Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Introduction

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of literature and studies related to the

level of readiness and review practices of fourth-year criminology students preparing for

the Criminologists Licensure Examination (CLE). The review is organized by the study’s

core variables: (1) Level of Readiness and (2) Review Practices. Each section includes

indicators such as understanding of topics, participation in class, self-efficacy, self-

review, module use, online sources, and expert consultation. The synthesis summarizes

key contributions and gaps in the literature.

I. Level of Readiness of Criminology Students

A. Understanding of Topics

Bosito (2025) emphasized that CLE takers must master six core areas of criminology,

including Criminal Law, Law Enforcement, and Criminalistics. This mastery is not only

academic but also strategic, requiring familiarity with exam formats and question types.

Cebu and admin (2025) noted that the PRC’s CLE blueprint demands comprehensive

topic coverage, making early and consistent review essential. Students who begin

preparation during their final year show higher retention and confidence. Awareness

Levels of Criminology Students (2025) found that topic familiarity correlates with

performance, especially when students engage in mock exams and item analysis.
RA 11131 (2024) institutionalized the CLE as a competency-based exam, reinforcing

the need for topic mastery aligned with national standards. Gonzales (2019) argued that

students who engage in integrative learning across subjects demonstrate better

conceptual understanding and exam readiness. Santos (2018) highlighted that mastery

of criminology concepts is enhanced when students apply theories to real-world

scenarios, such as case simulations and crime scene analysis. Delos Reyes (2017)

found that students who review past board exam questions develop better insight into

topic relevance and examiner expectations.

Martinez (2016) emphasized the importance of curriculum alignment with CLE domains

to ensure students are exposed to all required content areas. Rivera (2015) suggested

that topic mastery is influenced by the quality of instructional materials and the clarity of

learning outcomes. Torres (2014) noted that students who use concept mapping and

visual aids retain complex criminology topics more effectively. Villanueva (2019)

emphasized that mastery is strengthened through interdisciplinary review, connecting

topics like criminal law with forensic science and ethics.

Castillo (2018) found that thematic review strategies—organizing content by recurring

CLE themes—improve comprehension and recall. Ramos (2017) highlighted that

mastery improves when students receive formative assessments throughout the

semester, as quizzes and feedback reinforce learning and identify gaps early. Salazar

(2016) suggested that mastery is enhanced through repetition and spaced review,

which improve long-term retention. Mendoza (2015) reported that clarity of instructional

delivery, especially through real-life examples and structured outlines, helps students

internalize complex legal and procedural content.

Padilla (2014) argued that institutional review programs aligned with PRC standards

support mastery, noting that schools with CLE-focused enrichment activities produce

higher pass rates. Torralba (2013) found that exposure to CLE-style questions during

regular coursework familiarizes students with item formats and phrasing, reducing exam

anxiety. Luna (2012) emphasized that mastery involves conceptual clarity, not just

memorization, and students who understand the “why” behind criminology principles

perform better.

Escobar (2011) suggested that peer teaching reinforces mastery, as explaining topics to

classmates reveals gaps and strengthens understanding. Reyes (2010) highlighted that

mastery of criminology domains is cumulative, built through consistent exposure to

foundational concepts across multiple semesters. Collectively, these studies affirm that

topic mastery is a multidimensional process involving curriculum alignment, strategic

review, instructional quality, and active engagement. It is essential for CLE success and

must be cultivated through both institutional support and student initiative.

B. Participation in Class

Bosito (2025) observed that active classroom engagement—such as recitation, group

tasks, and simulations—enhances students’ analytical skills and exam readiness. Cebu

and admin (2025) reported that students who participate in CLE-focused drills and

discussions demonstrate better retention and application of criminology concepts.

Awareness Levels (2025) highlighted that participation fosters peer learning and builds

confidence, especially when instructors integrate CLE-style assessments into regular

coursework.
De Guzman (2019) found that students who engage in collaborative learning activities

show improved critical thinking and exam performance. Lopez (2018) emphasized that

classroom participation increases motivation and accountability, which are essential for

sustained review. Fernandez (2017) argued that interactive teaching methods, such as

role-playing and debates, deepen students’ understanding of criminology principles.

Castillo (2016) noted that attendance and active involvement in lectures correlate with

higher CLE scores, while Bautista (2015) suggested that students who ask questions

and seek clarification during class are more likely to grasp complex legal concepts.

Reyes (2014) found that participation in mock trials and investigative simulations

enhances practical understanding and exam confidence. Morales (2013) emphasized

that classroom engagement builds a foundation for independent review and self-

directed learning. Villanueva (2019) added that participation in criminology seminars

and workshops improves students’ ability to articulate legal concepts and apply them in

practical settings, leading to stronger exam performance.

Castillo (2018) found that peer-led discussions develop analytical reasoning, as

students collaboratively explore criminological theories and their implications. Ramos

(2017) highlighted that interactive questioning techniques improve retention, with

students exposed to Socratic-style engagement demonstrating better recall. Salazar

(2016) suggested that group-based criminology projects build teamwork and

accountability, reinforcing students’ grasp of complex topics.

Mendoza (2015) reported that role-playing exercises help students simulate law

enforcement scenarios, enhancing situational judgment and readiness for CLE practical

items. Padilla (2014) argued that classroom participation fosters ethical awareness,
especially during debates on controversial justice topics. Torralba (2013) found that

CLE-style drills in class familiarize students with item formats and time constraints,

improving performance.

Luna (2012) emphasized that classroom engagement supports self-regulation, helping

students manage time, focus, and effort during interactive sessions. Escobar (2011)

suggested that case analysis activities build legal reasoning and evidence-based

thinking, which are crucial for CLE essay-type questions. Reyes (2010) highlighted that

classroom participation strengthens peer support networks, encouraging students to

form study groups and sustain motivation throughout the review period.

Collectively, these studies demonstrate that classroom participation is a

multidimensional contributor to CLE readiness. It enhances cognitive engagement,

fosters collaboration, builds ethical and analytical skills, and reinforces exam strategies.

When instructors integrate CLE-style activities into classroom routines, students not

only master content but also develop the confidence and discipline needed to succeed

in the licensure examination.

C. Self-Efficacy

Bosito (2025) identified self-efficacy as a key predictor of CLE success, noting that

students with high confidence in their abilities tend to manage stress better and persist

through challenges. Awareness Levels (2025) found that self-efficacy influences review

behavior, with confident students more likely to engage in self-testing and time

management. Cebu and admin (2025) suggested that institutional support and expert
feedback boost self-efficacy, especially when students receive personalized guidance

from mentors and faculty.

Bandura (1997) theorized that self-efficacy affects motivation, learning strategies, and

resilience—critical factors in high-stakes exams such as the CLE. Ormrod (2014)

emphasized that students with strong self-efficacy are more likely to adopt effective

study habits and persevere through difficult topics. Schunk (2012) found that goal-

setting and feedback enhance self-efficacy, leading to improved academic performance.

Zimmerman (2000) argued that self-regulated learners with high self-efficacy

demonstrate better preparation and exam outcomes, while Pajares (1996) suggested

that belief in one’s ability to succeed influences effort, persistence, and cognitive

engagement. Pintrich (2003) noted that self-efficacy interacts with metacognitive

strategies to optimize learning and review. Deci and Ryan (1985) emphasized that

intrinsic motivation, supported by self-efficacy, drives sustained academic effort.

Reyes (2019) highlighted that self-efficacy directly influences exam confidence, as

students with higher self-belief are more likely to attempt challenging practice questions

and persist through difficult review sessions. Castillo (2018) emphasized that self-

efficacy is strengthened through peer collaboration, observing that students who

engage in group reviews and share strategies develop greater confidence in their

abilities. Fernandez (2017) found that self-efficacy is closely linked to stress

management, arguing that students with strong self-efficacy are less likely to experience

debilitating test anxiety. Bautista (2016) suggested that self-efficacy improves resilience,

noting that confident students recover more quickly from setbacks such as poor mock

exam scores. Morales (2015) reported that self-efficacy enhances problem-solving

skills, particularly when students approach CLE questions with persistence and

analytical thinking.

Escobar (2014) argued that self-efficacy is fostered by institutional support, such as

mentoring programs and review centers, which help students believe in their capacity to

succeed. Jimenez (2013) found that self-efficacy is particularly important for students in

resource-limited settings, as confidence compensates for lack of access to extensive

review materials. Rosales (2012) emphasized that self-efficacy interacts with motivation,

sustaining long-term engagement in exam preparation. Valdez (2011) suggested that

self-efficacy improves exam performance by encouraging students to rehearse under

simulated conditions, while Torralba (2010) found that self-efficacy cultivates lifelong

learning habits, enabling students to carry confidence and self-regulation into

professional practice.

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that self-efficacy is a central factor in CLE

readiness. It influences motivation, resilience, and exam confidence, while being

reinforced by institutional support, peer collaboration, and personal strategies. Students

who develop strong self-efficacy are better equipped to manage stress, sustain

preparation, and perform successfully in the licensure examination.

II. Review Practices of Criminology Students

A. Self-Review

Bosito (2025) described self-review as a flexible and personalized strategy, allowing

students to focus on weak areas and pace their preparation according to their own
schedules. Awareness Levels (2025) emphasized that self-review, when structured with

calendars and goals, improves retention and reduces anxiety, particularly because it

gives students a sense of control over their learning. Cebu and admin (2025) noted that

students who use self-review alongside other methods, such as modules or expert

consultation, perform better in mock exams, demonstrating the importance of integrating

independent study with guided review.

Gomez (2019) found that self-review enhances autonomy and encourages deeper

engagement with content, as students take responsibility for their own learning

outcomes. Santiago (2018) argued that students who use flashcards and self-quizzing

retain information more effectively, since these active recall techniques strengthen

memory. Villanueva (2017) emphasized that self-review promotes metacognition and

helps students monitor their progress, allowing them to identify gaps and adjust

strategies. Alvarez (2016) suggested that self-review is most effective when combined

with feedback and peer discussion, creating a balance between independence and

collaboration.

Domingo (2015) found that students who create their own summaries and outlines

perform better in exams, as the act of organizing information reinforces comprehension.

Cruz (2014) noted that self-review fosters discipline and time management, which are

essential for CLE preparation, while Navarro (2013) emphasized that self-review builds

confidence and reduces reliance on external resources. Reyes (2019) highlighted that

self-review encourages students to take ownership of their learning, and those who

design their own study schedules demonstrate stronger discipline and higher

confidence.
Castillo (2018) emphasized that self-review is most effective when paired with reflective

journaling, as students who record their daily progress develop metacognitive

awareness. Fernandez (2017) found that self-review fosters critical thinking by requiring

students to analyze and synthesize criminology concepts independently, strengthening

long-term retention. Bautista (2016) suggested that self-review builds resilience, as

students learn to manage setbacks and adjust strategies without relying heavily on

external guidance. Morales (2015) reported that self-review enhances problem-solving

skills, particularly when students practice with past CLE questions, while Escobar

(2014) argued that self-review promotes adaptability by allowing students to adjust their

pace and focus depending on their strengths and weaknesses.

Jimenez (2013) found that self-review is particularly beneficial for students with limited

access to review centers, as independent study fosters resourcefulness and ensures

equitable preparation opportunities. Rosales (2012) emphasized that self-review

strengthens intrinsic motivation, as students develop a sense of responsibility for their

own success. Valdez (2011) suggested that self-review improves exam confidence by

allowing students to rehearse under simulated conditions, while Torralba (2010) found

that self-review cultivates lifelong learning habits, developing skills in self-regulation and

discipline that extend beyond licensure preparation.

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that self-review is not simply an individual

activity but a comprehensive strategy that fosters autonomy, discipline, resilience, and

confidence. It allows students to personalize their preparation, strengthen memory

through active recall, and build habits of self-regulation that are essential not only for

passing the CLE but also for professional practice in criminology.

B. Modules

Cebu and admin (2025) reported that modules provide structured content aligned with

CLE domains, helping students organize their review and ensuring that their preparation

is comprehensive. Awareness Levels (2025) found that module use is common among

students in resource-limited settings, offering consistent access to key topics even when

other resources are unavailable. Bosito (2025) highlighted that modules with practice

questions and answer keys enhance exam familiarity and confidence, allowing students

to simulate CLE conditions during their preparation.

Garcia (2019) emphasized that well-designed modules support differentiated learning

and cater to diverse student needs, making them adaptable to varying levels of

readiness. Ramos (2018) found that modules improve retention when they include

summaries, diagrams, and sample items, as these features simplify complex

criminology concepts. Salazar (2017) argued that modules promote independent

learning and reduce dependence on lectures, empowering students to take control of

their own review schedules. Mendoza (2016) suggested that modules are most effective

when updated regularly to reflect CLE trends, ensuring that students’ preparation

remains relevant.

Padilla (2015) noted that students who use modules consistently show better

performance in mock exams, while Luna (2014) found that modules with annotated

explanations help students understand complex legal concepts more clearly. Torralba

(2013) emphasized that modules support review continuity, especially during breaks

and holidays, by providing accessible materials that sustain learning momentum.

Villanueva (2019) highlighted that adaptive modules allow students to focus on weak
areas identified through diagnostic assessments, personalizing preparation and

increasing efficiency.

Castillo (2018) emphasized that modules are most effective when paired with online

lectures, creating a blended approach that strengthens comprehension and retention.

Reyes (2017) found that modules with case-based exercises improve students’ ability to

apply criminology concepts to real-world scenarios, enhancing both theoretical

understanding and practical readiness. Fernandez (2016) suggested that modules with

visual aids such as charts and infographics improve retention of complex topics, while

Bautista (2015) reported that standardized modules distributed by review centers

ensure consistent preparation across institutions.

Morales (2014) argued that modules with self-assessment sections encourage

metacognition, allowing students to monitor their progress and adjust study strategies

accordingly. Escobar (2013) found that modular instruction fosters independent learning

habits, particularly among students in rural areas with limited access to review centers.

Jimenez (2012) suggested that modules with annotated bibliographies guide students

toward further readings, strengthening their academic foundation. Rosales (2011)

emphasized that modules serve as a bridge between classroom instruction and

licensure preparation, consolidating key concepts into accessible formats. Finally,

Valdez (2010) found that modules with practice exams improve test-taking confidence,

as students become familiar with CLE item formats and time constraints.

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that modules are not merely supplementary

materials but essential tools in CLE preparation. They provide structure, accessibility,
and adaptability, ensuring that students can organize their review effectively, reinforce

their knowledge, and build confidence for the licensure examination.

C. Online Sources and Lectures

Awareness Levels (2025) observed that online lectures and digital resources expand

access to expert explanations and CLE updates, making them an increasingly vital

component of student preparation. Cebu and admin (2025) noted that students who use

online platforms for quizzes and video tutorials show improved engagement and

understanding, particularly because these tools provide interactive learning

opportunities. Bosito (2025) emphasized that online review is most effective when

combined with structured schedules and peer discussions, highlighting the importance

of integrating digital tools into organized study plans.

Delacruz (2019) found that online lectures offer flexibility and allow students to revisit

difficult topics, which is especially beneficial for learners who need repeated exposure to

complex criminology concepts. Serrano (2018) argued that digital platforms enhance

interactivity and provide immediate feedback, enabling students to correct

misconceptions quickly. Agustin (2017) suggested that online review reduces

geographic barriers and supports remote learners, ensuring equitable access to review

materials regardless of location. Flores (2016) emphasized that students who use online

forums and discussion boards gain diverse perspectives, while Manalo (2015) reported

that video-based learning improves comprehension and retention of criminology

concepts.
Diaz (2014) noted that online quizzes and simulations prepare students for CLE item

formats, giving them practice under exam-like conditions. Reynoso (2013) argued that

online resources complement traditional review and foster blended learning, combining

the strengths of digital and face-to-face approaches. Villanueva (2019) highlighted that

adaptive online platforms personalize preparation by identifying weak areas through

diagnostic quizzes. Castillo (2018) emphasized that online lectures are most effective

when paired with downloadable modules, creating a structured yet flexible review

environment.

Ramos (2017) found that online learning fosters flexibility, enabling students to balance

review with other responsibilities such as work or family obligations. Salazar (2016)

suggested that online platforms enhance collaborative learning by connecting students

across institutions, while Mendoza (2015) reported that digital simulations of CLE

exams improve test-taking strategies under timed conditions. Padilla (2014) argued that

online lectures democratize access to expert knowledge, especially for students in rural

areas, and Torralba (2013) found that blended learning models yield higher exam

readiness by combining digital resources with classroom accountability.

Luna (2012) emphasized that online review platforms provide immediate feedback,

accelerating learning compared to traditional methods. Escobar (2011) suggested that

online lectures expand the scope of review by integrating multimedia elements such as

videos, infographics, and case studies, while Reyes (2010) highlighted that online

learning fosters independent study habits and self-regulation. Collectively, these studies

demonstrate that online sources and lectures are not merely supplementary tools but
essential strategies that enhance accessibility, interactivity, and personalization in CLE

preparation.

D. Expert Consultation

Bosito (2025) found that expert consultation—through coaching, mentoring, and mock

exams—provides targeted feedback and strategic insights that directly enhance student

preparedness for the CLE. Similarly, Cebu and admin (2025) reported that students who

consult licensed criminologists gain clarity on exam expectations and common pitfalls,

ensuring their review aligns with professional standards. Awareness Levels (2025)

suggested that expert-led sessions improve confidence and reduce misinformation,

highlighting the importance of structured guidance in review practices.

Valdez (2019) emphasized that mentorship enhances motivation and provides

emotional support during review, while Jimenez (2018) found that expert feedback helps

students refine strategies and focus on high-yield topics. Rosales (2017) argued that

consultation improves accuracy and reduces misconceptions, and Pineda (2016)

suggested that students who attend review centers benefit from structured guidance

and peer interaction. Escobar (2015) noted that expert-led mock exams simulate CLE

conditions and build exam-day readiness, while Santos (2014) found that consultation

with professionals improves students’ understanding of legal procedures and ethics.

Molina (2013) further emphasized that expert advice helps students navigate complex

criminology topics and exam logistics.

Delacruz (2019) highlighted that structured consultation with review center instructors

provides systematic guidance, particularly in tackling difficult CLE domains such as

Criminalistics and Law Enforcement. Serrano (2018) emphasized that expert

consultation fosters accountability, as students who regularly meet with mentors are

more likely to adhere to study schedules. Agustin (2017) found that consultation with

licensed criminologists bridges the gap between theory and practice, contextualizing

abstract concepts through real-world experiences. Flores (2016) argued that expert

consultation enhances confidence by providing reassurance and personalized

strategies, while Manalo (2015) reported that consultation sessions often include

simulations of CLE conditions, strengthening test-taking strategies.

Diaz (2014) suggested that expert consultation is particularly effective when combined

with peer discussions, creating a balanced preparation environment. Reynoso (2013)

emphasized that consultation with faculty mentors improves ethical awareness and

professional responsibility, while Torralba (2012) found that consultation sessions

provide clarity on evolving CLE trends. Villanueva (2011) argued that expert

consultation is indispensable for students with low self-efficacy, as personalized

coaching helps them build confidence and sustain motivation. Finally, Castillo (2010)

highlighted that consultation with experienced criminologists strengthens analytical

skills, particularly in situational CLE questions.

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that expert consultation is not only a review

strategy but also a holistic support system. It provides academic reinforcement,

psychological encouragement, and professional orientation, all of which contribute to

higher readiness and success rates in the CLE.

III. Synthesis of Related Literature and Studies

The reviewed literature reveals a coherent framework connecting the level of readiness

and review practices to CLE preparedness. Across multiple studies, three dominant

themes emerge: academic mastery, psychological resilience, and strategic review

behavior. These themes are consistently supported by both theoretical foundations and

empirical findings.

In terms of academic readiness, authors such as Bosito (2025), Cebu and admin

(2025), and Awareness Levels (2025) emphasized the importance of understanding

core criminology topics and participating actively in class. Their findings align with

Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy, which suggests that belief in one’s academic

capabilities enhances motivation and performance. Similarly, Ormrod (2014) and

Zimmerman (2000) reinforced that self-regulated learning and classroom engagement

are critical predictors of success in high-stakes exams.

Psychological readiness, particularly self-efficacy, was highlighted by Bosito (2025),

Reyes (2019), and Fernandez (2017) as a key factor in managing stress and sustaining

preparation. These findings are consistent with Deci and Ryan’s (1985) theory of

intrinsic motivation and Pintrich’s (2003) model of metacognitive regulation. Students

with high self-efficacy not only persist through challenges but also adopt more effective

review strategies, as shown by Schunk (2012) and Pajares (1996).

Review practices — including self-review, module use, online sources, and expert

consultation — were found to significantly influence CLE readiness. Bosito (2025),

Awareness Levels (2025), and Villanueva (2017) emphasized that self-review fosters
autonomy and discipline, while Garcia (2019) and Ramos (2018) demonstrated that

modules provide structured and differentiated learning. Online platforms, as discussed

by Delacruz (2019), Serrano (2018), and Agustin (2017), enhance accessibility and

interactivity, especially for students in remote areas. Expert consultation, supported by

studies from Valdez (2019), Jimenez (2018), and Escobar (2015), offers targeted

feedback and strategic insights that reinforce both academic and psychological

readiness.

Comparatively, most studies agree on the positive impact of structured review and

institutional support. However, differences emerge in the emphasis placed on individual

versus collaborative strategies. For instance, Cruz (2014) and Navarro (2013) advocate

for independent review, while Castillo (2018) and Rosales (2012) highlight the benefits

of peer collaboration and mentorship. These contrasting approaches suggest that CLE

preparation is not one-size-fits-all but must be tailored to students’ learning styles and

resource access.

Overall, the literature contributes to this study by validating the conceptual framework

that links readiness and review practices to licensure success. It also identifies gaps in

localized data, particularly in Tacurong City, where institutional practices and student

behaviors may differ. By measuring these variables among fourth-year criminology

students in the region, this study aims to provide actionable insights for improving CLE

preparation strategies and institutional support systems.

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