forms such as electricity and mechanical energy. These two energy sources are put in to use
by humans to achieve various purposes. In the past, people constructed wind mills to generate
energy meant for grinding rains. They also constructed mechanical wind pumps to be uses to
pump large amounts of water into the farms.

Egyptians also used wind to sail their ships. Wind mills were constructed later with propeller
blades for generating electricity. This was a great development and electricity was even used
in remote areas. Because of the current shortage of oil and its cost today, wind electricity has
become the preferred source of energy in most countries worldwide.

Electricity Generation

Wind turbines use wind energy to produce electricity. The wind turbines are machines that
have a rotor with three propeller blades. These blades are specifically arranged in a horizontal
manner to propel wind for generating electricity. Wind turbines are placed in areas that have
high speeds of wind, to spin the blades much quicker for the rotor to transmit the electricity
produced to a generator.

Thereafter the electricity produced is supplied to different stations through the grid. One wind
turbine can generate enough electricity to be used by a single household. A wind energy plant
normally consists of many wind turbines that are 30 to 50m long each. According to the rule,
the higher you go, the cooler it becomes and more air is circulated. This rule is applied by
constructing turbines at high altitudes, to use the increased air circulation at high altitudes to
propel the turbines much faster.

Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two or three
propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a
generator to create electricity.

A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a
fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft,
which connects to a generator and makes electricity. Wind is a form of solar energy and is a
result of the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's
surface, and the rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly across the
United States and are modified by bodies of water, vegetation, and differences in terrain.
Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and
even generating electricity.
The terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the
wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as
grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into
electricity.

TYPES OF WIND TURBINES

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups:

 The horizontal-axis variety, Horizontal-axis wind turbines typically either have two or
three blades. These three-bladed wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades
facing into the wind.

 The vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model. Wind turbines can
be built on land or offshore in large bodies of water like oceans and lakes.

SIZES OF WIND TURBINES

Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts to as large as several megawatts.
Larger wind turbines are more cost effective and are grouped together into wind farms,
which provide bulk power to the electrical grid. In recent years, there has been an increase in
large offshore wind installations in order to harness the huge potential that wind energy
offers.
Single small turbines, below 100 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes,
or water pumping. Small turbines are sometimes used in connection with diesel generators,
batteries, and photovoltaic systems. These systems are called hybrid wind systems and are
typically used in remote, off-grid locations, where a connection to the utility grid is not
available.

Environmental Benefits

Unlike other ways of producing energy, wind is by far one of the cleanest methods of
generating energy. The good thing about wind energy is it does not pollute the environment.
Research has shown that global warming is caused by excess use of non-renewable fossil
fuels. These fossil fuels emit gases that pollute the world’s atmosphere. The reliance on oil
and other non-renewable sources of energy is not feasible in the long run. These fossil fuels
will get depleted in the near future and countries that will have not embraced clean energy
will find it hard to cope.

Aerodynamics of wind turbines:

The primary application of wind turbines is to generate energy using the wind. Hence, the
aerodynamics is a very important aspect of wind turbines. Like most machines, there are
many different types of wind turbines; all of them based on different energy extraction
concepts.

In general, all turbines may be grouped as being either lift-based, or drag-based; the former
being more efficient. The difference between these groups is the aerodynamic force that is
used to extract the energy.

The most common topology is the horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT). It is a lift-based
wind turbine with very good performance. Accordingly, it is a popular choice for commercial
applications and much research has been applied to this turbine. Despite being a popular lift-
based alternative in the latter part of the 20th century, the Darrieus wind turbine is rarely used
today. The Savonius wind turbine is the most common drag type turbine. Despite its low
efficiency, it remains in use because of its robustness and simplicity to build and maintain.

The governing equation for power extraction is stated below:

Where: P is the power, F is the force vector, and v is the velocity of the moving wind turbine
part.

The force F is generated by the wind's interaction with the blade. The magnitude and
distribution of this force is the primary focus of wind-turbine aerodynamics. The most
familiar type of aerodynamic force is drag. The direction of the drag force is parallel to the
relative wind. Typically, the wind turbine parts are moving, altering the flow around the part.
An example of relative wind is the wind one would feel cycling on a calm day.

The coefficient of power is the most important variable in wind-turbine aerodynamics.

The Buckingham π theorem can be applied to show that the non-dimensional variable for
power is given by the equation below. This equation is similar to efficiency, so values
between 0 and less than 1 are typical. However, this is not exactly the same as efficiency and
thus in practice; some turbines can exhibit greater than unity power coefficients. In these
circumstances, one cannot conclude the first law of thermodynamics is violated because this
is not an efficiency term by the strict definition of efficiency.

Where: Cp is the coefficient of power, ρ is the air density, A is the area of the wind turbine,
and V is the wind speed.

The thrust coefficient is another important dimensionless number in wind turbine

aerodynamics.

The formula for lift is given below, the formula for drag is given after:
Where: CL is the lift coefficient, CD is the drag coefficient, W is the relative wind as
experienced by the wind turbine blade, and A is the area.

Efficiency of wind conversion is given by,

Wind Energy Conversion System:

 An apparatus for converting the kinetic energy available in the wind to mechanical
energy that can be used to power machinery (grain mills, water pumps, etc) and/or to
operate an electrical generator.
 The average availability of commercial wind power plants is now around 98%. The cost
of wind power has continued to decline through technological development, increased
production level, and the use of larger turbines.
 The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind
turbine, a generator, interconnection apparatus, and control systems.
  At the present time and for the near future, generators for wind turbines will be
synchronous generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and induction
generators, including the squirrel-cage type and wound rotor type.
 For small to medium power wind turbines, permanent magnet generators and squirrel-
cage induction generators are often used because of their reliability and cost
advantages.
 Induction generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and wound field
synchronous generators are currently used in various high power wind turbines.

Types of wind turbines:

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both
older and more common. They can also include blades (transparent or not) or be bladeless.
Vertical designs produce less power and are less common.

Horizontal axis:

Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at
the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a
simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo
motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker
rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its
supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into
the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front
of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because
they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because
in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their
wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures,
most HAWTs are of upwind design.

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-
bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds
of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good
reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in
length from 20 to 40 meters (66 to 131 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to
90 meters (200 to 300 ft) tall.

The blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed
exceeds 90 meters per second (300 ft/s). A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the
speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator.
Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed
turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All
turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds,
by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.

Year by year the size and height of turbines increase. Offshore wind turbines are built up to
8MW today and have a blade length up to 80m. Onshore wind turbines are installed in low
wind speed areas and getting higher and higher towers. Usual towers of multi megawatt
turbines have a height of 70 m to 120 m and in extremes up to 160 m, with blade tip speeds
reaching 80 m/s to 90 m/s. higher tip speeds means more noise and blade erosion.

Vertical axis:

A vertical axis Twisted Savonius type turbine.

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One
advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to
be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is
also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less
steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive
from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for
maintenance. However, these designs produce much less energy averaged over time, which is
a major drawback.

The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential
higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient,
the 360-degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the
highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on
the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the
challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.

When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind over the roof
and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine
tower is approximately 50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind
energy and minimum wind turbulence. Wind speeds within the built environment are
generally much lower than at exposed rural sites, noise may be a concern and an existing
structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.

Darrieus wind turbine

"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges
Darrieus. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on
the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external
power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is
very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater
solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area. Newer
Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure
connected to the top bearing.

Giro mill

A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cyclo-turbine
variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting. The advantages
of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher
coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade
speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.

Savonius wind turbine

These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in
anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-
reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least
three scoops.

Twisted Savonius

Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque.
This is often used as a rooftop windturbine and has even been adapted for ships.
Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine, which is similar to the crossflow fan or
centrifugal fan. It uses the ground effect. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for
many years: a unit producing 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the
1980s.

Vortexis

The most recent advancement in Vertical Axis Wind Turbines has been the Vortexis VAWT,
utilizing a pre-swirled augmented vertical axis wind turbine (PA-VAWT) designed for the
purpose of developing a high efficiency VAWT concept that keeps the advantages of
VAWT's compact size, lack of bias as to incoming wind direction, easy deployment and low
radar cross section for use in mobile applications for the military, referred to in Special
Operations as "Black Swan."

Site selection considerations:

The site selected for wind farm development need to have many positive attributes including:
(i) Superior wind speed
(ii) Good road access to sites
(iii) Suitable terrain and geology for onsite access
(iv) Low population density
(v) Minimum risk of agro-forestry operations
(vi) Close to suitable electrical grid
(vii) Supportive land holders
(viii) Significant tourism infrastructure in place
(ix) Privately owned free hold land
(x) Good industrial support for construction and ongoing operations
(xi) Land use is primarily for grazing and cropping
(xii) Significant potential for revalidation

Although wind power is a never ending green resource, assessment of environmental risks
and impacts- which comprise the backbone of environmental policy- in the context of
specific projects or sites often are necessary to explicate and weigh the environmental trade-
offs that are involved. In the case of wind farms, a number of turbines (ranging from about
250 kW to 750 kW) are connected together to generate large amounts of power. Apart from
the constraints resulting from the number of turbines, any site selection should think over the
technical, economic, social, environmental and political aspects.
1. Technical Considerations: Many technical factors affect the decision making on site
selection including wind speed, land topography and geology, grid structure and distance and
turbine size. These technical factors must be understood in order to give pair-wise scores to
sub-factors.

 Wind Speed: The viability of wind power in a given site depends on having sufficient
wind speed available at the height at which the turbine is to be installed. Any choice
 of wind turbine design must be based on the average wind velocity at the selected
wind turbine construction site.
 Land topography and geology: Wind farms typically need large lands. Topography
and prevailing wind conditions determine turbine placement and spacing within a
wind farm. In flat areas where there is nothing to interfere with wind flow, at least
2600-6000 m2/MW may be required. Wind turbines are usually sited on farms that
have slope smaller than 10-20%.
 Grid structure and distance: The connection of wind turbines to an electricity grid
can potentially affect reliability of supply and power quality, due to the unpredictable
fluctuations in wind power output.
 Turbine size: Required height for the installation of turbine above ground is one of the
important factors that affect the annual energy generation. Turbine size is related with
the energy output, because the bigger the turbine size is, the more wind it is exposed
to.

2. Economic Considerations: The economic sub factors that affect the site selection include
capital cost, land cost and operational and management costs. It is important to make
economical evaluations by considering time value of money due to long periods of service
life of wind farm projects.

 Capital cost: Construction, electrical connection, grid connection, planning, wind

turbines, approvals, utilities and management are the main components of capital cost
for wind farm projects.
 Land cost: For the site selection, main economic factor is the cost of the land where
the wind farm is constructed; because, the cost of land primarily depends on the
region, soil condition and the distance from the residential area.
 Operational and management cost: There will be control functions such as
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) which will provide control of each
wind turbine in O&M facilities. Business rates, maintenance expenses, rents, staff
payments are main components of O&M costs
 Electricity market: Existing of an electricity market for the energy generated is an
important factor affecting the economic benefits of the project. There should be
energy demand in regions close to wind farms.

3. Social Considerations: Social factors that affect the selection of a site include public
acceptance, distance from residential area and alternative land use options of candidate wind
farm site. Public may oppose projects because of possible environmental or social effects.
Distance from residential area gain importance not to interfere with social life during wind
farm construction or operation.

 Regulatory boundaries: There may be some national or international level regulation

related with the construction and operation of wind farms. These regulations must be
explored before evaluating the socio-political position of a wind farm project. Most of
them probably change from region to region.
  Public acceptance: Public is the most vital component of a region and their
opposition to issues can lead to abolish proposed projects. Support of public for wind
energy generation is expected to be high in general but proposed wind farms have
often been met with strong local opposition.
 Land use: Land use affects the decision of wind farm siting from two points of view.
Firstly, there are some cases where no wind farms can be built although sufficient
wind speed was detected. These cases are mainly related with land use or condition.
Land related constraints include forest area, Wetlands, Land of high productivity,
Archaeological sites, Aviation zones, Military zones etc.
 Distance from the residential area: Noise and vibration stemming from the wind
turbines may cause residents to suffer from sleep disturbance, headaches, visual
blurring. Those types of complaints can be avoided if the wind turbines are sited a
considerable distance from the residential area.

Safety aspects of a wind turbine:

1. Modern wind turbines are controlled by computers. If it shows any error in operational
parameters, then wind turbine is stopped.

2. Emergency stop – During unfavourable conditions for wind turbines, it can be immediately
stopped using emergency stop.

3. Wind velocity is measured and if gusts of wind are too strong or if the average speed is too
high, wind turbine is stopped.

4. To prevent rotor from racing, two revolution counters are mounted on the shaft. If wind
turbine speed exceeds 24 rpm, it activates the emergency stop system.

5. If the wind turbine speed exceeds 28 rpm, a parachute attached to the blade tip is pulled out
and thereby speed of the wind turbine decreases.

6. The three blades and wind turbine cap are grounded through lightening rods to protect
them from lightning.

Environmental Considerations:

The environmental sub factors that affect the site selection of a wind farm include visual
impact, electromagnetic interference, wild life and endangered species and noise impact.

 Visual impact: Wind turbines are located in windy places, and most of the time, those
places are highly visible. To many people, those big towers with 2 or 3 blades create
visual pollution. To minimize the impacts of visual pollution, many investors
implement the actions.
 Wild life & endangered species: Wind farms affect birds mainly through collision
with turbines and associated power lines, disturbance leading to displacement
including barriers to movement, and loss of habitat resulting from wind turbines. To
minimise the risk of bird collision, site selection should be done precisely.
  Electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic interference is an electromagnetic
disturbance that interrupts, obstructs, or degrades the effective performance of
electronics or electrical equipment. Wind turbines may reflect, scatter or diffract the
electromagnetic waves which in turn interfere with the original signal arriving at the
receiver.
 Noise impact: Noise can generally be classified according to its two main sources:
aerodynamic and mechanical. Aerodynamic noise is produced when the turbine
blades interact with eddies caused by atmospheric turbulence. Mechanical noise is
generated by the rotor machinery such as the gearbox and generator. Noise could be
reduced by better designed turbine blade geometry and by selection of proper
operating conditions.

Schemes For Wind Power Generation:

Based on the speed and frequency, generally following schemes are identified:

I. CSCFS (Constant Speed Constant Frequency Scheme):-

Constant speed drives are used for large generators that feed the generated power to the grid.
Commonly synchronous generators or induction generators are used for power generation

If the stator of an induction machine is connected to the power grid and if the rotor is driven
above Synchronous speed, Ns, the machine delivers a constant line frequency (f=PNs/120)
power to the grid. The slip of the generators is between 0 and [Link] torque of the machine
should not exceed max. Torque to prevent ‘run away’ (speed continues to increase
unchecked). Compared to synchronous generator, Induction generators are preferred because
they are simpler, economical, easier to operate, control and maintain and have no
synchronization problem. However, Capacitors have to be used to avoid reactive volt ampere
burden on the grid.

II. DSCFS (Dual Speed Constant Frequency Scheme):-

In this scheme a dual speed wind turbine is coupled to double winding Induction generator
that is specially fabricated with 2 stator windings wound with different number of poles P1&
P2 (P1 > P2). When wind speed is low, winding with P1 poles gets connected and power is
generated with grid frequency. Similarly, when wind speed is high, winding with P2 poles
gets connected and feed the power to grid at the same frequency. It is Important to note that
the difference in speed should be small. Reactive power required by the Induction Generator
can be supplied by installing the Capacitor bank
III. VSCFS (Variable speed constant frequency scheme):-

In this scheme output of three phase alternator (synchronous generator) is rectified by bridge
rectifier. The DC output is transmitted through DC transmission lines and then converted
back to AC using synchronous inverters and fed to grid system.

This scheme, involving small wind generators is commonly used in autonomous applications
such as street lighting. Due to variable speed operation, it yields higher power for both low
and high wind speeds. Both horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines are suitable.

IV. Variable speed constant frequency with double output (VSCF with DO):-

In this scheme, to increase the power generating capacity of the system, squirrel cage
induction generators are replaced by slip ring Induction generator. Rotor power output at slip
frequency is converted to line frequency power using rectifier. Output power is obtained both
from stator and rotor. Rotor output power increases with increase in slip and speeds.
Therefore, operating speed range is Ns to 2Ns i.e. slip ranging from 0 to 1. V.

V (VSVFS) Variable speed variable frequency schemes :-

This scheme is suitable for loads that are frequency insensitive such as heating load.
Depending upon the wind speed, squirrel cage Induction Generator generates power at
variable frequency. Such generators are excited by Capacitor-bank. The magnitude and
frequency of the generated emf depends upon the wind turbine speed, excitation capacitance
and load impedance. If load requires constant dc voltage, output of generators is converted
into d.c. using chopper controlled rectifiers. Feedback system can be used to monitor and
control to get desired performance.

Energy Storage

Wind power turbines have operational limitations over very high and very low speeds. When
the power generated exceeds the demand, excess energy can be stored to be used at other
times. Excess energy can be conveniently stored in storage batteries in the form of chemical
energy. Excess energy can also be stored in water power storage in the form of mechanical
energy. Wind power plant (WPP) along with Hydroelectric power plant (HPP), when
generated power (Pg) exceeds the power demand (Pd), helps to partly divert hydro power
plant output to Pumping motor (PM) to pump water from an auxiliary reservoir at the bottom
of the dam to main reservoir.

When wind is not blowing, energy stored in compressed air could be used to drive wind
turbine whose shaft would then drive a generator, thus supplying the needed power.

Applications of wind power:

1. Water Pumping:

The livelihood and well-being of people, animals, and crops depends on a reliable, cost-
effective supply of clean water. Mechanical wind water pumping machines have been used to
pump water from wells for centuries. The technology of modern mechanical water pumpers is
relatively simple, the maintenance requirements are modest, and the replacement parts are not
difficult to obtain. The mechanical water pumper is the best option in some circumstances.
However, because it must be placed close to the water source, it is often unable to capture the
best wind resources. A wind electric pumping system overcomes some of the problems with
the simple wind water pumper. This system generates electricity, which, in turn, runs an
electric pump. Wind electric pumping systems allow greater siting flexibility, higher
efficiency of wind energy conversion, increased water output, increased versatility in use of
output power, and decreased maintenance and life-cycle costs. Water Requirements The size
of the wind turbine required for water delivery depends on the average daily volume of water
required, the total pumping head, the average wind speed, and the system efficiency.

2. Wind power is currently being used for the following applications:

 Telecommunications
 RADAR
 Pipeline control
 Navigational aids
 Cathodic protection
 Weather stations/seismic monitoring
 Air-traffic control

Wind machines in industrial applications typically encounter more extreme weather than
home power systems and must be designed to be robust with very minimal maintenance.

Interconnected / Hybrid system:

Intermittent energy resources and energy resources unbalance are the most important reason
to install a hybrid energy supply system. The Solar PV wind hybrid system suits to conditions
where sunlight and wind has seasonal shifts. As the wind does not blow throughout the day
and the sun does not shine for the entire day, using a single source will not be a suitable
choice. A hybrid arrangement of combining the power harnessed from both the wind and the
sun and stored in a battery can be a much more reliable and realistic power source. The load
can still be powered using the stored energy in the batteries even when there is no sun or
wind. Hybrid systems are usually built for design of systems with lowest possible cost and
also with maximum reliability. The high cost of solar PV cells makes it less competent for
larger capacity designs. This is where the wind turbine comes into the picture, the main
feature being its cheap cost as compared to the PV cells. Battery system is needed to store
solar and wind energy produced during the day time. During night time, the presence of wind
is an added advantage, which increases the reliability of the system. In the monsoon seasons,
the effect of sun is less at the site and thus it is apt to use a hybrid wind solar system. The
system components are as follows.

1. Photovoltaic solar power

Solar panels are the medium to convert solar energy into the electrical energy. Solar panels
can convert the energy directly or heat the water with the induced energy. PV (Photo-voltaic)
cells are made up from semiconductor structures as in the computer technologies. Sun rays
are absorbed with this material and electrons are emitted from the atoms .This release
activates a current. Photovoltaic is known as the process between radiation absorbed and the
electricity induced. Solar power is converted into the electric power by a common principle
called photo electric effect. The solar cell array or panel consists of an appropriate number of
solar cell modules connected in series or parallel based on the required current and voltage.

2. Wind Power

The wind energy is a renewable source of energy. Wind turbines are used to convert the wind
power into electric power. Electric generator inside the turbine converts the mechanical
power into the electric power. Wind turbine systems are available ranging from 50W to 3-4
MW. The energy production by wind turbines depends on the wind velocity acting on the
turbine. Wind power is able to feed both energy production and demand in the rural areas. It
is used to run a windmill which in turn drives a wind generator or wind turbine to produce
electricity.

3. Batteries

The batteries in the system provide to store the electricity that is generated from the wind or
the solar power. Any required capacity can be obtained by serial or parallel connections of
the batteries. The battery that provides the most advantageous operation in the solar and wind
power systems are maintenance free dry type and utilizes the special electrolytes. These
batteries provide a perfect performance for long discharges.

4. Inverter

Energy stored in the battery is drawn by electrical loads through the inverter, which converts
DC power into AC power. The inverter has in-built protection for Short-Circuit, Reverse
Polarity, Low Battery Voltage and Over Load.

5. Microcontroller
The microcontroller compares the input of both Power system and gives the signal to the
particular relay and charges the DC Battery. The DC voltage is converted into AC Supply by
Inverter Circuit. The MOSFET (IRF 540) is connected to the Secondary of the centre tapped
transformer. By triggering of MOSFET alternatively, the current flow in the Primary winding
is also alternative in nature and we get the AC supply in the primary winding of the
transformer.

Advantages of wind energy:

Wind energy is an ideal renewable energy because:

 It is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of energy.

 It doesn’t require fuel.
 It doesn’t create greenhouse gasses.
 It doesn’t produce toxic or radioactive waste.