CARDIOVASCULAR

SYSTEM
 UNIT OUTLINE
At the end of this Unit, the student must be able to:
1. Discuss the synergistic efforts of the blood, blood vessels and the heart as vital
components in the maintenance of all body processes
2. Compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries,
venules, and veins
3. Explain the factors that regulate the volume of blood flow and how blood
pressure changes throughout the cardiovascular system
4. Describe how blood pressure is being regulated by different body processes
5. Define pulse, and define systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressures
6. Describe and compare the major routes that blood takes through various regions
of the body
 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
• The heart pumps blood
• Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all
parts of the body
• The function of the cardiovascular system is to
deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove
carbon dioxide and other waste products
 The Heart

• Location
• Thorax between the lungs
• Pointed apex directed toward left hip

• Less than 1
 THE HEART: COVERINGS
Pericardium – a double serous
membrane
Visceral pericardium - Next to heart

Parietal pericardium - Outside layer

Serous fluid fills the space between

the layers of pericardium
 THE HEART: HEART WALL
Three layers
1. Epicardium
• Outside layer
• This layer is the parietal pericardium
• Connective tissue layer
2. Myocardium
• Middle layer
• Mostly cardiac muscle
3. Endocardium
• Inner layer
• Endothelium
 THE HEART: HEART WALL
Layers of the heart Location Description Function
Thin, serous(watery)
membrane that is Covers the heart and
Outer layer of the
Epicardium continuous with the attaches to the
heart
lining of the pericardium
pericardium

Contracts to pump
Middle layer of the Thick layer of cardiac
Myocardium blood into the arteries
heart muscle

Thin layer of epithelial

Inner layer of the cells that is continuous Lines the interior
Endocardium
heart with the lining of the chambers and valves
blood vessels
EXTERNAL HEART ANATOMY
 THE HEART: CHAMBERS
• Right and left side act as separate pumps
• Four chambers
Atria
• Receiving chambers
• Right atrium
• Left atrium
Ventricles
• Discharging chambers
• Right ventricle
• Left ventricle
 THE HEART: CHAMBERS
Chamber of the Heart Location Function
Right Atrium Upper right chamber Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via both the
Superior(upper) vena cava and inferior (lower) vena cava
and pumps into the right ventricle

Right Ventricle Lower right chamber Receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it into
the pulmonary artery, which carries it to the lungs to be
oxygenated.

Left Atrium Upper left chamber Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the
pulmonary veins and pumps it into the left ventricle.

Left Ventricle Lower left chamber Receives blood from the left atrium and pumps it into
the aorta. The cell walls of the left ventricle are nearly
three times as thick as those of the right ventricle owing
to the force required to pump the blood into the arterial
system.
BLOOD CIRCULATION
 The Heart: Valves
- Allow blood to flow in only one direction
- Four valves
Atrioventricular valves – between atria
and ventricles
•Bicuspid valve (left)
•Tricuspid valve (right)
Semilunar valves between ventricle and
artery
•Pulmonary semilunar valve
•Aortic semilunar valve
 The Heart: Valves
Valves Location Description Function
Right AV valve or Between the right Has three cusps hence the Closes when the right vent. Contracts
tricuspid valve atrium and right name tricuspid and prevents blood from flowing back
ventricle into the right atrium

Left valve or Between the left Has two cusps, hence the Closes when the left vent. Contracts and
Bicuspid or mitral atrium and left name bicuspid prevents blood from flowing back into
valve ventricle the left atrium

Right semilunar Ate the entrance Has three half-moon- Closes when the right vent. Relaxes and
valve or pulmonic/ to the pulmonary shaped cusps prevents blood from flowing back into
pulmonary valve artery the right ventricle

Left semilunar valve At the entrance to Has three half shaped Closes when the left ventricle relaxes
or aortic valve the aorta cusps and prevents blood from flowing back
into the left ventricle
OPERATION OF HEART VALVES
 Valve Pathology
• Incompetent valve = backflow and repump
• Stenosis = stiff= heart workload increased
• May be replaced
• Lup Dub Heart Sound
 The Heart: Associated Great Vessels
Aorta
- Leaves left ventricle
Pulmonary arteries
- Leave right ventricle
Vena cava
- Enters right atrium
Pulmonary veins (four)
- Enter left atrium
 CORONARY CIRCULATION
• Blood in the heart chambers does not
nourish the myocardium
• The heart has its own nourishing circulatory
system
• Coronary arteries
• Cardiac veins
• Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus
 CARDIAC PATHOLOGY
Rapid heart beat
• = Inadequate blood
• = Angina Pectoris
• Intrinsic conduction system
(nodal system)
• Heart muscle cells contract, without
nerve impulses, in a regular, continuous
way
 THE HEART: CONDUCTION SYSTEM
- Special tissue sets the pace
1. Sinoatrial node (right atrium)
“Pacemaker”
2. Atrioventricular node (junction of
right and left atria and ventricles)
3. Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle
of His)
4. Bundle branches (right and left)
5. Purkinje fibers
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAMS (EKG/ECG)

Three formations
– P wave: impulse across atria
– QRS complex: spread of impulse
down septum, around ventricles
in Purkinje fibers
– T wave: end of electrical activity
in ventricles
 PATHOLOGY OF THE HEART
• Damage to AV node = release of ventricles from control = slower heart beat
• Slower heart beat can lead to fibrillation
• Fibrillation = lack of blood flow to the heart
• Tachycardia = more than 100 beats/min
• Bradychardia = less than 60 beats/min
 THE HEART: CARDIAC CYCLE
• Atria contract simultaneously
• Atria relax, then ventricles contract
• Systole = contraction
• Diastole = relaxation
FILLING OF HEART CHAMBERS – CARDIAC CYCLE
 THE HEART: CARDIAC OUTPUT
Cardiac output (CO)
• Amount of blood pumped by each side of the
heart in one minute
• CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume [SV])
Stroke volume
• Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in
one contraction
 THE HEART: CARDIAC OUTPUT
CO = HR x SV
5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70 mls/beat
Norm = 5000 ml/min
Entire blood supply passes through body once per minute.
CO varies with demands of the body.
CARDIAC OUTPUT REGULATION
 THE HEART: REGULATION OF HEART RATE
Stroke volume usually remains relatively
constant
• Starling’s law of the heart – the more that the
cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the
contraction
Changing heart rate is the most common way
to change cardiac output
 REGULATION OF HEART RATE
Increased heart rate
1. Sympathetic nervous system
• Crisis
• Low blood pressure
2. Hormones
• Epinephrine
• Thyroxine
3. Exercise
4. Decreased blood volume
 THE HEART: REGULATION OF HEART RATE
• Decreased heart rate
• Parasympathetic nervous system
• High blood pressure or blood volume
• Dereased venous return
• In Congestive Heart Failure the heart is
worn out and pumps weakly. Digitalis
works to provide a slow, steady, but
stronger beat.
 CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE (CHF)
• Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
• Inadequate circulation
• Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis, high blood pressure
and history of multiple Myocardial Infarctions
• Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and suffocation
• Right side fails = peripheral congestion and edema
VASCULAR SYSTEM
 BLOOD VESSELS: THE VASCULAR SYSTEM
• Taking blood to the tissues and back
• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Capillaries
• Venules
• Veins
THE VASCULAR SYSTEM

Figure 11.8b
 BLOOD VESSELS: ANATOMY
Three layers (tunics)
1. Tunic intima
• Endothelium
2. Tunic media
• Smooth muscle
• Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
3. Tunic externa
• Mostly fibrous connective tissue
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BLOOD VESSEL TYPES

• Walls of arteries are the thickest

• Lumens of veins are larger
• Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins
toward the heart
• Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer
thick to allow for exchanges between blood
and tissue
 MOVEMENT OF BLOOD THROUGH VESSELS

• Most arterial blood is

pumped by the heart
• Veins use the milking
action of muscles to
help move blood
 CAPILLARY BEDS

• Capillary beds
consist of two types
of vessels
• Vascular shunt –
directly connects an
arteriole to a venule
 CAPILLARY BEDS

True capillaries – exchange vessels

• Oxygen and nutrients cross to
cells
• Carbon dioxide and metabolic
waste products cross into blood
DIFFUSION AT CAPILLARY BEDS
 VITAL SIGNS
• Arterial pulse
• Blood pressure
• Repiratory Rate
• Body Temperature
• All indicate the efficiency of the system
 Pulse
• Pulse – pressure wave of
blood
• Monitored at “pressure
points” where pulse is
easily palpated
 BLOOD PRESSURE
Measurements by health professionals are made on the
pressure in large arteries
• Systolic – pressure at the peak of ventricular contraction
• Diastolic – pressure when ventricles relax
Pressure in blood vessels decreases as the distance away
from the heart increases
MEASURING ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
 BLOOD PRESSURE: EFFECTS OF FACTORS
Neural factors
Autonomic nervous system adjustments
(sympathetic division)
Renal factors
Regulation by altering blood volume
Renin – hormonal control
 BLOOD PRESSURE: EFFECTS OF FACTORS
Temperature
Heat has a vasodilation effect
Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
Chemicals
Various substances can cause increases or
decreases
Diet
 VARIATIONS IN BLOOD PRESSURE
Human normal range is variable
Normal
140–110 mm Hg systolic
80–75 mm Hg diastolic
Hypotension
Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
Often associated with illness
Hypertension
High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
Can be dangerous if it is chronic
 CIRCULATORY ROUTES
There are two basic postnatal (after birth) routes for blood flow;

• Pulmonary circulation -when blood returns to the heart from the

systemic route, it is pumped out of the right ventricle through the
pulmonary circulation to the lungs.

• Systemic circulation- carries oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and

removes carbon dioxide and other wastes and heat from the tissues.
 PULMONARY CIRCULATION

The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood

from the right ventricle to the air sacs (alveoli) within the
lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the air sacs to
the left atrium
 SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

The systemic circulation carries oxygen and nutrients to body

tissues and removes carbon dioxide and other wastes and heat
from the tissues.
 PATHWAY OF SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

1. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs leaves the pulmonary circulation when
it enters the left atrium through the pulmonary vein.

2. The blood is then pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.

3. From the left ventricle, blood is pumped through the aortic valve and into
the aorta.
 PATHWAY OF SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

4. The aorta arches and branches into major arteries to the upper body before
passing through the diaphragm, where it branches further into arteries which
supply the lower parts of the body.

5. The arteries branch into smaller arteries, arterioles, and finally capillaries.
 THE HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION
Hepatic portal circulation -carries venous blood from the gastrointestinal organs
and spleen to the liver.

Portal vein - vein that carries blood from one capillary network to another

Hepatic portal vein- receives blood from capillaries of gastrointestinal organs and
the spleen and delivers it to the sinusoids of the liver.

Superior mesenteric vein -drains blood from the small intestine and portions of the
large intestine, stomach, and pancreas

Splenic vein -drains blood from the stomach, pancreas, and portions of the large
intestine
 THE HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION
Inferior mesenteric vein- which passes into the splenic vein, drains portions of the large intestine

Right and left gastric veins- which open directly into the hepatic portal vein,
drain the stomach.

Cystic vein-which also opens into the hepatic portal vein, drains the gallbladder.
Hepatic portal vein -the liver is receiving nutrient-rich but deoxygenated
blood .

Hepatic artery, the liver also receiving oxygenated blood ,a branch of the celiac trunk.

Sinusoids- the oxygenated blood mixes with the deoxygenated blood

Eventually, blood leaves the sinusoids of the liver through the hepatic veins, which drain into the
inferior vena cava.
 REFERNCES
Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
Lecture Notes, Salazar, Romaenia S. RMT, MAT (2019)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Finals Lecture Session 2
First Semester, A.Y. 2021-2022
 UNIT OUTLINE
At the end of this Unit, the student must be able to:
1. Identify the organs of the digestive system and describe the basic processes
performed by the digestive system
2. Explain the process of mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach
3. Describe the location and function of the accessory structures and organs and the
role they play in aiding digestive processes
4. Explain the three phases of digestion and the major hormones that regulate
digestive activities
5. Describe the mechanism involved in the metabolism of various body substances,
vitamins and minerals in the maintenance of normal body processes
 I. OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive Tract: / alimentary
organs
Mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine
(colon)
Accessory Organs:
Teeth, tongue, salivary glands,
pancreas, liver, and
gallbladder

Image Source: Elaine N. Marieb, Suzanne M. Keller - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition (2017)
 I. OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 CARBOHYDRATES GLUCOSE

PROTEIN AMINO ACIDS NUTRIENTS

FATS FATTY ACIDS

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

II. MOUTH
 III. TEETH

Deciduous teeth, also called baby teeth or milk

teeth.

Begins to erupt around 6 months; the first to

appear are the lower central incisors.

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 III. TEETH

All permanent teeth except third molars have

erupted by the end of adolescence.

Wisdom teeth emerge between the ages of

17 and 25.

Although there are 32 permanent teeth

in a full set, the wisdom teeth often fail to erupt

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 III. TEETH

Image Source: Elaine N. Marieb, Suzanne M. Keller - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition (2017)
 III. TEETH
Crown – exposed portion of tooth; covered in enamel

Neck – connects root and crown

Root – embedded portion of tooth

Image Source: Elaine N. Marieb, Suzanne M. Keller - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition (2017)
 IV. SALIVARY GLANDS
SALIVARY GLAND DESCRIPTION SECRETION
* NEAR CHEEK & EAR

PAROTID GLAND ALPHA-AMYLASE

*CONTAIN ONLY SEROUS ACINI

* PRODUCES MAJORITY OF SALIVA

*CONTAINS BOTH SEROUS ACINI AND

SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND MUCOUS TUBULES LYSOZYME

* SEROUS DEMILUNES

*SMALLEST

MUCOUS; ALSO ADDS TO BOTH

SUBLINGUAL GLANDS *CONTAINS BOTH SEROUS ACINI AND
AMYLASE AND LYSOZYME
MUCOUS TUBULES
 Food Ingestion and Breakdown

Mechanical digestion - mastication

TEETH
Breaking up food

TONGUE
Mixes food with saliva
 Food Ingestion and Breakdown
CHEMICAL DIGESTION

SALIVA
Amylase - enzyme digests starch

Mucin - slippery protein (mucus) protects

soft lining of digestive system lubricates
food for easier swallowing

Buffers - neutralizes acid to prevent tooth

decay

Anti-bacterial chemicals -kill bacteria that

enter mouth with food
Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)
 V. PHARYNX

The back of the throat.

- Oropharynx and
Laryngopharynx

Is approximately 15cm long.

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 Swallowing (& not choking)

Epiglottis
• flap of cartilage
• closes trachea (windpipe) when swallowing
• food travels down esophagus
Peristalsis
• involuntary muscle contractions to move food along

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 VI. ESOPHAGUS
• 25 cm long
• Pushes food to Stomach (peristalsis)

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 Peristalsis

Series of involuntary wave-like

muscle contractions which
move food along the digestive
tract

Copyright © 2001 Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

 VII. STOMACH stomach
▪kills germs
C-Shaped; left abdominal cavity ▪break up food
▪digest proteins
▪store food
Varies from 15cm to 25 cm in length; holds up to
4 liters of food

Mechanically and chemically breaks down food

sphincter
Food is temporarily stored here up to 2-4 hours

Pushes food through pyloric sphincter to small

sphincter
intestine

Has layers of muscle that line the inside.

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)
 VII. STOMACH
Regions:

Cardia (near heart)

Fundus
Body
Pyloric Antrium
Pylorus
 VII. STOMACH
Mucosa of the stomach is a simple columnar
epithelium composed entirely of mucous
cells.

But the stomach is made out of protein!

What stops the stomach from digesting itself?
mucus secreted by stomach cells protects stomach
lining

Gastric Pits – millions lining mucosa

Gastric Glands – secretes gastric juice
Chief Cells - pepsinogen
Parietal Cells
 GASTRIC JUICES
• Secreted by the stomach.
• Acidic (pH 1.5-2.5) (HCl).
• Pepsin- an enzyme that breaks down large
proteins into amino acids.
• Food is further broken down into a thin liquid
called chyme.
 VIII. SMALL INTESTINE
• Major Digestive Organ
• Extends from Pyloric Sphincter to
Large Intestine
• 2 – 4 meters in length (longest in
alimentary canal)
• Located retriperitoneally
• Lined with villi, increase surface area
for absorption.
• Small intestine has huge surface area =
300m2 (~size of tennis court)
 VIII. SMALL INTESTINE
Structure
• 3 sections
• duodenum = most digestion
• jejunum = absorption of
nutrients & water
• ileum = absorption of nutrients
& water

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 DUODENUM
• 1st section of small intestines
• acid food from stomach
• mixes with digestive juices from: ▪ pancreas
▪ liver
▪ gall bladder

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 ABSORPTION BY SMALL INTESTINES
Absorption through villi & microvilli
• finger-like projections
• increase surface area for absorption

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

IX. LARGE INTESTINES (COLON)
 IX. LARGE INTESTINES (COLON)
• Solid materials pass through • Function
the large intestine. • re-absorb water
• use ~9 liters of water every
• These are undigestible solids day in digestive juices
(fibers). • > 90% of water reabsorbed
• Water is absorbed. • not enough water absorbed
• diarrhea
• Vitamins K and B are • too much water absorbed
reabsorbed with the water. • constipation
• Rectum- solid wastes exit the
body.
 You’ve got company!
• Living in the large intestine is a community
of helpful bacteria
• Escherichia coli (E. coli)
• produce vitamins
• vitamin K; B vitamins
• generate gases
• by-product of bacterial metabolism
• methane, hydrogen sulfide

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 APPENDIX
Vestigial organ

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 RECTUM
• Last section of colon (large intestines)
• eliminate feces
• undigested materials
• extracellular waste
• mainly cellulose from plants
• roughage or fiber
• masses of bacteria

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 X. ACCESSORY ORGANS
•Pancreas
•Gall Bladder
•Spleen

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 Gall bladder
• Pouch structure located near the liver which concentrates and stores
bile
• Bile duct – a long tube that carries BILE. The top half of the common
bile duct is associated with the liver, while the bottom half of the
common bile duct is associated with the pancreas, through which it
passes on its way to the intestine.
 BILE
• Bile emulsifies lipids (physically breaks apart FATS)

• Bile is a bitter, greenish-yellow alkaline fluid, stored in the gallbladder

between meals and upon eating is discharged into the duodenum where it aids
the process of digestion.
 Pancreas
An organ which secretes
both digestive enzymes
(exocrine) and hormones
(endocrine)

Pancreatic juice digests all

major nutrient types.

Nearly all digestion occurs

in the small intestine & all
digestion is completed in the
SI.

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 Liver
• Function
• produces bile
• bile stored in gallbladder until needed
• breaks up fats
• act like detergents to breakup fats
bile contains colors from old red
blood cells collected in liver =
iron in RBC rusts & makes feces brown

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 mouth stomach
▪break up food ▪kills germs
▪digest starch ▪break up food
▪kill germs ▪digest proteins
▪moisten food ▪store food

liver
▪produces bile
- stored in gall bladder
▪break up fats

pancreas
▪produces enzymes to
digest proteins & starch

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 X. Physiology of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion
2. Propulsion
3. Mechanical Breakdown
4. Digestion
5. Absorption
6. Excretion (Defecation)
X. Physiology of the Digestive System
X. Physiology of the Digestive System
 X. Physiology of the Digestive System

Image Source: Elaine N. Marieb, Suzanne M. Keller - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition (2017)
 Flow Chart of Digestion

Image Source: Elaine N. Marieb, Suzanne M. Keller - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition (2017)
Flow Chart of Digestion
Flow Chart of Digestion
 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Impacted Teeth

- When teeth remain embedded in the

jawbone

- Can exert pressure and cause a good

deal of pain

Wisdom teeth are the most commonly

impacted
 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Watery stools, or Diarrhea

• Any condition that rushes food

residue through the large intestine
before that organ has had sufficient
time to absorb the water

• Prolonged diarrhea may result in

dehydration and electrolyte
imbalance, which can be fatal if
severe
 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Constipation

• Too much water is absorbed; the stool

becomes hard and difficult to pass.

• May result from lack of fiber in the

diet, poor bowel habits

Image Source :[Link]

 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Vomiting/Emesis

• Caused by local irritation of the

stomach, such as occurs with bacterial
food poisoning

• Activates the emetic center in the

brain (medulla).

Image Source :[Link]

 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Gallstones

If bile is stored in the gallbladder for

too long or too much water is removed,
the cholesterol it contains may
crystallized

Agonizing pain may occur when the

gallbladder contracts
 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Pancreatitis

Rare but extremely serious inflammation

of the pancreas; results from activation
of pancreatic enzymes in the pancreatic
duct.

Image Source: [Link]

 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis

Diverticulosis - mucosa protrudes

through the colon walls, a condition called
diverticulosis.

Diverticulitis - diverticula become

inflamed, can be life-threatening if
ruptures occur.

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Salazar. R (2019)

 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Heartburn

Caused by failure of cardioesophageal

sphincter to close tightly; gastric juice backs
up to esophagus

Leads to esophagitis, even ulceration

Because the diaphragm no longer reinforces

the relatively weak cardioesophageal
sphincter, gastric juice flows into the
unprotected esophagus.
 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Peritonitis

Peritoneum is infected

Peritoneal membranes tend to stick

together around the infection site.

This provides time for macrophages

in the lymphatic tissue to mount an
attack

Image Source: [Link]

 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Peptic Ulcer

Typically a round, sharply defined

crater 1 to 4 cm in diameter in the
mucosa of any part of the GI tract
exposed to secretions of the stomach.

May occur in the esophagus, but 98%

occur in the pyloric part of the
stomach (gastric ulcers) or the first
part of the duodenum (duodenal
ulcers).
 XI. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Peptic Ulcer

May appear at any age; develop most

frequently between ages 50 and 70.

Recurring tendency—healing, then flaring up

periodically—for the rest of a person’s life if
not treated.

Duodenal ulcers -3x more common than

gastric ulcers.
 XII. REFERNCES
Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
Lecture Notes, Ramel, Joshua Luigi D., RMT (2019)
Lecture Notes, Salazar, Romaenia S. RMT, MAT (2019)
the Respiratory System
 UNIT OUTLINE
At the end of this Unit, the student must be able to:
1. Describe the anatomy and histology of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs and identify the functions of each respiratory system structure
2. Discuss the events that cause inhalation and exhalation
3. Explain the process behind the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
external and internal respiration
 Divisions
• Upper Respiratory Tract • Lower Respiratory Tract

➢Nose ➢Larynx
➢Nasal cavity ➢Trachea
➢Paranasal sinuses ➢Bronchial tree
➢Pharynx. ➢Lungs
 Functions of the Respiratory System
A. Gas exchange
• Major function is to supply the body with oxygen and dispose carbon dioxide

• Processes of Respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs
2. External respiration: gas exchange
3. Transport of respiratory gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide must be
transported to and from the lungs and tissues of the body
4. Internal respiration: at the systemic capillaries, gas exchanges must be made
between the blood and tissue cells
 Functions of the Respiratory System

B. Regulation of pH

C. Voice production

D. Olfaction

E. Innate immunity
 Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System

A. Conducting zones
Respiratory passages extending from the nose to the terminal bronchioles

B. Respiratory zones
Actual sites of gas exchange, composed of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts and alveoli
 Conducting Zones Structures
A. Nose
• Divided into external nose and internal nasal cavity
• External nose:
• Superiorly: nasal and frontal bones
• Laterally: maxillary bones
• Inferiorly: plates of hyaline cartilage

• Nasal cavity lies posterior to the external nose

• Air enters the cavity through the external nares / nostrils
• Divided in the midline by:
The nasal cavity is formed by the following structures

• Roof: ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, frontal bone

• Flood: hard palate
• Laterally: conchae or turbinates which protrude medially forming grooves
inferior to each concha called meatus
• Medially: nasal septum which is formed anteriorly by hyaline cartilage and
posteriorly by the vomer bone and perpendicular plate of ethmoid
Paranasal Sinuses

• air-filled spaces inside the bones that surround the nose

• Helps air get warm and moist
• Amplify the sound of your voice
 Conducting Zones Structures
B. Pharynx
• Serves as a common pathway for food and air
• Extends from the base of the skull to the level of C6

• 3 regions
1. Nasopharynx: serves only as air passageway
2. Oropharynx: both swallowed food and inhaled air pass through it
3. Laryngopharynx: common passageway for food and air
 Conducting Zones Structures
C. Larynx
• Extends 5cm from the level of the 4th to 6th cervical vertebra

• Superiorly attaches to the hyoid bone and open to the laryngopharynx;

inferiorly it is continuous with the trachea

• I. Paired cartilages
1. Arytenoids: anchor the vocal cords to the larynx
2. Cuneiform: found in the aryepiglottic fold
3. Corniculate: found at the apices of arytenoid
II. Unpaired cartilages

1. Thyroid cartilage: shield-shaped with ridge-like laryngeal prominence

which seen externally as the Adam’s apple
2. Corticoid cartilage: signet-ring shaped cartilage below the thyroid cartilage
3. Epiglottis: spoon-shaped cartilage and the only elastic cartilage among the
laryngeal cartilages
• Prevents food from entering the laryngeal cavity
• “guardian of the airways”

Vocal Cords
• Vibrate and produce sounds as air rushes upward from the lungs
• Superior to the true vocal cords are the vestibular folds or false vocal cords
 Conducting Zones Structures
D. Trachea
• Also called as the wind pipe which is about 10-12cm long and 2.5cm in
diameter
• Reinforced internally by 16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

E. Bronchi and Subdivisions: Bronchial Tree

• Right and left bronchi are formed by the division of the trachea at the level of
the sternal angle
 Right Primary Bronchus Left Primary Bronchus

Diameter Wider Narrower

Length Shorter Longer

Direction More vertical oblique

Bronchioles: air passages under 1 mm in diameter and the

tiniest of these are the terminal bronchioles with 0.5cm in
diameter
 Respiratory Zone Structures
Respiratory bronchioles
• Branch into alveolar sacs and alveoli, the chambers where the bulk of gas
exchange occurs

• ALVEOLI: minute expansions along the walls of the alveolar sacs

• Alveolar wall has no cilia or smooth muscle

 Cells of the Respiratory Membrane
A. Type I pneumocytes: the walls of the alveoli composed of simple
squamous epithelium

B. Type II pneumocytes: scattered amidst the type I and secrete a fluid

containing surfactant that coats the gas exposed alveolar surfaces.

C. Alveolar macrophages: provides primary line of defense against

inhaled dust, bacteria and other foreign particles
 Lungs and Pleural Coverings
A. Lungs
• Soft, spongy, elastic organs, each weighing 0.5kg
• Paired lungs occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the mediastinum
• Each is suspended in its pleural cavity via its root, and has a base, apex and
medial and costal surfaces

**Hilus: found in the medial surface of each lung through which blood
vessels of the pulmonary and systemic circulation enter and leave the
lungs
 Right lung VS Left lung

Right Lung Left Lung

Lobes 3 2
Fissures 1 horizontal
1 oblique
Oblique fissures 1 oblique
Cardiac notch (-) (+)

Lingula (-) (+)

 Lungs and Pleural Coverings
Blood supply in lungs

1. Pulmonary arteries: delivers blood that is to be oxygenated

2. Pulmonary veins: delivers freshly oxygenated blood from the respiratory

zones to the heart

3. Bronchial arteries: oxygen-rich blood supply that nourish the lung tissue
which arise from the aorta
 Lungs and Pleural Coverings
B. Pleura
• A thin, double-layered serosa

• Parietal pleura: lines the thoracic wall and superior aspect of the diaphragm
• Visceral pleura: cover the external lung surface, dipping into and lining its
fissures

• Produces pleural fluid

• Pleurisy: inflammation of the pleura and caused by a decreased

secretion of pleural fluid
 Mechanics of Breathing

1. Inspiration: air is flowing into the lungs (active phase)

2. Expiration: air is flowing out of the lungs (passive phase)

• A. Pressure Relationship in the Thoracic Cavity

• Gases travel from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure

• Intrapulmonary pressure: pressure within the alveoli of the lungs

• Intrapleural pressure: pressure within the pleural cavity
 Mechanics of Breathing
B. Pulmonary Ventilation: Inspiration and Expiration
• A completely mechanical process that depends on volume changes occurring
in the thoracic cavity
 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
• Refer to the amount of air that is flushed in and out of the lungs that
varies substantially on the conditions of inspiration and expiration
• Spirometer: used for the measurement of lung volumes and capacities
 Pulmonary Volumes
A. Tidal volume TV (500mL): volume of air inspired or expired with
each breath
B. Inspiratory reserve volume IRV (3000mL): amount of air that can
be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the resting tidal volume
C. Expiratory reserve volume ERV (1100mL): amount of air that can
be expired forcefully after expiration of the resting tidal volume
D. Residual volume RV (1200mL): volume of air still remaining in
the respiratory passages and lungs after a maximum expiration
 Pulmonary Capacities

• Functional residual capacity (2300mL): ERV + RV

• Inspiratory capacity (3500mL): TV + IRV

• Vital capacity (4600mL): IRV + TV + ERV

• Total lung capacity (5800mL): ERV + IRV + RV + TV

 Gas Exchange in the Body
1. External Respiration: Pulmonary gas exchange
A. Partial pressure gradients and gas solubility: partial pressure of oxygen in
pulmonary blood is much lower than the alveoli, resulting to rapid diffusion
of oxygen from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillary bed
B. Thickness of the respiratory membrane: in healthy lungs, membrane is only
0.5-1 um thick
C. Surface area: alveolar surface when spread flat will cover around 140 square
meters
D. Ventilation: perfusion coupling
 Gas Exchange in the Body
2. Internal respiration: capillary gas exchange in body tissues
• Partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues is always lower than that of the
systemic arterial blood

• Oxygen moves rapidly from the blood into the tissues until equilibrium is
reached, and carbon dioxide moves quickly along its partial pressure gradient
into the blood
 Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood
A. Oxygen transport
• Oxyhemoglobin: oxygen and hemoglobin in combination and is the major
transport form of oxygen

B. Carbon dioxide transport

• Carbaminohemoglobin: bound to hemoglobin of rbc (20-30%)

• As a bicarbonate ion in plasma: largest fraction of carbon dioxide (60-70%)

COLLEGE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE – VALENZUELA CAMPUS / ANTONIO C. PASCUA JR, RMT, MSMT/ JOSHUA LUIGI D. RAMEL, RMT
Control of Respiration
COLLEGE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE – VALENZUELA CAMPUS / ANTONIO C. PASCUA JR, RMT, MSMT/ JOSHUA LUIGI D. RAMEL, RMT
Non-Respiratory Air Movements
Breathing patterns
 Acid-Base Regulation
• Acid–base imbalance is an abnormality of the human body's
normal balance of acids and bases that causes the plasma pH to deviate out of
the normal range (7.35 to 7.45)

➢Too much intake of CO2- Respiratory acidosis

➢Excess loss of CO2- Respiratory alkalosis
➢Excess hydrogen ion- Metabolic acidosis
Excess hyrdogen ion loss or excess alkaline intake- Metabolic alkalosis
 Respiratory Disorders
A. Emphysema
• a progressive, degenerative disease that destroys alveolar walls.
• clusters of small air sacs merge to form larger chambers, which drastically
decreases the surface area of the respiratory membrane and thereby reduces the
volume of gases that can be exchanged through the membrane.

B. Chronic Bronchitis
• the mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes severely inflamed and
produces excessive mucus.
• pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas exchange and dramatically increases
the risk of lung infections, including pneumonias.
 Respiratory Disorders

C. Lung cancer
• Associated with smoking and the most prevalent type of malignancy
• Continuous irritation prompts the production of more mucus, but smoking
slows the movements of cilia that clear this mucus and depresses lung
macrophages.
 REFERNCES
Anatomy and Physiology by Surio, Luzviminda MD, [Link]., 2017 edition
Marieb's 12th Ed Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology
Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy, Physiol. 10th ed. - D. Shier, et. al.,
THE URINARY SYSTEM
 UNIT OUTCOMES
1. Describe the external and internal gross anatomical features of the kidneys and
its functions
2. Identify the three basic functions performed by nephrons and collecting ducts.
3. Discuss the complete process involved starting from the formation of urine up to
its elimination from the body
4. State the different tests used in the laboratory to evaluate kidney function
5. Compare the locations of intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF),
and describe the various fluid compartments of the body
6. Discuss the body processes involved in the balance of water, electrolytes and
other important substances of the body
 Organs of the Urinary system

• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
 • Elimination of waste products • Regulate aspects of
• Nitrogenous wastes homeostasis
• Toxins • Water balance
• Drugs • Electrolytes
• Acid-base balance
• Blood pressure
• RBC production
• Activation of vit.D

COLLEGE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE – VALENZUELA CAMPUS / ANTONIO C. PASCUA JR, RMT, MSMT/ JOSHUA LUIGI D. RAMEL, RMT
 Kidneys
• Retroperitoneal bean-shaped organ in superior lumbar region
• Extends from vertebral levels T12 superiorly and L3 inferiorly

• Coverings: (from innermost to outermost)

• Renal capsule
• Perirenal fat
• Renal fascia
 Regions of the Kidney

• Renal cortex – outer region

• Renal medulla – inside the
cortex
• Renal pelvis – inner
collecting tube
Kidney Structures
• Medullary pyramids – triangular regions of
tissue in the medulla
• Renal columns – extensions of cortex-like
material inward
• Calyces – cup-shaped structures that funnel
urine towards the renal pelvis
✓Nephron
• Functional units of kidney
• 1-1.5 million

✓2 types
• Cortical (85%)
➢Removal of waste
and reabsorption of
nutrients
• Juxtamedullary
➢Concentration
of urine
 Parts of Nephron
A. Glomerulus: a high-pressure tuft of capillaries with openings

• Attached to
arterioles on both sides

• Large afferent arteriole

• Narrow efferent arteriole

B. Renal Tubule
• Bowman’s capsule
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• Loop of Henle
• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
 Parts of Nephron
Layers of Bowman’s capsule

1. Outer parietal layer: composed of simple

squamous epithelium
2. Inner visceral layer: composed of branching
podocytes which cling to the glomerulus
 Parts of Nephron
Peritubular Capillaries
• Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus

• Cling close to the renal tubule

• Reabsorb some substances from collecting tubes

 Parts of Nephron

Renal Corpuscle
A. Renal / Malphigian Corpuscles: glomerulus plus the Bowman’s
capsule

B. Juxtaglomerular apparatus: consists of juxtaglomerular cells of the

afferent arteriole and the macula densa of the DCT
 Parts of Nephron
Mechanism of Urine Formation

1. Glomerular filtration

2. Tubular reabsorption

3. Tubular secretion
 Glomerular Filtration
• Involves passing the blood through layers of filtration barrier which
includes:
• Glomerular endothelial cell
• Basement membrane
• Epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule

• Nonselective passive process

• Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the
renal tubule

GFR: ___
 Factors Affecting Filtration Process:

1. Cellular structure of the capillaries and the

Bowman’s capsule
2. Glomerular Pressure
3. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

*Adopted from Urinalysis and Body Fluids 5th Ed., by Strasinger, S.K., p. 14
 Glomerular Filtration
• Glomerular hydrostatic pressure
• Chief force pushing water and solute across the filtration membrane
• Glomerular osmotic pressure
• Opposes filtration
• Capsular hydrostatic pressure
• Opposes filtration; force exerted by the fluid in the Bowman’s capsule

❖Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)

❖Force responsible for filtrate formation
 RAAS

*Adopted from Urinalysis and Body Fluids 5th Ed., by Strasinger, S.K.
 Tubular Reabsorption

• Concerned with conservation of solutes

• Reabsorption Mechanism:
• Active Transport
• Passive Transport
• Gradients
*Adopted from Urinalysis and Body Fluids 5th Ed., by Strasinger, S.K.,
Terms to remember:

◆maximal reabsorptive capacity (Tm)

◆Renal Threshold
 Vasopressin/ADH
• Controls the concentration process
• Production is determined by the state of body hydration.

↑Body Hydration = ↓ADH = ↑Urine Volume

↓Body Hydration = ↑ADH = ↓Urine Volume
 Tubular Secretion
• the passage of substances from the blood in the peritubular capillaries to
the tubular filtrate
• two major functions:
✓Elimination of waste products not filtered by the glomerulus
✓Regulation of the acid-base balance in the body through the secretion of
hydrogen ions.
Formation of Urine
 Ureter
• 25-30cm slender muscular tube that conveys urine, through peristalsis, from the
kidneys to the urinary bladder

• Runs behind the peritoneum

• Anatomical constrictions of the Ureter where stones can be arrested

• Ureteropelvic junction
• Bifurcation of common iliac vessels near the pelvic brim
• Vesico-ureteral junction
 Urinary Bladder

• A smooth, distensible muscular sac, lying posterior to the pubic

symphysis
• Storage of urine

• Trigone – three openings

• Two from the ureters
• One to the urethra
 Urinary Bladder Wall
• Three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle)
• Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
• Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
• Bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal
pressure
 Urethra

• Thin-walled muscular tube draining urine from the urinary bladder to

the body exterior

• Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters

• Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary)
• External urethral sphincter (voluntary)
 Urethra Gender Differences

• Length
• Females – 3–4 cm (1 inch)
• Males – 20 cm (8 inches)
• Location
• Females – along wall of the vagina
• Males – through the prostate and penis
 Micturition (Urination)

• A process of emptying the bladder

• Both sphincter muscles must open to allow voiding

• The internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder

• Activation is from an impulse sent to the spinal cord and then back via the pelvic
splanchnic nerves
• The external urethral sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed
 Renal Function Tests
Glomerular Filtration Tests
CLEARANCE TESTS
Specimen:

1. Urea clearance
2. Creatinine clearance
3. Inulin clearance
4. β2-microglobulin
5. Radioisotopes
• Requirements:
• 24-hour urine
• Serum
• Unit: ml/min

• C= UV
P

V (ml/min) = ml (actual collected sample)

no. minutes (collection)
 Tubular Reabsorption Tests

1. Specific Gravity

2. Mosenthal Concentration Test

3. Fishberg Concentration Test

4. Osmolarity
 Tubular Secretion and Renal Blood Flow Tests
p-aminohippuric acid (PAH)
✓use a substance that is completely removed from the blood
✓Disadvantage →
✓ Exogenous
 Tubular Secretion and Renal Blood Flow Tests
• Titratable Acidity and Urinary Ammonia
• H+
• NH3
• cells of DCT
• NV: approx 70 mEq/day
• Alkaline tides (diurnal variation):
• Post prandial → 2pm / 8pm
• Lowest pH: night
 Renal Failure

• Kidneys are unable to do its physiologic functions such as concentrating urine,

removal of wastes and maintaining electrolytes and pH balance of the body

• Causes: drugs, toxic chemicals, infections, hypertension, DM., etc.

 Maintaining Water Balance

• Normal amount of water in the human body

• Young adult females – 50%
• Young adult males – 60%
• Babies – 75%
• Old age – 45%
• Water is necessary for many body functions
and levels must be maintained
 Distribution of Body Fluid

• Intracellular fluid (inside cells)

• Extracellular fluid (outside cells)
• Interstitial fluid
• Blood plasma
 Fluid Exchange

1. Hydrostatic pressure: pressure which tends to push fluid out of the

intravascular component

2. Osmotic pressure: pressure exerted by the solutes which tend to attract water
 The Link Between Water and Salt

• Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one

compartment to another
• Alters blood volume and blood pressure
• Can impair the activity of cells
 Maintaining Water Balance

• Water intake must equal water output

• Sources for water intake
• Ingested foods and fluids
• Water produced from metabolic processes
• Sources for water output
• Vaporization out of the lungs
• Lost in perspiration
• Leaves the body in the feces
• Urine production
 Disorders of water balance
• Dehydration
• Occurs when water loss exceeds water intake
• Manifested as thirst, dry skin and decreased urine output

• Edema
• Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space
• May be secondary to increased hydrostatic pressure or decreased in osmotic pressure or
lymphatic obstruction
 Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Reabsorption

• Regulation is primarily by hormones

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive water loss in urine
• Aldosterone regulates sodium ion content of extracellular fluid
• Atrial Natriuretic Factor
• Released by cells in the atria of heart to increase BP
• Cells in the kidneys and hypothalamus are active monitors
Others

• Estrogen: due to its chemical similarity with aldosterone (increases Na

reabsorption)

• Progesterone: blocks the effect of aldosterone

• Glucocorticoids: exhibit aldosterone-like effect

 Maintaining
Water/Electrolyte
Balance
 Acid-Base Balance in Blood

• Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45 to maintain

homeostasis
• Alkalosis – pH above 7.45
• Acidosis – pH below 7.35
• Most ions originate as byproducts of cellular metabolism
1. Chemical buffer system: single or paired sets of molecules that
resists shifts in pH by releasing or binding H+

2. Respiratory center in the brain stem: eliminates volatile acids

• Acidosis activates the respiratory center to increase respiratory rate and depth
which eliminates CO2 and causes pH to rise.
• Alkalosis depresses respiratory center, resulting in CO2 retention and a fall in
pH

3. Renal mechanism: eliminates metabolic or fixed acids

• Major long-term mechanism for controlling acid-base balance
• Acts mainly by excreting H+ and conserving bicarbonates
 Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance
• Respiratory acidosis: decreased pH resulting from CO2 retention

• Respiratory alkalosis: increased pH resulting from rapid elimination of CO2

• Metabolic acidosis: decreased pH resulting from accumulation of metabolic

acids or rapid loss of bicarbonates in the urine

• Metabolic alkalosis: increased pH resulting from excessive bicarbonates in the

blood or loss of acids
 REFERNCES
Urinalysis and Body Fluids 5th Ed., by Strasinger, S.K.,
Anatomy and Physiology by Surio, Luzviminda MD, [Link]., 2017 edition
Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 9th edition by Marieb, Elaine
THE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
LECTURE SESSION 5: FINALS PERIOD
 UNIT OUTLINE
At the end of this Unit, the student must be able to:
1. Describe the location, structure, and functions of the organs of the male and
female reproductive system
2. Discuss the process of spermatogenesis in the testes and oogenesis in the ovaries
3. Compare the major events of the ovarian and uterine cycles
4. Explain the effects of hormones in the maintenance and development of male and
female reproductive organs
5. Discuss the process of pregnancy, heredity and human development through the
collective efforts of the male and female reproductive organs
6. State the basics of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases.
 OVERVIEW
Reproductive Organs become active in puberty

Reproductive Organs:
1. Primary Sex Organs (Gonads)
- Secretes Sex cells (Gametes) and Hormones
2. Accessory Sex Organs
- Supporting Structures

Main function of Male/Female Reproductive System: produce offspring

Fertilized Egg: Zygote
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 OVERVIEW OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Primary Sex Organ:

Testes

Accessory Sex Organ(s):

Duct System
Accessory Glands
External Genitalia

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 I. TESTES
- 4 cm by 2 cm
- Connected to trunk by Spermatic Cord
- Tunica Albuginea (“White Coat”)
- Seminiferous Tubules
- Interstitial Cells

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 II. DUCT SYSTEM
Epididymis
- 6m long
- Posterior to the Testes
- Maturation site of sperm cells

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 II. DUCT SYSTEM
Ductus (Vas) Deferens
- Runs upward from the epididymis
- Passes through the following structures:
- Inguinal Canal
- Pelvic Cavity
- Superior Aspect of the Urinary Bladder

- Ampulla
- Ejaculatory Duct

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 II. DUCT SYSTEM
Urethra
- From base of urinary bladder to tip of penis

Regions:

Prostatic Urethra
Membranous Urethra
Spongy Urethra

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 II. DUCT SYSTEM
Urethra

Regions:

Prostatic Urethra
Membranous Urethra
Spongy Urethra

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 III. ACCESSORY GLANDS
Seminal Vesicles
Seminal Fluid:
- Base of the Urinary Bladder
- Hollow - Thick, yellowish

- 6 to 7 cm Contains:
Sugar (Fructose)
Vitamin C
Produces 60% of Seminal Fluid
Prostaglandins
 III. ACCESSORY GLANDS
Prostate Gland
Prostate Fluid:
- “Doughnut-Shaped”
- Inferior to the urinary bladder - Milky
- Activates Sperm

Produces Prostate Fluid

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 III. ACCESSORY GLANDS
Bulbourethral Gland

- “Pea-Sized”
- Inferior to the prostate gland
- Secretes mucus that drains to the urethra when man
is sexually excited

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 IV. EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Scrotum

- Sac of skin hanging outside of abdominal

cavity

- Hangs loosely under normal conditions;

provides environment with a temperature
3°C lower than normal body temperature

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 IV. EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Penis
- Delivers sperm into the female reproductive
tract.

Externally, we see: Internally:

- Shaft - Spongy erectile tissue
- Glans Penis (Tip)
- Prepuce

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 IV. EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Penile Erection

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 V. PHYSIOLOGY

1. Spermatogenesis
- Starts at puberty (lifetime)
- Forms at the seminiferous tubules
- Begins with spermatogonia ->
sperm cells

2. Testosterone Production
- Stimulates the development of male
reproductive structures and male
secondary sexual characteristics

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 V. PHYSIOLOGY

1. Spermatogenesis

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 V. PHYSIOLOGY

1. Spermatogenesis

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 V. PHYSIOLOGY

2. Testosterone Production

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 V. PHYSIOLOGY

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 OVERVIEW OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Primary Sex Organ:

Ovaries

Accessory Sex Organ(s):

Duct System

External Genitalia
and Perineum

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 VI. OVARIES
- “Almond-Shaped”
- Ovarian Follicles
- Graafian Follicle/ Vesicular Follicle
- Follicle Cells
 VII. DUCT SYSTEM
Uterine Tubes
- Fallopian Tubes
- Fertilization Sites
- 10cm (4 in)
- Infundibulum
- Fimbrae
- Contain Cilia to create wave-like
movements that propel the oocyte

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 VII. DUCT SYSTEM
Uterus
- Hollow organ
- Suspended by uterosacral
ligaments and round ligaments

Layers of Uterine Wall

- Body
- Fundus Endometrium
Myometrium
- Cervix Perimetrium

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 VII. DUCT SYSTEM
Vagina
- Tube-Like
- 10cm (4 in)
- Extends from the Cervix to the
body exterior
- Passageway of menstrual flow and
the delivery of the infant

Hymen – thin fold of mucosa at the

distal end of the vagina
Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 VIII. EXTERNAL GENITALIA

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 IX. PHYSIOLOGY
1. Oogenesis
- Starts at the developing female fetus
- Maturation of oocytes happens at puberty
- Begins with oogonia -> secondary
oocyte
2. Hormone Production
- Stimulates the development of female
reproductive structures and female
secondary sexual characteristics

- Aids in maintaining pregnancy and

prepares breasts for lactation

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 IX. PHYSIOLOGY

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 IX. PHYSIOLOGY

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 IX. PHYSIOLOGY

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 IX. PHYSIOLOGY

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
 IX. PHYSIOLOGY

Image Source: VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
THE UTERINE CYCLE
AND PREGNANCY
 X. UTERINE CYCLE
AKA Menstrual Cycle

Cyclic changes in the endometrium in response to changing levels of hormones in the blood

Cyclic production of estrogen and progesterone regulated by the anterior pituitary gonadotropic
hormones, FSH and LH.

Approx 28 days

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 X. UTERINE CYCLE
Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5)

- Shedding off (sloughing off) of endometrial

lining from uterine wall

- Detached tissues and blood pass through

vagina (menstrual flow or “period”)

- Day 5: Production of more estrogens in

ovaries

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 X. UTERINE CYCLE
Proliferative Phase (Days 6-14)

- Regeneration of endometrium; formation of

glands and increase in blood supply.

- Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of

this stage

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 X. UTERINE CYCLE
Secretory Phase (Days 15-28) If Fertilization
DOES NOT occur:
- Further increase in blood supply of
endometrium - Degeneration of the corpus
luteum towards the end of
- Secretion of nutrients from the endometrial Secretory Phase
glands (sustains embryo, if present) until
implantation - Decrease of LH

- If fertilization occurs, embryo secretes LH-like

hormone human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG)to further stimulate corpus luteum
Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 XI. PREGNANCY
- The time period between the fertilization of an oocyte until
birth
Gestation –time period between last menstrual cycle until birth

Embryonic Period – From fertilization through Week 8

Fetal Period - from Week 9 through birth
 XI. PREGNANCY
FERTILIZATION
Fertilized Oocyte - Zygote
When the sperm reaches a ovulated
secondary oocyte

Sperm take 1-2 hours to travel through

female duct system

Oocyte Viability
Sperm Viability
For fertilization to occur?
Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 XI. PREGNANCY

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
XI. PREGNANCY
 XI. PREGNANCY

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 XI. CHILDBIRTH
Called Parturition Stages of Labor:

Occurs within 15 days of calculated due date Stage 1: Dilation Stage

Stage 2: Expulsion Stage
Labor – the events that expel the infant from Stage 3: Placental Stage
the uterus

Hormones that initiate labor:

Oxytocin and Prostaglandins

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
HOMEOSTATIC
IMBALANCES
 XII. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 XII. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Image Source: [Link] [Link]

 XII. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Image Source: Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
 XII. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Image Source: [Link] , [Link]

health/hpv/hpv-warts-misunderstood-std/
 XIII. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IMBALANCES
Erectile Dysfunction
- Failure to achieve erection
- Also called Impotence

Prostate Cancer
- Manifested with elevated PSA (Prostate
Specific Antigen) levels, esp. for Males
55 y/o and above
- Enlargement of the prostate also a
manifestation
Image Source: [Link]
COLLEGE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE – VALENZUELA CAMPUS / ANTONIO C. PASCUA JR, RMT, MSMT/ JOSHUA LUIGI D. RAMEL, RMT
 XIII. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IMBALANCES
Male Infertility
- Inability or reduced ability to produce
offspring.
- Commonly caused by low sperm count
(less than 20 million sperm cells/ml)
- May be caused by low levels of hormones
(Testosterone, FSH, LH)

Image Source: [Link]

COLLEGE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE – VALENZUELA CAMPUS / ANTONIO C. PASCUA JR, RMT, MSMT/ JOSHUA LUIGI D. RAMEL, RMT
 XIII. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IMBALANCES
Amenorrhea
- Absence of a menstrual cycle

Primary Amenorrhea – pituitary gland defect (no menstruation at beginning of

puberty)

Secondary Amenorrhea – if a female has had normal menstrual cycles and later
stops menstruating (may also be pituitary gland-related)
 XIII. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IMBALANCES
Breast Cancer
- Commonly involve the epithelium of the
mammary gland
- Mutation of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes
(for 30-40% of inherited cancers)

Environmental Factors:
Exposure to ionizing radiation, high dietary
fat intake and obesity
 XIII. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IMBALANCES
Ectopic Preganancy
- If implantation occurs anywhere other than
in the uterine cavity

Female Infertility
- Malfunctions of the uterine tubes
- Decreased FSH and LH
- Endometriosis
 XI. REFERNCES
Keller, S.;Marieb, E. (2017) - Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology-Pearson, 12th edition
VanPutte, Cinnamon L., et al (2016), Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
Lecture Notes, Salazar, Romaenia S. RMT, MAT (2019)