2021

Political science

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ADV ALI RAZA

ADV. ALI RAZA | Email: [Link].50364@[Link]

 Part 1

Western Philosophers
 PLATO (427-347 BC)
INTRODUCTION
⮚ born in May-June 428/27 BC in Athens
⮚ original name was Aristocles, which meant the “best and renowned”
⮚ nick name 'Plato', derived from platys, because of his broad and strong shoulders.
⮚ studied music, mathematics and poetry.
⮚ fought three wars and won an award for bravery.
⮚ met Socrates in 407 BC at the age of 20
⮚ Peloponnesian war 432-04 BC and Athens defeat
⮚ trial and execution of Socrates in 399 BC proved to be a turning point in Plato's life
⮚ In 386 BC, established an academy “Academns”
⮚ Purpose of academy: training school for future philosophic rulers'
⮚ First philosopher who gave scientific touch to philosophy.

Work
⮚ The Republic, (380-370 BC)
⮚ The States man (360 BC)
⮚ The Laws (350BC),
⮚ Apology of Socrates, 22 genuine and 11 disputed dialogues, and 13 letters.
⮚ founder of philosophical idealism
⮚ The Republic
▪ Collection of Plato's ideas in the field of ethics, metaphysics, philosophy and
politics.
▪ form of a dialogue
▪ The Republic in Greek means justice,
▪ He was concerned about human life and human soul or human nature, and the
real question in it is how to live best in the state within the European
intellectual tradition.

Theory of justice
⮚ Importance: sub-title of the Republic, ‘Concerning Justice’
⮚ Dialectical debate on justice
● Cephalous: telling the truth, being honest in word and deed and paying one's debts
(Traditionalism)
● Socrates: harmful to speak the truth or return one's belongings is harmful
● Polemarchus: justice means giving each man is due' or what was fitting' (Traditionalism)
● Socrates negate by quoting examples of friends and enemy
● Thrasymachus: justice as the interest of the stronger (Radicalism)
 ● Socrates: ruler’s duty was to serve the interests of the people
● Glaucon and Adeimantus: interest of the weaker, artificial, product of customs and
conventions (Pragmatism)
● Socrates: natural and universal,
⮚ Justice according to Plato

“Justice is doing one’s own job” (BOOK 4 OF PLATO)

“We must infer that all things are produced more plentifully and easily and of better
quality when one man does one thing which is natural to him and does it at the right
time, and leaves other things” (PLATO)
⮚ Analogy between human being and state.
⮚ Three classes in the state.
⮚ Justice is a product of specialization of function.
⮚ “Justice is a product of class division and specialization of function” (PLATO)
⮚ Justice is the development of internal harmony.
⮚ “Justice is harmony” (BOOK 4 OF REPUBLIC)
⮚ Non-interference of state in public affairs.
⮚ Individual and social justice.

"The will to concentrate on one's own spheres of duty and not to middle with the
spheres of others".(PLATO)
⮚ Education as a tool to make just society.
Critical analysis of Plato’s justice theory.
⮚ It divides the society into three classes, which is impossible now.
⮚ Restriction of individual’s freedom.
⮚ Geographical division of vast state.
⮚ Theory of non-interference of state in public affairs.
⮚ Unnatural communism.
⮚ Plato's unity through uniformity is not stable.
⮚ Plato's Justice with Communism of property and wives ignores the fundamental human
psychology.

Theory of ideal state

⮚ Sketch of ideal state in “the republic”.
⮚ Importance of state and society according to Plato…..”No good life out of state”
⮚ Four virtues or qualities of ideal state
▪ Wisdom: rulers are persons of knowledge
▪ Courage: warriors are brave
▪ Discipline: harmony pervaded the societal matrix
 ▪ Justice: doing one's job for which one was naturally filled without interfering
with others
⮚ theory of three classes and three souls (Pythagoras theory)
▪ Three qualities of human soul
I. Rational: ruling class = virtue is wisdom
II. Spirit; warriors = virtue is courage,
III. Appetite: producing class = virtue is materialistic
▪ justice as the fourth virtue balancing and harmonizing
▪ rulers and soldiers would constitute the guardian class.
▪ one of these qualities would be the predominant
⮚ the state was ideal, of which justice was the reality
⮚ justice is that rulers, warriors and producers are performing governing, defense and production
without interfering with the functions of others.
⮚ “one class, one duty;
⮚ Justice is not only adherence to the laws but based on the inner nature of human spirit
⮚ justice of the state is the citizen's sense of duty.
⮚ Just state: an eye to the good of the whole.
⮚ All should do what they ought to do
⮚ Two aspects of platonic justice are Individual & social
▪ Individual is a functional unit
▪ Given a specific task
▪ Clear cut obligations
⮚ Plato's justice does not embody a conception of rights but of duties
⮚ functional specialization.
⮚ Prof Sabine: Plato visualized society as a system of services in which each member both gives
and receives. What the state takes cognizance, of is this mutual exchange and what it tries to
arrange is the most adequate satisfaction of needs and the most harmonious inter change of
services
⮚ Prof Ernest Barker has rightly pointed out; justice for Plato is at once a part of human virtue and
the bond which joins men together in the states. It makes man good and make him social"
⮚ Prof. Sabine: “Justice is a bound which holds the society together”
⮚ Characteristics of Plato’s ideal state
● Functional specialization
● System of education
● Stages in education system
● Justice in Plato’s ideal state
● Dominance of philosophy/government by philosopher king
● Monarchy is the best form of government
● Communism in the ideal state
● Ban on harmful arts and literature
● Sexual equality
Criticism
 ⮚ A hollow concept
⮚ Self-contradictory and half-communism
⮚ No abolition of slavery
⮚ No constitution
⮚ Ignore individual and focus on society as a whole
⮚ Stop the growth of individual
⮚ Class system is not applicable in modern state
⮚ class state with class consciousness
⮚ Totalitarianism.

Theory of EDUCATION
⮚ scheme of education is the spiritual remedy for the realization of justice
⮚ According to Plato, social education is a means to social justice.
⮚ Philosopher king by elaborate and rigorous scheme of education
⮚ state was wholly constructed around the scheme of education
⮚ education as an instrument of moral reform
⮚ It helped in the performance of one's functions in society
⮚ Education is more than acquiring of basic facts and ideas in one's childhood but system of adult
training and education
⮚ virtue is knowledge and for making people virtuous, he made education a very powerful
instrument.
⮚ Plato believed that the state could promote justice and prevent crime by a proper system of
education.
⮚ education promotes justice and enables a man to fulfill his duties
⮚ educational systems serves both to undergrad and sustain the idea of political order and to
provide a ladder,
⮚ educational scheme was state controlled compulsory and graded one moving from lower to
higher levels of learning process.
⮚ No gender based discrimination
⮚ aimed at attaining the physical, moral, mental and intellectual development of human
personality.
⮚ graded process which consisted of different levels and stages starting from 6 to 50 years.
⮚ aimed at preparing the rulers for administrative statesmanship, soldiers for military skill, and
producers for material productivity
⮚ plans sought to bring a balance between the individual needs and social requirements.
⮚ Prof. Ernest Barker has rightly pointed out; Plato’s scheme of education brings the soul into that
environment which in each stage of its growth is best suited for its development.

Educational Scheme
⮚ Plato disliked the Athenian system, instead liked Spartan System of Education, which was state
regulated.
⮚ Two phases of his education system.
 ⮚ Elementary education
⮚ Up to the age of six, a child is to be taught simple religious and moral truth through stories.
⮚ 7-18: It includes basic sciences, music, poetry and literature, and gymnastic to develop a sound
physique and mind.
⮚ Those who do not study after 18 years are dropped down to become artisans or producers.
⮚ 18-20: military training, which is calculated to develop courage, self-control, character and
discipline.
⮚ After military training there is a public examination and those who fail it are dropped down to
become warriors.
⮚ Higher education.
⮚ From 20 to 30 years of age, students are taught natural and mathematical sciences.
⮚ At the age of 30, there is a selective test and those who fail are dropped down to become
subordinate officers of the state. The remaining students are given 5 years more training in
mathematics, philosophy chiefly the science of dialectics.
⮚ THE GUARDIANS.
⮚ At the age of 35, they are required practical training for 15 years to become philosophers and
guardians.
Criticism
⮚ undemocratically devised in so far as it ignored the producing class completely
⮚ limited in nature and was restrictive in extent by laying more emphasis on mathematics and
logic than on literature.
⮚ Expensive
⮚ create an ideal philosopher more than an ideal man of action.
⮚ Not practicable in modern world
“There are two self-contradictory statements in Plato's Education Scheme; viz the extraordinary
use of music and the absolute control of the sour over the body, which is impossible” (JOWETT)

Theory of COMMUNISM
“In order to prevent possible corruption of the ruling class, rulers should not have
families and private property”
⮚ Justice could be achieved by spiritual and material means.
⮚ Communism of family or communism of wives and children, and communism of property.
⮚ Communism of property is justification of justice & communism of family is justification
Communism of property
⮚ guardians are to live a life very different from that of the producers
⮚ Guardian class does away with property, for property represents the elements of appetite
“Guardian class holds to right to govern; they must not have property. They must not
have their own houses and lands” (PLATO)
⮚ to do away with property demands the communism of families
 ⮚ Plato abolished private family life and property for the guarding class because of nepotism,
favoritism, particularism, factionalism and other corrupt practices
⮚ common food and interest of the state
⮚ guardian class live together in a common barrack
⮚ “friends have all things in common”
⮚ greater space and consideration to communism of family than to property
⮚ conventional marriage led to women's subordination, subjugation and seclusion
⮚ rejected the idea of marriage as a spiritual union based on love and mutual respect
⮚ temporary sexual union for the purpose of bearing the children.
⮚ Take care of Children by state-controlled institutions.
⮚ unity of the state demands their abolition
Objectives of communism
⮚ Honesty
⮚ Efficiency
⮚ Devotion to state
⮚ Concentration of attention
⮚ Selflessness
⮚ Unity and harmony
COMPARISON WITH MODERN COMMUNISM
Similarities
⮚ both ignore the individuality of the citizens and are based on the supremacy of the state
⮚ Both are totalitarian covering various aspects of the life of the individual.
⮚ Both are based on the ignorance of the essentials of human nature and human instincts.
⮚ both are calculated to eliminate unregulated economic competition based on individualism
⮚ to promote political unity and social harmony and to develop the sense of social service.
Differences
⮚ political objective vs eco-political objective
⮚ limited to only two upper classes vs whole society
⮚ Plato prevent concentration of economic and political power in the same hands; modern
communism gives political power to the producing class
⮚ Plato's communism involved abolition of private family life and private property; modern
communism intends to abolish private property only
Criticisms
⮚ ignored the natural instinct of acquisition
⮚ partial in so far as excluding the producing class
⮚ It is doubtful if communism of families would bring greater degree of unity by making the
guardians a single family
 ⮚ Communism of wives and children was found to create confusion if not disorder - one female
would be wife of all the guardians and one male, the husband of all the females
⮚ Common children would tend to be neglected, for every body's child would be nobody's baby.
⮚ It is also doubtful if the state controlled mating would ever be workable; it would rather reduce
men and women to the levels of mere animals by suggesting temporary marital relationship.
⮚ Plato’s communism of family suggests a system of marriage which is neither monogamy nor
bigamy, nor polygamy, nor polyandry; and finally.
⮚ Plato's theory of communism is too idealistic, too utopian, too imaginary and accordingly far
away from the realities of life. Some critics have gone to the extent of criticizing Platonic
communism as half communism'

Plato’s concept of philosopher king

“Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power
of philosopher? Cities will never have rest from their evils” (Plato)
⮚ Why philosopher king?
“Politics is an [Link] with all arts, its successful practice demands expert knowledge”
(plato)
⮚ Why plato was against democracy or majority rule.
● Defeat of Athens in peloponnesian war 432-04 BC under democracy a bitter experience
⮚ Influence of Socrates—virtue is knowledge.
⮚ Characteristics of philosopher king.
● he is above law and regulations.
● he is true statesman and his government is best form of government.
● he is fountain of justice in the state.
● although, he is above law, yet protection of property is his responsibility.
Criticism
⮚ government by philosopher king is opposite to the equality and democracy.
⮚ education system under aristocracy can only produce imaginary persons.
⮚ no training for philosopher king in law and economics.
⮚ it is one-man dictatorship.

STATE AND GOVERNMENT

⮚ duty of the state or govt. to help people live a complete life
⮚ constructs his ideal state on the analogy between the individual and the state
⮚ objective of his ideal state is good life
⮚ Three classes
⮚ Ideal state is: state ought to be.
 ⮚ three successive stages
▪ same education to male and female
▪ communism
▪ Rule of philosophy
⮚ ideal state is hierarchical in composition and functions
⮚ head philosopher king
⮚ communism
⮚ education
⮚ functional specialization
⮚ equality of men and women
⮚ Others Regimes
▪ Timocracy: based on ambition and love of honor and war
▪ Oligarchy or Plutocracy: the rule of the wealthy,
▪ Democracy; the second worst type
▪ despotism or tyranny
⮚ Plato divided the states into lawful and unlawful states
Assessment of Plato’s philosophy
⮚ first systematic political theorist
⮚ Political idealism is Plato's gift to western political philosophy.
⮚ Vision and direction to western philosophy
⮚ Jowet rightly describes Plato as father of philosophy, politics and literary idealism.
⮚ Both Voltaire (1694-1778) and Nietzsche (1844-1900) characterized Platonism as the intellectual
side of Christianity.
⮚ Many like John Ruskin (1819-1900) and William Morris (1834-1896) were attracted by Plato's
concern for human perfection and excellence
⮚ More admiration and criticism for plato than any other philosopher
 Aristotle (384 -322 BC)
Introduction
⮚ father of political science
⮚ regarded political science as the master science
⮚ born in Stagira
⮚ Student of Plato and teacher of alexander
⮚ At 37 left Plato’s academy
⮚ His school’s name is the Lyceum established in 335 BC.
⮚ difference between Plato and Aristotle is the difference between philosophy and science
⮚ First known political scientist

Work
⮚ 150 philosophic treaties.
⮚ Dialogues and other works of a popular character
⮚ Collection of facts and materials from scientific treatment,
⮚ The politics
⮚ Method: Emphasized constitutionalism and rule of law

Theory of state
⮚ NATURAL ORIGIN OF THE STATE
● Man is social animal
● Desire of state is in inner of human being
● Step of origin of state
I. Human nature
II. Family
III. Community
IV. State
⮚ NATURE OF THE STATE
● Essential elements of state: fellowship, political organization and justice.
● state is a highest natural community
“The polis is the highest organization of the community through which man strives
for moral perfection” (Aristotle).
⮚ THE ENDS OF THE STATE
● man was essentially good and the function of the state was to develop his good faculties
into a habit of good action
 ● identity between individual and state
● qualities of both: courage, self-control and justice.
● function of the state was the promotion of good life among its citizens

Aristotle’s theory of ideal state

⮚ In his book ‘politics’ Aristotle discusses the ideal state, but Aristotle recognizes that to
devote full time to such a utopia is a waste of time.
“A state may be good without being perfect. The measure of the goodness or justness
of a state is its capacity to serve the general interest” (Aristotle)

Main features of his ideal state

⮚ Welfare of its citizens.
● The form of the constitution must reflect good life of individual.
● “The ingredients of the good life are three-fold— ‘external goods’, ‘goods of the
body’, and ‘goods of the soul’.
● the happy and well-balanced person requires all three, but he must give due
consideration to the question of priority and relative importance.
● to excessive importance to external goods (material possessions).
● perfection of morality should be the preference over material gains.
⮚ Constitution – modern and flexible constitution
⮚ Peace loving, not aggressive. Although should maintain sufficient strength for self-defense.
⮚ Size of the state - moderate
⮚ Population. Neither too large, nor too small. Enough population to feed and to be self-sufficient.
⮚ Area. Moderation
⮚ Location of the state.
● as to location, both military and commercial advantages must be considered.
● access to sea is necessary.
⮚ Commerce of the state.
● commercially, the state should import its necessities and export its surplus.
● the goal should be self-sufficiency and not the profit.
⮚ Kinds of people in the state.
● full citizens
● lower social classes—non-citizens –for the service of citizens.
⮚ Distribution of services in the state.
● Six distinct services must be performed in the state i.e. Agriculture, arts and
crafts, defense, land ownership, religion and government service.
● The functions of lower classes—non-citizens. Arts and crafts, farming.
● Functions of citizens.
I. defense to the younger.
II. governance to the middle age group.
 III. religious functions to the old and mature.
● Land ownership. To be shared by all but in a complex arrangement.
● some land to be commonly owned for the support of common tables and to
support the institutions of public ownership.
● each owner will hold two plots, one in the city and second in the frontier area.
⮚ The best state is one which has the ability to help its citizens achieve good.
● There are three ways in which citizens may gain such goodness i.e. Natural
endowment, proper habits, and rational principles or capacity to reason.
● the first one is out of state’s control, while the other two can be improved
through education.
⮚ Education system in the ideal state.
“The state i say is a unity in diversity which should be made a community by
education” (Aristotle)
⮚ The good state educates to teach well.
⮚ Characteristics of education system.
● must be common to all.
● must be publicly supported.
● the young will be taught to obey their elders, at the same time young will be
taught to govern when they grow up.
● obedience must be taught.
● physical training an essential part.
● but study of books and physical training should not happen simultaneously since
one hamper the other.
● music should be taught because it has intrinsic value.
⮚ Family system in the ideal state.
● best age for marriage in terms of quality children to be produced: 37 for males
and 18 for the females.
● too large families are to be avoided through exposure of deformed children and
induction of miscarriage.

Critical analysis
⮚ a sketch of good state which aims at the moral perfection of its citizens.
⮚ in his state, he has given preference to general interests.
⮚ not possible entirely—impossible for a state to keep a fixed population.
⮚ immoral---exposure of deformed children and miscarriage.

Constitutional state of Aristotle

⮚ Aristotle is considered founder of constitutionalism
⮚ Best state is based on democratic oligarchic principles which he called polity or
constitutional state
 ⮚ It is not ideal state like Plato but it is attainable
⮚ How this state can be derived
● Two forces in society; quality and quantity
● Quality: wealth, social position, education (oligarchic character)
● Quantity: number and the mass of the people in the society (democratic
character)
● Domination of one character is bad state
● Considerable balance is required in these two forces
● Practically such state can be achieved by giving power to middle class
● Rich only knows how to command and poor only knows how to obey so middle
class can create valance
● Mix state

SLAVERY
⮚ Aristotle considers property as an essential element of family; property divided as living and
non-living.
⮚ Living property is slave. He justifies slavery and important element of family life.
⮚ DEFINATION OF SLAVE ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
“Anyone who by birth is not free and is someone else’s property is called save”
(Aristotle).
⮚ TYPES OF SLAVES ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
(I) SLAVE BY LAW
● Victorious can take the defeated as slaves, but says that they should be
enslaved only if they are intellectually inferior, but if intellectually superior
victors should provide them opportunity to become useful members of the
society.
● A Greek should not make a Greek slave.
(II) SLAVE BY NATURE.
● Purchased slaves. Owner can sell his purchased slaves.
● Genealogical slaves. Offspring’s of slaves.
⮚ LOGICS PROVIDED BY ARISTOTLE IN FAVOR OF SLAVERY.
● Slavery is natural.
“it is thus clear that as some are by nature free, so others are by nature slaves,
and for these latter the condition of slavery is both beneficial and just”
(Aristotle).
● Inequalities among human beings.
● Slavery is a part of government. Some should rule others be ruled.
● Every man is born to perform some specific function.
 ● Slavery is both advisable and just. Providing master with leisure and slave with
his mean of earning.
● A man cannot lead a good life without slaves any more than he can produce
good music without instruments.
⮚ WHEN IS SLAVERY BENIFICIAL ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE?
● When owner is not cruel towards his slaves it is advantageous to both.
⮚ ARISTOTLE’S REALSIM. He lived at a time when slavery was a universal institution.
⮚ CRITICISM OF ARISTOTLE’S SLAVERY CONCEPT.
● Unnatural.
● No fixed criteria that who is slave and who is not?
● Racial discrimination.
● Undue importance to heritance.
● Contrary to Aristotle’s own views. He says is for the good life of individual but on
other side favors slavery.
● defence of slavery sounds very unconvincing and unnatural.

CITIZENSHIP

⮚ Book III of politics deal with the question of citizen and state. “State is an assemblage of
citizens”. So who are citizens?
⮚ The essential attribute of citizenship according to Aristotle is performance of civic
function, not for a limited but for indefinite period.
⮚ DEFINATION OF CITIZAN ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE
“A citizen is one who participates in the administration of justice and in legislating as a
member of the governing body, either or both, these two being the essential features of
citizenship” (Aristotle).
⮚ The essence of citizenship according to Aristotle lays in the enjoyment of political rights and
duties.
⮚ Citizenship was not to be determined by residence
⮚ All are not citizens
⮚ A citizen also enjoyed constitutional rights under the system of public law.
⮚ For Aristotle a citizen was one who shared power in polis,
⮚ did not distinguish between “an active ruling group and a politically passive community”
⮚ He did not regard women as citizens
⮚ Aristotle prescribed a good citizen as someone who could live in harmony with the constitution
and had sufficient leisure time to devote himself to the tasks and responsibilities of citizenship.
⮚ would possess virtue or moral goodness
⮚ In the words of William Ebenstein, “Aristotle’s idea of citizenship is that of the economically
independent gentleman who has enough experience, education and leisure to devote him to
active citizenship, for citizen must not lead the life of mechanics or tradesmen, for such life is
 inimical to virtue. Thus he regarded citizenship as a bond forged by the intimacy of participation
in public affairs.
⮚ QUALIFICATION OF CITIZENSHIP.
● Must be a functioning member of city-state.
● The capacity to rule and be ruled in turn.
● Freedom from economic worries essential for proper discharge of duties of
citizenship---thus holding the property.
● Manual work according to Aristotle deliberalises the soul and renders it unfit for
political speculation and discharge of civic duties---working class not citizens.
● Unconditional obedience to the laws of the state---a good citizen.
CRITICSM
⮚ Extremely aristocratic and not applicable to modern state.
⮚ Impracticable.
⮚ Suppression of working class---no rights of citizenship.
⮚ Only promotes the rights of rich.
APPRAISAL
⮚ Gave the concept of citizenship---he held that a good citizen in a democracy had virtues
different from those of a good citizen in oligarchy.

Theory of Distributive justice

⮚ justice is the very essence of the state
⮚ According to him, justice is virtue, complete virtue, and the embodiment of all goodness
⮚ justice saves the states from destruction;
⮚ it makes the states and political life pure and healthy.
⮚ Two kinds general and particular justice
⮚ particular justice: (i) distributive (ii) corrective
▪ distributive: consists in proper allocation to each person according to his worth.
▪ Distributive justice assigns to every man his due according to his contributions
to the society.
▪ identifiable with proportionate equality.
▪ corrective: concerned with voluntary commercial transactions

Theory of education

⮚ good life of the individuals for which education is the best instrument.
 ⮚ End of state
⮚ Education was meant to prepare the individual for membership of the state
⮚ education must be adapted to the constitution of the state and should be calculated to train
man in a certain type of character suitable to the state
⮚ proper educational authority was the states and not the private individuals
⮚ proper character is imp not knowledge

Classification of government

“Those constitutions which consider the common interest are right constitutions,
judged by the standard of absolute justice. Those constitutions which consider
only personal interests of the ruler are all wrong constitutions, or perversions of
the right forms” (ARISTOTLE)
⮚ classified governments on a twofold basis
▪ The end of the state
▪ The number of persons who hold or share sovereign power
⮚ distinguish between the pure and corrupt forms of government
Classification of government

Number of rulers Pure Form Corrupt Form

One Monarchy- with supreme virtue Tyranny – representing force,

as its guiding principle selfishness

Few Aristocracy- representing a Oligarchy –representing the

mixture of virtue and wealth greed of wealth

Many Polity-representing martial and Democracy – representing the

medium virtues, power resting principle of equality with
with the middle class people power in the hands of the poor

⮚ Monarchy & Tyranny

▪ relations with the rising Macedonian monarchy.
▪ rule of a monarch for common good
▪ monarchy to be the most ideal kind of govt.
▪ Tyranny is ill practices by ruler
⮚ Aristocracy & Oligarchy
▪ Not described systematically,
▪ as a government formed of the best men
▪ merit and virtue the distinctive qualities to be considered in selecting the rulers
▪ oligarchy in which government by wealthy is carried on for their own benefit
rather than for that of the whole state.
⮚ Polity & Democracy
 ▪ constitutional government
▪ Citizens at large administer for the common interest.
▪ compromise between the two principles of freedom and wealth the attempt to
unite the freedom of the poor and the wealth of the rich,
▪ Democracy is a rule of poor for their own benefits
⮚ MAIN FEATURES OF THE POLITY.
● MODERATION. Middle class. Rich only know how to command and poor know
just obedience. Rich think of making property and poor jealous of other’s
property.
● MIXED CONSTITUTION. Mixture is one of oligarchy and democracy.
● MODEST PROPERTY QUALIFIACTIONS FOR VOTER.
● In order to restrict the number of those where power resides.

REVOLUTION

“Changes in the constitution of the state causes a revolution or when the ruling
power has been transferred from one man to another” (ARISTOTLE)
⮚ search for stability determined him causes of instability
⮚ to diagnose a revolution, we must consider the temper of the revolutionaries and their
motives and the causes and occasions of revolution.
⮚ placed greater responsibility on the rulers to ensure stability and justice.
⮚ Types
▪ change of constitution
▪ change form of state
▪ revolution may be directed against not the entire system
▪ against a particular institution
▪ against set of persons in the state
▪ revolution may be completing armed or peaceful and personal or impersonal.
▪ revolutionaries may try to grasp political power
⮚ causes (i) general (ii) particular
▪ general causes
1) Psychological motives or the state of mind
2) The objectives in mind;
3) The occasions that gave rise to political upheaval and mutual strife
▪ When equal rights of citizens are neglected.
▪ When nepotism and bribery prevails in the society.
▪ When inefficient persons are appointed in place of efficient ones.
▪ When extraordinary importance given to particular group.
 ▪ Unfair means in election.
▪ When ordinary changes are neglected.
▪ Family disputes among nobles causes instability.
▪ Foreign influence.
▪ Particular: particular causes are analyzed in each constitution
● Democracies: due to increased number of demagogues.
● Oligarchies: due to oppressive rule of the oligarchs or rivalry
among oligarchs themselves.
● Aristocracies: jealously created due to restriction of honors to
small circle.
⮚ Role of middle class
⮚ “poverty is the parent of revolution and crime
⮚ Remedies to prevent revolution
▪ inculcate the spirit of obedience to law
▪ too much power should not be allowed to concentrate in the hands of one man
or one class
▪ Great political offices in the state should be outside the reach of unkind
strangers and aliens,
▪ holders of offices should not be able to make private gain
▪ Public administration, particularly financial administration, should be subjected
to public scrutiny.
▪ offices and honors should be awarded on considerations of distributive justice
▪ no class of citizens should have a monopoly of political power.
▪ Deceiving the public should not be frequently used.

Democracy
⮚ democracy is characterized by twin principles of freedom and majority
⮚ Supreme power is in the hands of freemen.
⮚ mass of the people do not understand the technicalities of an administration
⮚ Aristotle’s democracy means aristo- democracy of the free citizens
⮚ Aristotle condemns only the extreme form of democracy namely mobocracy.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN POLITICAL IDEAS OF

PLATO AND ARISTOTLE
DIFFERENCES
⮚ Plato pre-eminently a radical while Aristotle conservative in his political
speculation
⮚ Plato used deductive while Aristotle used inductive method.
⮚ Plato more an ideal, imaginative and Aristotle more a realist, logical and
scientific thinker.
⮚ Plato proceeded from universal to the particular, Aristotle particular to universal.
⮚ Both have different views about family and society
⮚ Aristotle believes in constitutionalism while Plato does not
⮚ Aristotle does not believes in equality while Plato advocates equality of men and
women
⮚ Aristotle believes in polity while Plato advocates totalitarianism
⮚ Both divide the society in a different way

SIMILARITIES
⮚ Both hold that man is a social animal and needs society.
⮚ Both write on the basis of city state.
⮚ Both advocated justice
⮚ Similarity in views about education.
⮚ Both upheld and justified slavery.
⮚ Both despised foreigners and regarded Greeks superior of other races.
⮚ Both wanted to impose limitations on citizenship.
⮚ Both condemned democracy.
⮚ Both believe in welfare state

Assessment
⮚ Aristotle’s Politics has served as a foundation work for the whole western tradition
⮚ encompassed practically all the branches of human knowledge
⮚ father of political science
 MACHIAVELLI
Introduction
⮚ He is called the hated beloved prophet of secularism
⮚ He denounced all the church doctrines and held the Popes responsible for the plight
state of affairs.
⮚ father of modern political Science
⮚ born in Florence in 1469
⮚ The Florence was ruled by the Medici family in 1494, the Medicis were expelled from
the city and Florence became a republic. In the same year, Machiavelli first joined public
life as a chancery clerk.
⮚ In 1498, Machiavelli became second chancellor and secretary of the Council of Ten, a
body which had responsibility for war and interior affairs. He held that post for fourteen
years.
⮚ Midway between the medieval and modern political thought.
⮚ He was strong, vigorous and intelligent man. On many occasions, his services were
required as diplomatic observer in royal courts abroad. He was very much impressed by
Cesare Borgia in Romagna. Cesare Borgia became the model for “The Prince”
⮚ In 1506, Machiavelli persuaded the counsel to adopt his plan for formation of a citizen
army. But he failed in his plans because Medicis re-established their control over
Florence.
⮚ The Medici exiled him and forbid his presence in Florence. Soon afterward Machiavelli
having been wrongly accused of implication in the Boscoli conspiracy against the Medici
was imprisoned and tortured. He eventually freed and permitted to return to his family.
⮚ He enunciated the philosophy of art of Governments for effective discipline and stability
in the state. He advocated strongly for using the harsher methods and oppressive means
for the stability of the state. He firmly believed that “fear is the domineering weapon for
a Prince for complete obedience and is mightier than love.”
⮚ He Sanctioned the use of deception, cruelty, force, violence and the like for achieving the
desired political ends.
⮚ Spinoza regarded him as a friend of the people for having exposed the Prince. Montesquieu
regarded him as a lover of liberty, an image that emerged in the Discourses and not from the
Prince.
⮚ Allama Iqbal has characterized as the “Sharp Agent of Devil”

“Machiavelli had been represented as an utter cynic, an impassioned patriot, an ardent

nationalist, a political Jesuit, a convinced democrat and an unscrupulous seeker after the favor
of depots.”
(Sabine)
“In Machiavelli we find the frankest and the most brutal analysis of the selfishness, audacity,
cunning, deception, treachery, malevolence, cynicism, hatred and lust that were necessary for a
prince.”
(H. Thomas)

Work
⮚ the Prince (1513)
Moral Indifference of Machiavelli

 The reasons of Machiavelli’s moral indifferences are following:

I. Machiavelli does not believe in any ethical dogmas or in any divine law because
of intentional segregation of politics from religion.
II. In Machiavelli’s philosophy, moral judgments are wholly subordinate to the
existence of political and temporal existence and welfare.
III. Machiavelli calculated that the institution of Papacy brought decline and
destruction to the glory of Rome. He wanted to practice pagan virtues of
cunningness, duplicity and knavery for achieving successful goals.
IV. He did not at all deny the excellence of moral virtues, but he refused to accept
them essential to the political stability. He pleads that the religion must be
skillfully exploited as a useful weapon for achieving the annexing designs by the
sovereign.
V. Machiavelli stands courageously for the preservation of his state. He says that
there must be no consideration of what is just or unjust, merciful or cruel,
glorious or shameful; on the contrary, everything must be disregarded.
VI. .He imparts priority to the state and puts it above morality and religion, because
it is the highest form of social organization and the most essential of all
institutions for the protection and promotion of human welfare.
VII. Machiavelli’s advocacy of unreligious and his indifference to morality have
become so much disrupted that even his name has become a by-word for fraud,
force and dishonesty. He wrote primarily for the exaltation of the state.

 In modern world, some of the States Heads acted as “Prince of Machiavelli” by freezing
all channels of human progress and liberty and also by reducing the citizens to that of
animals and slaves. The Prince and the Discourses are still modern theories and are
being practiced in many secular countries of modern age

THE PRINCE
 It’s a memorandum on the art of government. It’s a real ‘politik’.it is pragmatic and gives
the techniques of successful ruler ship.
 Major themes in the prince.
1) ON THE TYPES OF PRINCIPALITIES.
 Machiavelli mentions five types: ecclesiastical, civil, hereditary,
new and mixed.
 These are gained and maintained in different ways.
2).MEANS AND METHODS OF ACQUISTION.
 He endorses the use of treachery and treason in acquiring power;
ends justifies means.
 He also leans on the use of arms as a means of acquisition.
Advises prince to study art of war.
 Advises the prince to use his own arms instead of others.
 Use of only national army instead of auxiliaries, mercenary and
mixed.
3). THE CONDUCT OF PRINCE.
 Machiavelli doctrine is a theory of preservation of state rather
than the theory of the state itself. The preservation of the power
of the prince was the preservation of the state.
4). MACHIAVELLI’S ADVICES TO THE PRINCE FOR HIS CONDUCT.
 Being good is favored(sometimes he must be kind,
religious ,devout and do charity), but if by being bad he maintains
his power then by all means he must be because political life
cannot be governed by a single set of moral and religious
absolutes.
 Prince may sometimes be excused for performing acts of violence
and deception, but in private life such acts are not defensible.
 The prince should set fear in the minds of his subjects but not so
much as to result in hatred for him.
 The prince should have the courage of lion and the cunning of the
fox. Force and fraud are the main shields that can be used
properly with respect to time and place.
 He advises the prince to avoid flatters in a way to let his advisers
to tell him the truth.
 A prudent king should not be good listener but an aggressive and
constant inquirer.
 The prince should strive for glory instead of being despised and
hatred.
 The prince should pay respect to the traditions and customs
because pay give respect to customs than their liberty.
  The prince must fire the imagination of his subjects by grand
schemes and enterprises.
 A prince must do all he can to keep his subjects materially
contented. Must not impose heavy taxes.
 Must always patronize art and literature to win the sympathies of
intellectuals.
 He must be free from emotions, at the same time he must take
advantage of the emotions of others.
 He must be cool and calculating opportunist.
 In case of war b/w his neighbors, he should never remain neutral.
And he should take side of weaker one so that after victory he
should oblige him for his support.
 He should select wise men as his advisors because the selection
itself reflects his wisdom.

The role of fortune in human nature

 Machiavelli concedes that fortune determines more than half of human actions,
therefore the prince must be aware of the times and adapt to them otherwise the
fortune would deal him a cruel hand.
 However he urges the prince to be audacious and bold for fortune.
His approach to the study of politics
 His approach is referred to as political realism; looking at the world how it is instead of
how it ought to be.
 No values for morals and considering human nature as selfish.
 On this basis, he advises the prince to be bad wherever it is necessary to be so.
His views on human nature
 In their actions, human are selfish and self-aggrandizing.
Separation of politics and ethics
 As Machiavelli looks at the ends irrespective of the means; ends justifies the means, he
looks at politics as goal driven unbound by morals.
 It’s not that he completely denied the morals rather for political gains he ignored the
morals, therefore we can call him amoral instead of immoral.
Machiavelli’s emphasis on the use of force or the art of war
 Machiavelli heavily relies on the use of force in order to have hold on the power.
 He advises the prince to indulge in the study and practice of the art of war.
 He say that laws alone cannot be useful rather these should be supplemented with the
use of considerable amount of force.
Machiavelli and State Diplomacy / The Prince
 Machiavelli wrote his most important work “Prince” and dedicated it to de Medici, the
prince of Florence.
 “Prince” of Machiavelli is neither an academic treatise nor a book on political science.
 It is a memorandum on the art of Government and of State diplomacy.
 It gives an awe-inspiring technique for successful ruler-ship and as such is a guide to the
rulers and kings of his time and of succeeding times, about the best means of
maintaining their power.
 The whole argument of Prince is based upon the premise directly derived from
Aristotelian philosophy, that the state is the highest form of human association and that
consideration for the state welfare must be given priority and preference than the well-
being of the individuals.
 These premises led to the conclusion that it was Caesar and not God to be worshipped.
 Here Machiavelli personified Caesar with a state and almost identifies the state with the
ruler.
 Caesar must make himself worthy of this worship by a cruel, ruthless and successful
seizure of power.
 A prince must possess the qualities of wisdom, egoism, selfishness and brutalities for
the attainment of his motives. A prince must consider his friend and neighbors his
ardent foes and does not repose any confidence in them.
 Machiavelli was of the views that:

“Virtue brings ruin, while vice brings security and prosperity.”

“Cruelty is better than mercy.”

“A wise ruler ought not to keep faith when such observance may be turned against him.”

 The main point of Machiavelli’s state diplomacy are following:

I. Impart priority to your own interests. The strong must impose intimidatory laws
upon the weak to arrest their rebelliousness.
II. Honor to nobody but to yourself. He who aspires to acquire mastery can afford
to have no rivals.
III. Do evil but pretend to do well. Machiavelli was of the view that to be good is
harmful but to pose to be good is useful diabolic attitude. Let mercy be on your
tongue and evil in your heart.
IV. The Prince should have no regard for the rights of others, especially foreigners.
He should impose heavy tax upon them to the point of robbing them.
V. A Prince should not be prodigal with the money of his own people, but he should
be very liberal and generous with the money plundered from other countries
through aggression and other mean resources.
 VI. A Prince must discard all the canons of leniency and decency.
VII. A Prince, in order to crush his competitors, must turn into a murderer and a
looter.
VIII. The Prince must kill his enemies and if necessary, his friends. He must remain
vigilant and alert from his relations so that he may not be deposed, exiled and
murdered.
IX. Use force and duplicity rather than benign ness in dealing with other people. It is
better to be creator of horrors than to be maintainer of love and affection. When
you over-power your enemy, root out the entire roots of his family, otherwise
some of his relatives will become vindictive to take revenge for the wrong you
have inflicted.
X. Concentrate all your efforts on war. In the Machiavellian state, all regular
channels of human activities are barred and all roads lead to war.
CHURCH VS STATE CONTROVERSY
⮚ In the days when the Roman Empire adopted Christianity, the emperor was the head of both the
state and the church; but the church grew more and more strong and began to exercise the
right of excommunication.
⮚ ecclesiastical authority began to interfere with and control secular authority
⮚ state and the Church were fused into one system
⮚ function of the universal empire was to help the growth of a universal church
⮚ It was impossible to determine whether the emperor derived his authority immediately from
God or immediately through the pope.
IMPACT OF RENAISSANCE
⮚ in the Middle Ages, the church and the state were closely interrelated
⮚ It was possible now to formulate political theories on a purely secular basis
⮚ Renaissance ushered in rationalism which viewed God, man and nature from the stand point of
reason and not faith
⮚ International conflict, following geographical discoveries, produced the concepts of nationalism
and nation- state which went against medieval universalism in church and state.
⮚ Displacing God man becomes the center of the universe,
⮚ Renaissance signified a rebirth of the human spirit in the attainment of liberty, self confidence
and optimism.
⮚ Breakdown of a unified Christian society.
Attitude towards Religion
⮚ Machiavelli was anti- church and anti-clergy but not anti religion
⮚ Machiavelli’s attitude towards religion was strictly utilitarian.
⮚ It was a social force
⮚ Religion determined the social and ethical norms and values that governed human conduct and
actions.
⮚ Machiavelli sees in religion the poor man’s reason,
 ⮚ he states that the Italians have become’ irreligious and bad’ because of the evil example of the
court of Rome’
⮚ the church ‘has kept and still keeps our country divided’.
⮚ sole cause of Italian political disunity is the church.
⮚ Machiavelli’s attitude to religion and morality made him highly controversial.
⮚ Machiavelli separated religion from politics
Modern secular nation state
⮚ he separated religion from politics
⮚ set the theme of secularization of thought and life
⮚ Machiavelli criticized the church of his day precisely for political and not religious reasons.
⮚ To achieve unity any means, were justified, for the purpose was the defense and preservation
of the state and its people
⮚ freedom of the country and the common good remained the core themes of Machiavelli
⮚ A perfect state, was one promoted the common good, namely the observance of laws
⮚ Machiavelli gave the state its modern connotation.
⮚ His state is the nation free from religious control.
⮚ Machiavelli insists on the necessity of extending the territory of the state.
⮚ either a state must expand or perish.
POLITICAL REALISM
⮚ First realist in western political thought.
⮚ His writings expound a theory of the art of government rather than a theory of the state.
⮚ more concerned with the actual working of the machinery of government than the abstract
principles of the state
⮚ Machiavelli was the first to state and systematically expose the power view of politics,
⮚ He wrote mainly of the mechanics of government,
⮚ the means by which the states may be made strong, of the policies by which they can expand
their power and of the errors that lead to their decay and destruction
⮚ Prof. Dunning called Machiavellian philosophy as “the study of the art of government rather
than a theory of state”
⮚ The prince provides technique of the fundamental principles of states craft for a successful ruler.
⮚ The two basic means of success for a prince are the judicious use of law and physical force
⮚ He must combine in himself rational as well as brutal characteristic; a combination of lion and
fox.
⮚ The individual according to Machiavelli was wicked, selfish and egoistic
⮚ According to Machiavelli, state actions were not to be judged by individual ethics
⮚ He prescribes double standard of conduct for statesmen and the private citizens.
⮚ The ruler is the creator of law as also of morality, there is no standard to judge his acts except
the success of his political expedience for enlarging and perpetuating the power of his state.
⮚ , it is wrong for a private individual to kill but not for the state to execute someone by way of
punishment.
⮚ “power politics
Machiavelli’s importance in the history of political
thought
⮚ First political thinker of modern times who systematically analyzed the principles of
power and survival.
⮚ His political realism.
⮚ Some call him a proponent of amoral realism.
⮚ “Machiavelli” a synonym for evil.

ASSESSMENT
⮚ Theories are not systematic but in the form of remarks
⮚ According to Prof. Sabine, the ‘character of Machiavelli and the true meaning of his philosophy
have been one of the enigmas of modern history.
⮚ Prof. Sabine has pointed out, “Machiavelli more than any other political thinker created the
meaning that has been attached to the state in modern political usage”.
⮚ meaning to the concept of sovereignty.
⮚ He took politics out of context of theology
⮚ first who gave the idea of secularism.
⮚ first pragmatist or realist in the history of political thought.
 Thomas Hobbes
Introduction
 Thomas Hobbes was born near Malmesbury in 1588.
 He was the victim of broken home. His father, the Vicar of Westport, deserted his wife
and children when Hobbes was still a boy.
 Hobbes received his early education in Wiltshire, a place in Malmesbury. At the age of
fifteen years, he joined Oxford. He got the degree of graduation at the age of nineteen.
 On leaving Oxford, he became tutor to the heir of William Cavendish who later on
became Earl of Devonshire.
 His contact with royal family brought him into contact with most important personalities
of the period.
 He left England during the horrors of civil war and was forced to take refuge in France,
where he joined the supporters of royal absolutism.
 He lived for about twenty years in France whose autocratic Government appealed him
considerably.
 It was this period in which he wrote his master piece of work “The Leviathan”, published
in 1651. He attacked the ancient institution of Papacy and also won disfavor from
royalists.
 It was an important work of Hobbes which brought him immortal fame in the history of
Western political thought.
 Hobbes built up a systematic philosophy of state, taking his stand neither on tradition
nor on theology but on his study of human nature.
 It was the crucial period when upholders of constitutional rule were fiercely fighting for
the annihilation of the supporters of Divine Right of Kings.
 Hobbes saw the miserable condition of his beloved country and ardently advocated for
the maintenance of authority and order, and he constructed a system of strong and
responsible sovereign Government on the basis of the then very popular doctrine of
social contract.
 Hobbes was, thus, as much a creature of his times as Machiavelli was. However he
found a link between Renaissance and the Restoration.
“Hobbes was in fact the first of the great modern philosophers who attempted to bring political
theory into intimate relations with a thoroughly modern system of thought, and he stroke to
make this system broad enough to account on scientific principles, for all the facts of nature,
including human behavior both in its individual and social aspects.”

(Sabine)
His spiritual ancestry
 Agrees with Machiavelli that man is selfish by nature but insists that state can transform
a man into moral being.
 Is indebted to bodin for his concept of sovereignty, but unlike bodin he places no limits.
 Agrees with Grotius that reason is the basis of law but it must be sovereign’s reason.
 Modified the divine right theory by giving divine right to king instead of the state.
 Collectivism tinged with individualism, hedonistic utilitarianism.
 Like Machiavelli subordinated ethics and religion to politics.

Hobbes’s Conception of State of Nature

“The only basis of human action is a perpetual and restless desire of power after power that
ends only in death. By nature man is selfish and egoistical. Every one is striving for the
gratification of his appetites and these appetites are different from individual to individual
because of physical constitution, education and experience."
(Hobbes)
“The state of nature was, a state of unceasing strife, a condition of war of every man against
every other man, where every man is enemy to every man”
(HOBBES)
“The life of man was solitary, nasty, brutish and short”
(HOBBES).

 He based his views on premise of his thought that is human nature.

 According to Hobbes, man was essentially selfish, egoistic and self-seeking.
 Hobbes’s man lived originally in state of nature without the benefits of Government. All
human actions were regulated by two things:
I. The instinct of self-preservation
II. Individual egoism
 According to Hobbes, the state of nature was “a state of war of all against all in which
the chief virtue of mankind were force and fraud.”
 There was no Government of civil laws to maintain peace and order, but a Government
of fear, danger and coercion.
 Hobbes was of the view that there was no distinction between right and wrong in the
state of nature. Only force, deceitfulness and intimidation were the order of the day.
The only slogan echoed “Kill when you can, usurp what you can.”
  There can be no private property in the state of nature for possession of a thing
depends upon the power of upholding it.
 man undoubtedly wanted peace and tranquility; but his fear of others, his anxiety to
retain what is already had and his never ending desire for self-aggrandizement on the
basis of ‘mine and mine’ led him to perennial conflict and anarchy in the state.
 Man is the state of nature becomes the slave and tool of impulses and passions. Later
on man realized that peace had definitely more utility than constant was and fear of
violent death brought man’s passions into line with his reasons.
 Man could live in harmony and peace with one another either through fear of
punishment or desire for profit. And this purpose could only be achieved by establishing
a strong and stable Government capable of inspiring awe and fear by using harsh and
arbitrary methods who disobey its laws and of giving attractive rewards to those who do
conform.
 Hobbes, however recognizes that even in the state of nature man had sense of the laws
of nature. These laws were to seek peace and follow it.
 Man also enjoyed natural liberty and natural rights.
 The perpetual fear and danger to life and property compelled man to enter into a
mutual agreement.

Hobbe’s theory of social contract

“I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly, of men
on this condition that thou givest up thy right to him, and authorize all his actions in like
manner” (HOBBES)
 People have to enter in a social contract to end the fair and war
 The state is created and men have completely and unconditionally surrendered their
natural rights.
 This is not a contract b/w people and the sovereign, rather a govt compact that’s why
sovereign is unpunishable and he has absolute powers.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
 Fear cannot alone be the basis of the state.
 His analysis of human nature is unsound.
 He also twisted the meaning of the ‘contract’.
 He is inconsistent in describing the terms of the contract.
 His legal theory of rights and sovereignty is also one-sided.

Hobbes and Theory of Sovereignty / The hobbesian

leviathan
 “By this authority, given him every particularly man in the wealth, he has the use of so much
power and strength conferred upon him, that the terror thereof, he is enable to form the wills of
them all to peace at home and mutual aid against their enemies abroad. And in him consists the
essence of the Commonwealth which is one person, of which acts a multitude, by mutual
covenants one with another have made themselves, every one the author, to the end he may
use the strength and means of them all, as he shall thinker expedient, for their peace and
common defense.”
(Hobbes)
 Hobbes’s sovereign was presented as a Mortal God vested with absolute and
unchallenged power to rule over his subjects arbitrarily.
 He was the smasher of the regular channels of democracy, a way of life.
 Hobbes’s sovereign suffocated all the social and cultural communication between the
people bringing about a reign of oppression and harshness.

 Features of Sovereignty
I. The sovereign is absolute and all powerful. His powers to frame laws of the land
are not restricted by any human agency.
II. He is the singular law-making authority.
III. No condition, explicit or implicit, can be imposed on the sovereign, for his power
is unlimited.
IV. Subjects have no authority to call any explanation from the sovereign for his
misdeeds. They have no right to threaten, to punish him, to banish or depose
him.
V. The sovereign is the fountain of justice and honor.
VI. The sovereign has full power to declare war against any country or nation
whenever he likes.
VII. Sovereignty is indivisible; inalienable and unpunishable.
VIII. The sovereign formulates laws regarding property and taxation etc, and he has
full rights to allow or disallow freedom of speech to his subject.
IX. The sovereign has to protect his people from internal disruption and external
aggression for the preservation of peace and glory of the state.
X. If the sovereign ignores the pact, he can do so, because he is no party to the
contract.

Rights and duties of the sovereign

 Making of laws.
 Right of interpreting and administering laws.
  To govern and conduct policy.
 The right to choose his counsellors.

Types of Sovereignty
 According to Hobbes the difference of commonwealths consist in the difference of the
sovereign or the person representative of all and every one of the multitude and it is
manifest, there can be put three kinds of commonwealth:
I. If the representative is one man, the commonwealth will be known as
Monarchy.
II. If the representative is composed of an assembly, the state will be called
a democracy.
III. When the representative is an assembly, but only a part of it, then it is
called aristocracy.
 Hobbes ardently favors monarchical form of Government. There must be an important
monarch to serve the end for which the state is established. But a monarch without
absolute power will utterly be failed for the attainment of his ideals.
 That is why; Hobbes is ranked as one of the great champions of absolute sovereignty.
 Hobbes gives a perfect and most satisfactory theory of sovereignty which is all powerful
authority within the state.
 It is absolute, unlimited, non-transferable and irrevocable. Hobbes excelled
Machiavelli’s Prince, an evil genius in exalting political authority. Machiavelli had made
politics independent of religion but Hobbes set politics above religion and ethics.
 The powers vested in sovereignty must be absolute, unlimited and all powerful.

Criticism
 The whole conception of social contract and an organized society resulting from it is
unhistorical. There are no examples in history when Hobbes’s men gathered together
and signed a contract for the formation of a civil society.
 Hobbes portrays a dismal picture of the state of nature, which is far from satisfactory.
He paints a darker side and completely ignores a brighter side of human nature. His
picture reflects the evils of his man. He declares man selfish, solitary and brutish. But
human nature has two essential aspects, good and bad. He always speaks of the
badness of human nature.
 Hobbes was of the view that the state of nature is a state of war, the war of all against
all, in which the cardinal virtues are force and fraud. How could such a man go against
his own nature and suddenly enter a “state not of war, but of peace, not of force and
fraud but of right and justice.”
 Hobbes says that there were no laws in the state of nature. This is baseless.
 Hobbes’s sovereign appears to be the representative of the people, who follows public
opinion and looks after public welfare. This is the only one aspect in which Hobbes has
recognized the limitations of his Leviathan.
 Hobbes did not foresee the distinction between the Government and the state. While
the Government of a state might be replaced with another because of its corruption or
inefficiency, the state as a reality remains intact and does not sink into lawless
condition.
 Hobbes appears to be a mixture of anarchy and absolutism. The only remedy to control
of good behavior of men was the coercive power of the sovereign.
 The Hobbesian system condemns the state for purely negative functions. It is sole
function in the preservation of life and maintenance of order.
 The civil society created by Hobbes is not much of a society. It is like a flock of cattle
driven by the omnipotent Leviathan who sums up in himself the life of all and who is a
universal regulator of thoughts and actions of all.
 John Locke
Introduction
“Successful revolutions are stimulating to those who believe in them. Locke is the most
fortunate of all philosophers for, he completed his work in theoretical philosophy just at the
moment when the Government of his country fell into the hands of men who shared his
political opinions. His political doctrine is embedded in the American Constitution.”
(Bertrand Russel)

“his sincerity, his profound moral convictions, his genuine belief in liberty in human rights,
and in the dignity of human nature united with his moderation and good sense, made him
the ideal spokesman of the middle-class revolution.”
(Sabine)

 John Locke was born at Wrington in north Somersetshire in 1632.

 His father was an attorney and land-owner of modest means.
 He got his early education at home and later on he was admitted to Westminster
School. In 1652, he was sent to Oxford for higher education.
 At that time he was only twenty-two and entered Christ Church College (Oxford). His
university career was not very shining because the narrow discipline of the place
dulled his enthusiasm for formal studies. In 1660, he got the degree of Master of
Arts. After taking the M.A. degree, Locke was appointed as a tutor in Greek.
 Later on he became the confidential Secretary of Lord Shaftsbury, the founder of the
Whig Dynasty. He went over to the Parliamentary side and was later on made a field
marshal in the rebel forces. When Charles II became king, he was made Earl of
Shaftsbury in 1672.
 After the glorious revolution of 1688, he came under the liberalizing influences that
were beginning to be felt in England and he devoted his entire intellectual faculties
towards literary work and to numerous controversies arising out of his works.
 Locke completely discarded the Hobbes’s conception of man who depicted as utterly
selfish, irrational, solitary and brutish.
 He portrayed his men in the state of nature fully possessed a sense of sociability
bringing all men in togetherness of mutual benefit and for the progress of civil
society.
 He advocated for the elimination of the coerciveness and intimidation over the
subject for peaceful progress of the state.
Bases of his Philosophy
Sensationalism:
 Locke was of the view that all knowledge and beliefs come through our senses and
experiences. There is nothing in mind except what was first in the sense.

Utilitarianism:
 He is one of the great pleader of utilitarianism. His conception is quite apparent from his
contention that “happiness and misery are the two great springs of human action.” He
was of the view that morality is pleasure and pleasure is only conformity to universal
law.

Theory of social contract

His views on human nature
 His views on human nature have been described in “An essay concerning human
nature”.
 Locke’s man in the state of nature is social as well as rational. He is capable of
recognizing a moral order.
His views on state of nature
 State of nature was not pre-social, rather a pre-political.
 The state of nature was based on peace on good will.
 Rights in the state of nature i.e. right of property.
 Duties in the state of nature. i.e. to do what he can to preserve others provided his own
preservation doesn’t come in conflict .
Why a need of contract?
 Though the state of nature was a state of peace and reason, yet it was full of “fears and
continual dangers” because laws of nature were not clearly defined, no authority to
interpret those laws and also no authority to enforce those laws.
The contracts
 To get rid of that condition of ‘continual fear’, the people entered into two contracts.
 The first contract. State of nature is substituted by a civil society
  The second contract. The government contract. The contract clearly signifies that each
individual agrees to lead the community as a whole. A body politics is formed by means
of social contract.
 The individuals giving up their personal right to interpret and administer the law of
nature in return for a guarantee that their natural rights to life, liberty and property
would be protected.
“Each individual contracts with each to unite into and constitute a community. The end for
which the agreement is made is the protection and preservation of property”
(LOCKE).

Limited government and right to revolt

 The government can’t exercise powers arbitrarily.
 Its powers must be directed towards the general welfare of the society.
 It cannot deprive a man of his property without his consent.
Merits
 Theory of limited government or constitutional government.
 Distinction between government and sovereign (the people)
 The concept of popular sovereignty.
 The concept of natural rights.

Optimistic Conception of Human Nature:

 Locke believes in the inherent goodness of human beings. He says that man is a rational,
sensible and social creature. He feels love, sympathy and tenderness towards his fellow-
beings and is capable of being actuated by altruistic motives. He wants to live in peace
and harmony with others.

Rejection of Absolute Monarchy based on Divinity and Heredity:

 Locke refuted emphatically the hereditary principle in kingship advocated most fervently
by Filmer in his Patriarchal and upheld by the Anglican Church.
 Filmer contended that political power is derived from the authority of father over his
children and that regal authority is subjection of children to parents, and since the
actual monarchs are the heirs of Adam, therefore they can demand from the citizens
unflinching loyalty.
 Locke points out the injustice of primogeniture (the principle by which property
descends to the eldest son) which is unavoidable if inheritance is to be the basis of
monarchy.
  Further, Adam can have only one heir, but no one knows who he is. And if the true heir
could be discovered, would all existing monarchs put their crowns at his feet. Moreover,
in case of this discovery all kings except, at most one, would be usurpers and would
have no right to demand the obedience of their de facto subjects.

Locke’s View on Natural Rights of Man

“Most distinctive contribution of Locke to political theory is the doctrine of natural rights.”
(Dunning)
 Locke appears to be a true democrat when he says that the establishment of a
commonwealth stands for the complete security of natural rights of men. Natural rights
of citizens are:
I. Right to life
II. Right to property
III. Right to liberty
 Locke was of the view that the right of property is a most important because all other
natural rights are analogous to the right of private property.
 He further maintained that the right to private property existed in the state of nature
under the operation of natural law.
 Locke thought of natural rights as things which man brings with him from birth. Society
exists to protect them; they can be regulated only to the extent that is necessary to give
them effective protection.
 According to Locke, “God, who has given the world to men in common, has also given
reason to make use of it to the best advantage of life and convenience. The earth and all
that is therein, is given to men for support and comfort of their being and all the fruits it
naturally produces and beasts it feeds, belongs to mankind in common, as they are
produced by the spontaneous hand of nature, and nobody has originally a private
dominion, exclusive of the rest of mankind, in any of them, as they are thus in their
natural state. Whatsoever he removes out of the state that nature has provided and left
it in, he ahs mixed his labor with and joined to it something that is his own and thereby
makes it his own property.”
“The life, liberty and estate of one person can be limited only to make effective the equality
valid claims of another person to the same rights.”
(Sabine)

Locke’s Conception of Popular Sovereignty

 Locke is regarded as the champion of people’s rights and a harbinger of their sacred and
fundamental liberties.
 His social contract did not create the irresponsible, cruel and absolutist “Leviathan” of
Hobbes, but reserved the sovereign rights to the final judge of all actions, the
community.
 The ultimate supreme power is not vested in the scepter of king; but it remains in the
hands of the people.
 Locke did not advance the idea of legal, absolute and indivisible sovereignty. The very
idea of it was discarded by him because Machiavellian and Hobbesian conception of
sovereignty brings about a reign of terror for the people who would loudly whisper for
freedom and equality.
 He initiated the conception of popular sovereignty, which has been firmly accepted, a
best way of rule by the succeeding thinkers and the whole world own him too much,
because real and practical democracy was strongly enunciated.
 Locke stood for a Government which should be subject to a number of limitations. It
cannot rule with coercion and intimidation and tax them without their will.
 A government which violated its limitations is not worthy of obedience. The state is
created for certain conveniences and it must justify itself by creating those
conveniences.
 The basic rights of the individual life, liberty and property are to be protected rather
than restricted by the state.
 The king has neither the divine authority nor any moral justification to over load the
subject.
 All men are equal in the eye of Almighty God and their basic rights must not be violated
under the civil laws of the state.
 Locke’s Government created by the unanimous consent of the majority should have
freedom of speech, of election and of religious worship and in order that it may be
prevented from becoming too autocratic and arbitrary.
 This democratic government should be run by a system of checks and balances. In other
words, the government should be divided into three main organs i-e, legislature,
executive and judiciary. And of these three, the legislature should be supreme, as is
evidently available in the modern constitutions.
 Jean Jacques Rousseau
Introduction
“Rousseau was the father of the romantic movement, the imitator of system of thought
which infer non-human fact from human emotions and the inventor of the political
philosophy of pseudo-democratic dictatorship as opposed to traditional absolute monarchs.
Hitler was the outcome of Rousseau.”
(Bertrand Russel)
 Rousseau was born on June 28, 1712 at Geneva of parents of French Protestant
ancestry, in a middle-class family.
 His father, Isaac, was a skilled watchmaker, but abandoned this profession to become a
dancing master. Rousseau left school at the age of 12, learnt various crafts but adopted
none.
 He also worked as an apprentice under a cruel engraver. He filled with a wonder lust
that was never to be satisfied. Restless, impulsive, unstable he embraced the career of a
vagabond as others might enter upon a profession and thereafter for twenty years he
led the life of a vagabond wandering in different places.
 In 1742, he gravely mediated to lead a regulated life, went to Paris and tried his luck at
different schemes, the opera, the theatre but his efforts ended in fiasco. Then he
opened a small hotel.
 The year of 1749 was a turning point in his life, chance brought Rousseau fame and
immortality. The Academy of Dijon announced a prize for the best essay on the subject
“Has the progress of sciences and arts contributed to corrupt and purify morals”.
 He thought a strong plea that progresses of sciences and arts had tended to degrade
human morality.
 Rousseau depicted in the essay, an early state of society in which all men lived under
conditions of simplicity and innocence, and traced the purging evils of society emanated
from the artificialities introduced by civilization.
 He won the prize. Hearn Shaw remarked, “it created a great sensation in the artificial
society of the Age of Reason. It was the first ramble of the Revolution.”
 The publication of his book “Social Contract” aroused the indignation of the French
Government, which ordered his arrest.
 He escaped to Geneva, where the Democratic Council burned his book and threatened
his life. He took refuge in Germany, where an angry mob almost strangulated him.
 He fled to England where only one man, Hume, took him into his affection. By this time,
however, Rousseau’s suffering had greatly perturbed his brain and he was tormented by
a prosecution mania.
  He suspected that Hume was plotting to poison him. He thought that “Everyone hurts
me because of my love for mankind.” Finally his fear of being murdered drove him to
commit suicide.
 Hearn Shaw said, “Rousseau led a life of fugitive for sixteen years and he drove through
a period of deepening gloom, failing health, broken spirit, haunting terrors, paralyzing
illusions and accumulating despair.”

Rousseau’s State of Nature

“Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains. Many a one believes himself the master of
others, and yet he is greater slave than they. How has this change come about? I do not know.
What can render it legitimate? I believe that I can settle this question.”
(Rousseau)
 Man is born free only in the sense that freedom is his inborn right; it is the necessary
condition for the development of the various potentialities of human nature.
 We can say that he is born for freedom that he ought to be free. The second part of
the first sentence that he is everywhere in chains imply that customs and
conventions of society and state regulations imposer upon him certain artificial and
unnecessary restraints which arrest the development of his personality.
 Rousseau, a philosopher of the heart rather than of the head, presented his State of
Nature to be an earthly paradise though he himself confessed that the conception of
the State of Nature was quite hypothetical.
 As Rousseau says, “A state which exists no longer, perhaps never existed, probably
never will exist and of which none the less it is necessary to have just idea in order to
judge well our present state.”
 He always maintained that the natural state was also better than the social state.
For, in it, the natural man, or the noble savage, lived a solitary, happy and carefree
life of the brute was independent, contented and self-sufficing.
 Rousseau’s man was a non-social being unknown to good or evil or the coming
death. Thus the noble savage was in the state of paradise, everyone being equal to
the other.
 Man’s life in the state of nature was regulated not by reason but by the feelings of
self-preservation and hatred towards incalculable massacre and incredible violence.
 According to Rousseau, “primitive man was near animal than man; he lived an
isolated and solitary life having no ties and obligations. He was guided by two
sentiments self-interest and pity, and having no oral obligation with other men he
could not be good or bad, virtuous or vicious. He led a solitary life completely devoid
of language and wandered about the primeval forests begetting his offspring by the
way, hunting for his food, and concerned only with the satisfaction of physical
needs. In a word, the natural man was neither happy nor unhappy.”
  But with the appearance of fixed homes, family and property, the knell of human
equality was sounded. But even this primitive society was tolerable.
 The least subjects to revolutions, the best for man. Only when the serpent entered
into the society in the form of private property, was the life of man changed from
prosperity to adversity.
 Rousseau was of the view “the first man having enclosed a piece of land he thought
himself of saying this is mine and found people simple enough to believe him the
real founder of social inequality and injustice.”
 The institution of private property created a sense of jealousy and struggle,
converted usurpation into an acknowledged right and led to the promotion of
society.
 He became subject to violence, bloodshed, crimes against property and person and
all the evils of society and civilization including slavery. Thus the life of man became
pitiable, miserable and intolerable.
 As Rousseau says, “the problem is to find a form of association which will defend
and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate
and in which each while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone and
remain as free as before.”

Theory of social contract

“Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains”
(Rousseau).
State of nature
Escaping the state of strife
 They escaped this miserable situation by entering into contract and instituting a civil
society.
The contract
 They met together and surrendered their natural rights by saying.
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the
general will and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the
whole”
 Man doesn’t surrender completely to a sovereign ruler but each man gives himself to
nobody in particular but all. Man loses his natural liberty and unlimited rights, but he
gains civil liberty and property rights.
 “In short, who gives himself to all gives himself to none…..it follows that we gain the exact
equivalent of what we lose ,as well as added power to conserve what we already have”
(ROUSSEAU)
Everyone in society is engaged in two types of relations
 As a member of ruling class he has relations with his fellow rulers.
 As a member of the state he is related with ruler.
A line drawn between state and government
 State holds unlimited authority, the government plays the role of representative
keeping public according to state’s vision.
 Government is just an instrument in the hands of public and holds no authorities in
separate.
The civil society is established upon general will
 The contract terminates the state of nature and ushers in a civil society transforming the
character of individual, substituting justice for instinct in his conduct and endowing his
character with morality. The continuous participation of general will leads to the
formation of welfare community
Merits
 Makes a distinction b/w state and government.
 Reconcile absolute authority of state with absolute freedom of the individual.
 Authority of the government is based on the consent of the governed.
 “Will, not force is the basis of the state”
Demerits
 It is philosophical, not historical---no evidence from history.
 The theory that men in state of nature lived in isolation is false from history-clan not
individual.
 The assumption that there was equality in state of nature is also wrong.
 Too much emphasis on will.

Rousseau’s General Will

“The development of the theory of the general will in the Social Contract was involved in
paradoxes, partly because of cloudiness of Rousseau’s ideas but partly; it seems, because he
had a rhetorician’s liking for paradox. Manifestly, in view of his criticism of the natural man, he
ought to have avoided the notion of contract altogether as both meaningless and misleading.”
(Sabine)
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general
will and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole”
(ROUSSEAU)

 The will of each individual merged into a General Will, which is the cardinal pillar in the
Rousseau’s philosophy, has aroused keen controversy and has been subjected to severe
criticism.
 It has been remarked by Bertrand Russell that the doctrines enshrined in his Social
Contract, “though they pay lip service to democracy, tend to the justification of the
totalitarian state.”
 Dr. McDoughall defines General Will as “The General Will is conceived as coming to be
when every individual in a group or society has a conception or idea of the group as a
whole and identifies his good with the good of that whole.”
 Rousseau explains that by the free act of those who enter into an agreement, all their
powers and rights vested in the community and their respective wills are superseded by
the General Will.
 He was of the view that man possesses two kinds of wills:
1. Actual Will:
It is related to the will of the individuals. It is irrational will of man. This Will
makes self-confined and self centered.
2. Real Will:
It is rational will of the individual. It always aims at general welfare of the
society. It leads to eternal decision imparting self-satisfaction to the individual. It
is based upon reason and rationality.
 Rousseau’s whole arguments depended upon the fact that a community of citizens is
unique with its members, they neither make it nor have rights against it.
 Rousseau said, “The social order is a sacred right which is the basis of all other rights.
The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the
whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while
uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. Each
of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the
General Will, and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible
part of the whole.”
 Rousseau clearly distinguishes the General Will from will of the majority and the
minority. The General Will may or may not coincide with any of these Wills; it may
sometimes be coincident with the Will of an individual.
 Difference b/w ‘will of all’ and ‘general will’
 “There is often great deal of difference b/w the will of all and the general will. The later
considers the common interests while former takes into account the private interests”
(rousseau)
Rousseau’s social contract and the role of general will
 The individuals surrendered their natural freedom and powers to the community as a
whole under the general will.
 What is legitimate rule?—by consent—justice has to be diluted-must general will
prevail.
 The legitimate rule can’t be authorized by title, rather by the consent of the governed.
 This general will is sovereign because individuals surrendered their individual wills and
interests to the supreme direction of general will and it is the custodian of interests of
all.
 The law is the expression of the general will.
The formation of general will.
 All citizens have the right to contribute personally or through their representatives, to
its formation.
 The general will is the result when citizens make political decisions considering the good
of society rather than the particular interests of groups or individuals.
 Whoever doesn’t follow the general will be compelled to do so.
 The general will is a moral will.
Can the ‘general will’ be wrong?
 “Even the question is wrong. If we devise the law after free and public debate by
informed men general will be as right as it can be”
(ROUSSEAU)
 Characteristics of the General Will:
I. Unity:
It is not self-contradictory. It is indivisible, because if it were divided it
would not remain General Will but would become Sectional Will.
II. Unlimited:
It is unlimited. Rousseau assigns absolute powers to his sovereign by
following the Hobbes’s line of action.
III. Inalienable:
The General Will and sovereignty are inalienable and undetectable.
IV. Un-representable:
 The General Will cannot be represented. That is why Rousseau laid the
foundation of direct democracy. The General Will can conveniently be realized in
a small city state where the population can assemble and pass laws for their
interest. It does not admit of representative democracy.

 W. T. Jones appreciated Rousseau’s theory in these words, “The notion of the General
Will is not only the most central concept of Rousseau’s theory, it is also the most
original, the most interesting, and historically the most important contribution which he
made to political theory.”

Criticism:
 Rousseau’s theory of General Will is incomplete and vague.
 It is in actual practice difficult to distinguish the General Will from the Will of all. The
General Will is not the unanimous Will of the whole people because that might be the
Will of all. General Will has its own merits and demerits.
 Rousseau’s belief that an individual has his actual and real Wills at the same time is
quite wrong. An individual’s Will is a corporate thing, one complete whole, incapable of
any division.
 He was of the view that the General Will neglects the force of moral law which dictates
to anyone as to what is just and unjust.
 There arises a sort of conflict between the common interest and the interest of the
individual. The General Will assigns a very high place to the state and the individual will
have to sacrifices his interest over the interest of the state.
 Rousseau’s concept of General Will is rather abstract and narrow. In actual practice, it is
nothing if it does not mean the Will of the majority.
 It pre-supposes common interests, which is difficult to define or determine. These
interests grow out of organic relations between members of a community and are
hardly possible in the multinational states of today with their conflicting ideals and
interests.
 This theory is not applicable to the bigger state in population and territory, and does not
admit of representative government.
 It is rarely and for a short time that general will is actually realized. Self-consciousness
can exist only at periods of great crisis in the life of a nation, when the whole society is
in danger.
 Where we are determined to decide what are the visible manifestation of this Will,
Rousseau leaves us in the realm of darkness. He stresses that General Will always tends
to the public advantage and that is infallible. But it does not follow that the
deliberations of the people are equally correct.
Comparison of hobbes’, locke’s, rousseau’s social contract theories.
 HOBBES LOCKE ROUSSEAU

WORK Leviathan Civil government Social contract

THE STATE OF a state of unceasing strife, a The state of nature was Free, happy and peaceful life in
NATURE condition of war of every man based on peace on good the state of nature.
against every other will.
NATURAL RIGHTS Natural right de- pends upon ones
Rights of man are to life, liberty
Man is free in the state of nature and
might. and property. enjoys all rights incidental to his
person.

CONTRACT Contract unilateral and not Government limited in authority State results from a contract
binding on sovereign. and not absolute. between individuals-general will

SOVEREIGNTY is unlimited, indivisible, inalienable,Conceives of popular and not The general will is sovereign
absolute above law le- gal sovereignty.

INDIVIDUAL AND Limited rights and liberties to the

Rights to life, liberty and Individual liberty is a gift of the
STATE individual in state. property and can’t be deprived
sovereign state.
of.

STATE AND does not distinguish between distinguishes between state distinguish between state which is
GOVERNMENT state and Government and government and state andsovereign and government which is
society subordinate
 Karl Marx
Introduction
“With Marx, socialism became international or cosmopolitan n scope in contrast to the
association or national industrialism of his predecessors.”
(R. G. Gettell)

 Karl Marx born in a prosperous family became a victim of misfortunes, a prey of

perpetual crushing poverty and a painfully sensitive to see the incredible sufferings
of humanity because of economic inequality, social disparity, incalculable violence
and mal-treatment towards laborers at the hands of feudal lords and industrialists.
 He was born at Treves in Prussia on 5th May, 1818.
 His aristocratic Jewish parents embraced Christianity when Karl Marx was only a
child.
 At the age of 17, he became a law student at Bonn University. In 1826, he left for the
University of Berlin.
 In 1843, he married Jenny, a member of petty nobility who remained a faithful
counterpart throughout his life.
 In 1841, Karl Marx got his degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Jena
on the tropic of “The Difference between the Natural Philosophy of Democratus and
Epicurus.”
 He mixed with the revolutionaries and his radical thinking made him suspicious
which created obstacle in the security of employment as a university teacher.
 Then he entered into the field of journalism. Karl Marx studied Hegel very
thoroughly and noted basic fallacies in his idealistic philosophy.
 In early 1845, Karl Marx left Paris for Brussels. But before he left France, he got an
ever-lasting friendship with Friedrich Engel which brought many changes in his life.
 Marx-Engel collaboration was one of the history’s most unique prominent and
enduring collaboration. Friedrich Engel became the friend, disciple and passionate
seeker of knowledge and a warm partner.
 In the summer of 1845, Friedrich took Karl Marx to England and there he was
introduced to the founders of the “German Workers Educational Union” that had
recently started in London.
 After remaining for sometime in London, he again came back to Brussels. Marx had
to flee from one country to another on account of his conspiratorial activities. Then
he steeled down in London till his death.
  “England has often been called the mother of Exiles”, but for Karl Marx, it became
the dwelling place of miseries and misfortunes.
 Karl Marx worked round the clock in the British Museum for developing the
economic theories of capital. Karl Marx wrote many pamphlets defending himself
and severely criticizing his opponents.
 He died as a wounded soul on March 14, 1883. He led a life of full of pangs and
despondency and faced the hardships of worldly agency with determination,
courage and perseverance.
 In a speech over his grave in High ate Cemetery, Friedrich Engel declared that “his
name and works will live on through the centuries.”

Works
 Karl Marx was a great writer and will ever live on the pages of existence. He wrote
the following master works:
I. Communist Manifesto immortalized Karl Marx. He wrote this with the
assistance and help of his faithful friend Friedrich Engel. This is considered
the Bible of the Communism all over the world.
II. Das Kapital is considered as the foundation stone of communism.
III. Poverty of Philosophy
IV. A Contribution to the critique of Political Economy
V. The Holy Family
VI. Revolution and Counter Revolution

Political Philosophy of Karl Marx

 Karl Marx is rightly called the Father of Modern Communism.
 The theory of communism owes its birth to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel.
 According to the theory of communism, the only practical thing was to acquire
mastery over the governing laws of society.
 Apart from this, Karl Marx and Engel wanted to know the causes of economic
changes in human society.
 They also wanted to explore what further changes are required. They concluded that
the changes in human society were not the least accidental like changes in external
nature.
 They worked out a scientific theory of society based on the actual experience of
men.
 Karl Marx applied this theory to the society in which he lived mainly Capitalist
Britain. He was of the opinion that it was quite impossible to separate his economic
theories from historical and social theories.
  Marx attacked the existing capitalist institutions. He did not believe in the essential
goodness of man. He conceived of a man more as an economic as a political animal.
 Karl Marx borrowed from Hegel the apparatus of Dialectics but substituted matter of
Hegelian idea. He built his concept of dialectic materialism by interpreting Hegel’s
World Spirit as an economic force.
 Karl Marx held the view that the meaning of history lay in the interpretation of
material world.
 Karl Marx is correctly divisible into three portions:
I. A purely philosophical section on dialectics
II. Pure economics
III. Historical materialism

Hegel’s influence over Karl Marx:

“The truce and the false together in Karl Marx constitute one of the most
tremendously compelling forces that modern history has seen. For the power of his
message and for his influence upon the future movement of the communism, Karl
Marx can be sure of his place amongst great masters of political thought.”
(Wayper)
 Karl Marx remains incomplete without the study of Hegel. It is true that Karl Marx
rejected the substance of Hegel’s political philosophy and it is a stark reality in
history that Karl Marx adopted the dialectical method developed by Hegel, as the
basis for his historical materialism.
 Hegel was of the view that history gained its meaning from the interaction of ideas.
 There was a perennial struggle of ideas for dominance over one another. Out of this
struggle of ideas, new ideas emerged and these new ideas corresponded more
closely to the ultimate perfection of God himself.
 Every idea according to Hegel, is incomplete with inherent contradiction.
 The incompleteness or inherent contradictions is every idea led naturally to its
opposite, which may be called anti-thesis.
 From the struggle between the two, i.e. ‘thesis’ and ‘anti-thesis’ there emerged the
truth embraced by both which may be called “synthesis”.
 This ‘synthesis’ becomes a new thesis and again there came an ‘anti-thesis’ and
again emerged a ‘synthesis, and the process repeated itself in an unending chain.
 Karl Marx opined that history unfolded according to a dialectical plan.
 Here he fully agrees with Hegel. But he was of the view that ideas were not the
controlling factors. Ideas do not control the reality. These are the outcome of
material conditions.
 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel developed communism as an ardent opposing force to
capitalism.
  Appalling degradation of man in society and crushing poetry were the real basis for
the communist protest.
 The degradation was accompanied by uncontrolled industrialization in the middle of
the nineteenth century.
 The whole Europe was engulfed in moral turpitude, degeneration and oppression
which fully justified the advent of communist’s bitterness and scorn against the
capitalistic structure of society.
 This caused great frustration among the masses and consequently they became
inquisitive to bring about social justice.
 Karl Marx was a social scientist. As a social scientist, he made efforts to look at this
injustice quite impersonally. But these consequences according to Karl Marx were
essentially involved for the accumulation of capital.
 Karl Marx viewed that in each and every society industry, “the wages paid to the
workers are not the equivalent of the full value they produce, but only equal to
about half of this value or even less. The rest of the value produced by the worker
during his working day is taken outright by his employer.”

Proletarian Dictatorship
 The Proletariat class comprises of the workers, laborers or wage-earners would naturally
be in the vast majority in every society.
 Karl Marx was of the view that it is then quite natural that the dictatorship of the
proletariat would be a democracy of the majority.
 The “Communist Manifesto” also says “The first step in the working class revolution is
the raising of the proletariat to the position of the ruling class, the victory of democracy.
The proletarian movement is the conscious movement of the immense majority in the
interest of the immense majority.”
 Karl Marx believed in the inevitability of this class struggle and the ultimate victory of
the proletariat after a successful bloody revolution, he did not like to leave this
development to the forces of economic evolution.
 He wanted that this revolution should be precipitated through organization and
energetic sophisticated action on the part of workers. All the confronted titanic forces
should be crushed by the laborers.
 The Marxian ideal was to bring about proletarian dictatorship through violent means
and not through peaceful evolution, resulting in the political and economic domination
by the proletarians.
 The proletarian revolution against the bourgeoisie class in the state is directed towards
the achievement of two ends:
I. Firstly, this proletarian revolution has to destroy the capitalist structure of
society. In destroying the capitalist stat it is very essential for the proletarian
 revolution to destroy all the social, political, legal and other such institutions of
the capitalist state.
II. Secondly, the proletarian revolution has to replace all the social, political, legal
and other institutions with new institutions. These new institutions should be
such as it suits the needs of the proletarian class.
 Karl Marx said, “Between capitalist and communist society lies the period of the
revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. There corresponds to this also a
political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary
dictatorship of proletariat.”
 Lenin was the true follower of Karl Marx. He was of the view that Communism is to be
achieved in two stages.
 The first stage of Communism follows immediately after the seizure of power by the
proletarian. In this stage of communism, society would not be a free society.
 This stage of communism contains the blend of vestiges of old and bourgeoisie order. In
the old capitalist state, the capitalist employer and exploiter used to suppress the
minority and in the new stage of Communism or in the proletariat dictatorship it would
be proletariat class which would suppress the minority or the capitalist.
 The Communist state differs from the capitalist state in two ways:
I. In it the majority i.e. the workers will expropriate the majority.
II. The revolutionary proletariat will abolish all classes and then disappear as a
class.
 The proletarian dictatorship in the transitional period is not a fluctuating period of
“Super Revolutionary” deeds and decrease.
 On the contrary, the dictatorship of the proletariat must be regarded as an entire
historical epoch full of external conflicts and civil wars.
 In the dictatorship of proletariat there is a constant organizational work along with
economic progress.
 In the dictatorship of the proletariat, the proletariat will be given full opportunity to
educate itself.
 Lenin said, “Under the dictatorship of the proletariat we will have to re-educate million
of peasants and petty proprietors, hundreds of thousands of office workers and
bourgeoisie intellectuals to subordinate all these to proletarian state and to proletarian
leadership, to overcome their bourgeoisie habits and traditions, to re-educate in a
protracted struggle under the controlling auspices of the dictatorship of the proletariat,
the proletarians themselves, for they will not be able themselves of own petty
bourgeoisie prejudices at the first stroke as if by magic, or at the behest of the Virgin
Mary, or by a slogan, resolution or decree it can be done only in the course of a long and
difficult mass struggle against the mass of petty bourgeoisie influence.”
 The Communist holds that the proletarian dictatorship means the despotic rule of the
Communist minority.
 It will be a victory of democracy and not a despotism of a minority. The proletariat class
in power will not maintain the affairs of the state with repression and violence.
 Laski was of the view that the dictatorship of the proletariat means, not the anti-thesis
of democracy, but the anti-thesis of the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. It will be
exercised through elected bodies and subject to public opinion.
 Lenin also remarks in this regard, “Revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat is power
won and maintained by the violence of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie power
that is unrestrained by any law.”
 The dictatorship of the proletariat is not an end, but a means to an end the creation of
society in which the basic principle of life and social organization would be, “from each
according to his capacity, to each according to his needs.”
 The dictatorship of the proletariat is transitory in nature. After the establishment of the
society, dictatorship of the proletariat will not remain.
 The state will wither away. All functions of the state will administer themselves and
administration will be a matter of technical and scientific knowledge instead of exercise
of political will and authority.
 There will be an ideal society of the free and the equal without any internal disruption
and mutual dissension.

Karl Marx and Capitalism

 Karl Marx devoted a great part of his life to the study of capitalism I order to
describe the capitalist method of production of his own age and for all ages to come.
 By studying capitalism, Karl Marx wanted to know the guiding principle of its change.
Karl Marx studied the capitalism with missionary spirit to make a scientific forecast
on its development.
 The salient feature of the feudal production was production for local consumption.
In the age of feudalism, persons used to produce for themselves and for their feudal
lords.
 In those days, production was meant for consumption. Gradually feudal units of
production began to break up. Profit became the only aim of production in the
modern world.
 Production for profit required two things, capitalists’ means of production, and the
laborers whose only chance of getting a livelihood was to sell his labor.
 In this new system of production, there was a complete change. Now the laborers
produced things not for their personal use.
 On the contrary the production was meant for the capitalist to sell for money. In this
new system of production, things were produced not for consumption but for sale in
the market.
 Laborer received his wages for his capitalist employer for his work and the capitalist
employer received profit.
 Karl Marx is of the view that profit arises in the course of production. Sale of
products does not produce profit.
 According to Karl Marx, the exchange value of product depends upon the Labor Time
spent in its production.
 A product has a great exchange value if more human labor has been put into its
production.
 Labor time spent in producing labor power means the time spent in producing the
food, shelter, clothes and other such things which are essential for the laborer
maintenance.
 Nowadays a laborer is able to produce in a day more than is necessary to his
survival but he is paid by his employer a wage commensurate with a subsistence
level of existence.
 The difference is called surplus value. In the modern capitalist society this surplus
value is appreciated by the capitalist employer.
 Karl Marx is of the view that capitalists are permanent profit makers because they
appropriate surplus value.
 It is very true that there is always a difference between the exchange value of a
product produced by laborer and the value of labor power.
 In simple terms this difference may be called surplus value. Karl Marx opined that
under capitalist structure of production in each and every factory and industry, “the
wages paid to the workers are not the equivalent of the full value they produce, but
only equal about half this value or even less. The rest of the value produced by the
worker during his working days is taken outright by his employer.”
 In the capitalist system of production, the capitalist always become greedy and
ambitious to increase the amount of surplus value which means more profit for him.
Lust for profit is the prime factor in the capitalist system of production.
 The capitalist make more profit only by exploiting the laborer. According to Karl
Marx exploitation of the laborer is another salient feature of capitalism.
 This exploitation results in class struggle. Class struggle is perennial and perpetual in
the capitalism.
 The worker is fighting for the existence of his life and he wanted to avoid
intimidation and ultimately class struggle starts.
 The laborer demands higher wages and shorter hours of work for improving his
position. On the other hand, the capitalist wants to make more profits and hence
there is a constant clash and struggle between the capitalist and the laborer, which
can never come to an end so long as the capitalist system of production lasts.
 Karl Marx is of the view that property in any form is not capital, unless it is used to
produce surplus value.
 The early accumulation of capital was very largely open robbery. But there was
another way also through which capital came into existence.
  According to Karl Marx the primitive accumulation is the real origin of capital. He
ridicules the legend of men, moderate in food and drink who served from their
meager living.
“This primitive accumulation plays in political economy about the same part as original
sin played in theology. Adam bit the apple, and thereupon sin fell upon the human race.
In times long gone by there were town sorts of people; one, the diligent, intelligent and
above all frugal elite: the other lazy rascals, spending their substance, and more in
riotous living. Thus it came to pass that the former sort accumulated wealth and the
latter sort had a t last nothing to sell except their own skin. And from this original sin
dates the poverty of the great majority that, despite all its labor, has up to now nothing
to sell but itself and the wealth of the few that increases constantly although they have
long ceased to work.”
(Marx)
 With the victory of the proletariat, the class struggle puts an end to this process by
ending capitalist system of production.
 Apart from class-struggle, there are other obstructions to the smooth development of
capitalism.
 In other words we may say that these obstacles as a matter of fact are inherent in the
capitalism. The most important among these obstacles, is the economic crisis.
 This crisis creates a great obstacle to the smooth course of capitalist development.
Whenever economic crisis occur,
 it checks the expansion of capital. Economic crisis do not check the expansion of capital,
but often led to the destruction of the capital accumulated in past years.
 Karl Marx said, “In these crisis there broke out an epidemic that, is all earlier epochs,
would have become an absolutely the epidemic of over-production.”

Theory of State
“The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of
the bourgeoisie as a whole.”
(Karl Marx)
 State is thought of as parliament or some representative institution.
 Karl Marx concluded that the development of the state had nothing to do with any form
of representative institutions.
 But he was of the view that state is a machine through which the ruling class imposes its
will on the majority.
 According to Karl Marx, state is not meant for the promotion of the welfare of its people
nor bestows any right of political obligation and obedience but its coercion and that a
class coercion.
 The state acts as an agency of class coercion in the hands of dominant economic class
rather than an association of citizens is the pursuits of a common purpose.
 According to the Communist theory, the state is nothing but a tool of the dominant class
in society.
 Economic is the domineering factor which becomes the base of all structures of the
society.
 According to Aristotle the state came into birth for the sake of life and state continues
to exist for the sake of good life.
 According to classical view, state is an institution meant for the proper development of
the personality of its each and every citizen.
 Laski said, “State strives to hold a just balance between the different elements in
society. It strives by its policy to effect such an adjustment of the relationship between
citizens and will enable each of them to realize, if he so desires, the fullest implications
of human personality.”
 Karl Marx vividly differs from the classical views regarding state. He says the state has
never and can never aim at the common good of the community as a whole.
 According to Communist Manifesto, the state is the executive committee of the
bourgeoisie.
 Karl Marx said, “State is nothing more than the form of organization which the
bourgeoisie necessarily adopt both for internal and external purpose for the mutual
guarantee of their property and interest.”
 According to Karl Marx, there was no state in primitive society and as soon as human
society was formed it bifurcated into two classes.
 It became very essential for the privileged class to have an armed force for the purpose
to maintain the privileges of the privileged class and secondly to protect the interests of
the privileged class.
 Friedrich Engel said, “This public force exists in every state, it consists not merely of
armed men, but of material appendages, prisons and repressive institutions of all kind.”
 Naturally, the ruling class having the apparatus of force and absolute rod of authority
will always coerce upon the other classes of society.
 Fear and intimidation of the ruling class constrained the people to subdue for complete
obedience and hence the Marxian state aims at crushing the independent will of its
subjects.
 Communists hold the views from the record of history that the state exists only to help
the capitalist in exploiting and suppressing the laborers.
 Karl Marx viewed state as a product of class antagonism. Lenin said, “Where, when and
to what extent, the state arises depends directly on which where and to what extent,
 the class antagonism of a given society cannot be objectively reconciled. And,
conversely the existence of the state proves that class antagonisms are irreconcilable.”
 Karl Marx was of the view that the state will be able to wither away completely when
society has realized the value, “From each according to his ability: to each according to
his needs.”
 Then there would be no problem of production and its distribution. There would be no
question of mine and thine. Every one will work voluntarily according to his ability and
capacity and will get share according to his needs and requirements.

Classless Society:
 Karl Marx was of the opinion that class struggle is perpetual and constant between man
and man and consequently man always fought for his own existence.
 It ends only if the final and ultimate victory of the labor is achieved. This is a known
factor that in the capitalist structure of society, but not over the means of production
and its direction was vested in the hands of the capitalist.
 Proletariats in that society are neglected people always living at the sweet mercy of
capitalist.
 When violent bloody revolution in the name of communism bring about complete and
ultimate victory to the proletarian revolutionaries, and the complete annihilation of the
aristocratic and capitalist class in the society ushers a new epoch of social equality and
economic parity.
 With the advent of proletarianism, a new system of legal, economic, political and
production world emerges out.
 In this new system, all the functions of the government and the means as well as
technique of production were to be controlled by the society.
 Friedrich Engel said, “Whilst the capitalist mode of production more and more
completely transforms the great majority of the population into proletarians it creates
the power which under penalty of its own destruction is forced to accomplish this
revolution.
 Whilst it forces on more and more the transformation of the vast means of production
already socialized into state property. It shows itself the way to accomplishing this
revolution.
 The proletariat seizes political power and turns the means of production into state
property.” All the class distinction in society would disappear, and with the
disappearance of the class distinctions in society, the class struggle would also come to
an end.
 The proletariat would use their power to eliminate private ownership of means of
production. As soon as private ownership of means of production is eliminated, all class
distinction would automatically vanish and society would become a stateless and
classless society.
Criticism
 Karl Marx’s theory of state stands against the classical theory of state. According to
classical view, the main reason for the existence of the state is the promotion of the
good of the community. On the contrary, Karl Marx’s state is a machine by which one
class exploits and suppresses the other.
 Karl Marx’s views do no explain the exact nature of the state. It gives a wrong
conception. He says that the ruling class is the representative of an economic class and
the ruling class is always interested in pursuing its own interests. This is incorrect view of
Karl Marx. The example of medieval kings and emperors stand against the theory of Karl
Marx as they were not the representative of an economic class and consciously pursuing
the interests of their own class. On the contrary, the ancient and medieval kings were
the representatives of the whole society.
 Karl Marx’s theory of stat is quite applicable to the first half of the nineteenth century,
but for twentieth century it is quite inapplicable. In the first half of the nineteenth
century, Laissez-faire policy was predominant but today its forces are no longer reliable.
Now we live in an era of democratic socialist planning. Nowadays state is meant for the
promotion of the common good. Thus it can be said that Karl Marx’s theory of state is
not at all applicable to the states of modern times.
 The conception of Karl Marx that victory of proletariats over the capitalists would result
in the disappearance of class distinction is absolutely incorrect and untrue for glaring
reasons that he had created class distinction i.e. bourgeoisie and proletariat, two great
hostile camps and two prominent classes constantly indulging in class struggle and
warfare which culminated into oppression and chaos.
 Montesquieu
“Of all French political philosophers in the eighteenth century (other than Rousseau) the
most important was Montesquieu. Of them all he had perhaps the clearest conception of
the complexities of a social philosophy, and yet he too was guilty of extreme over
simplification.”
(Sabine)
 Montesquieu was born in 1689 at Chateau de la Bordeaux in a noble aristocratic family.
 His father was an eminent French lawyer. At the age of twenty seven he became
president of Parliament of Bordeaux, the most important of parliaments in France
except that of Paris.
 For a long period of twelve years he continued as chief magistrate at Bordeaux, but he
was not satisfied with the job because he was an extensive reader of literature and
history and had deep sympathetic ties with the intellectual movements of his days.
 At last he left presidency and moved to Paris. In 1728 he visited Austria, Hungary,
Venice, Rome, Switzerland, Holland and lastly England where he remained for above
two years.
 During his tour, he came across the leading politicians and political thinkers in England
and he was deeply impressed by the English conception of liberty and by the English
system of Government.
 After his return he settled at La Brede and kept himself busy with the task of writing of
political philosophy. At that time France although under absolute control of King Louis
XIV, yet was more fertile for growth of political theory but Frenchmen were not satisfied
with the political situation, as were their fellows across the channel.

Important works
 The Persian Letter: He published these letters in 1721. it embodied a brilliant satire on
the existing political, religious and social institutions in France.
 Reflections and the causes of the Greatness and Decline of the Romans. This book was
published in 1734.
 The Spirit of Law published in 1748. This book won a great fame and immortality for
Montesquieu because it came out after fourteen year unremitting labor and he made it
a masterpiece for all ages.

Montesquieu’s doctrine of Separation of Powers

 Montesquieu expounds his theory of separation of powers to set forth the
governmental organization in order to safeguard the political liberty.
  He believed that the separation of powers among the different organs of the
government is the best safeguard against tyranny.
 He pleads that each power must be exercised by a separate organ and a system of
checks and balances should thus be established for solidarity and harmony of the state.
 The theory of separation of powers among Legislative, Executive and Judicial branches
of government was best realized in the British Constitution.
 He came to realize that for maintaining liberty, the separation of powers was absolutely
essential.
 Montesquieu did not rely upon observation. Locke and Harrington had taught him what
to expect and for the rest he adopted the myth which was current among the English
themselves.
 Bolingbroke said, “It is by this mixture of monarchial, aristocratically and democratically
power blended together in one system and by these three estates balancing one
another, that our free constitution of Government has been preserved so long
inviolate.”
 According to Montesquieu there are three kinds of power:
I. By virtue of the legislative power, the prince or magistrate exerts temporary or
permanent laws and amends or abrogates those laws, which are contrary to the
will of the subject.
II. By virtue of the executive powers, he makes peace or war, sends or receives
Ambassadors, establish the public security and provide protection against
invasions.
III. By virtue of the judiciary powers, he is vested with the powers to punish
criminals and also to safeguard the life and property of the individuals.
 When the executive and legislative are united in the same person, there can be no
liberty because apprehensions may arise.
 If the judiciary power be not separated from the legislative and the executive then again
there will be no liberty.
 When it is combined with the legislative, the existence and liberty of people would be
exposed to arbitrary rule. When it is combined with executive organ, then there will be
violence and oppression in the capacity of a mortal God.
 It is quite obvious from all above cited discussion, that the separation of powers among
the three organs of governments fully ensures liberty and freedom, by imposing healthy
checks on the despotism of the government bureaucrats.
 Montesquieu was of the view that liberty is an indispensable fundamental for human
progress and glory. Everyone is born to enjoy it without any distinction of color, creed
and religion.

Criticism
  Montesquieu’s study of English constitution is not very correct until this day; there is no
full separation of powers between different governmental agencies. There the House of
Lords is a legislative as well as a judicial body. The Lord Chancellor partakes of all the
three functions of government.
 If all the branches are made separate and independent of each other, each branch will
endeavor to safeguard its interests and possibly may jeopardize other’s interest.
 Perfect separate power in the functions of the government is impossible.
 Mill was of the view “the separation of powers will result in a clash between the three
different organs of the government because each one will take interest only in its own
powers.”
In spite of all inconsistencies in the theory of separation of powers, it too wielded a
considerable influence in Pakistan, France and America. Montesquieu is placed in the first
rank of those distinguished thinkers who in the eighteenth century, held high standard of
idealism in all that pertains to liberty.

Montesquieu’s views on Forms of Government

 The classification of government of Montesquieu is base partly on the number of those
who hold political power and partly on the manner in which that power is exercised.
 He gives more importance to the principle on which government is based than to its
nature.
 He assigned a particular basic principle to every form of government. The principle of
democracy was virtue, of an aristocracy virtue-cum-moderation, of monarchy honor
while that of despotism was fear.
 He enunciated the dangers attending each form of government if it lost its basic
principle.
 Montesquieu forms the government into three types:
I. Republic
Montesquieu was of the view “A republican government is that in which the
body or only a part of the people, is possessed of the supreme power.” To him, when in
a republic, the body of the people is possessed of the supreme power it is called
democracy. Sovereignty rests with the people in democracy. In Republics, there can be
no exercise of sovereignty but by the votes of the people and these votes express their
own will.
II. Monarchies
Montesquieu remarks that monarchial government is that in which a single
person governs the state by fixed and established laws. He was of the view that the
most intermediate power is that of nobility. This in some measure seems to be essential
 to a monarchy, whose fundamental maxim is no nobility no monarch, but there may be
despotic process.

III. Despotism
A despotic government is that in which a single person directs all functions of the
government with his own capricious will, without any law and without fixed rules. His
own words become laws of the land and complete subordination to these laws a
expedient.
 Each of the form is associated with its peculiar principle:
a) Democracy is based upon political virtue
b) Aristocracy is based upon moderation
c) Monarchy is based upon honor
d) Despotism is based upon fear and oppression

Relation between Forms of Government and religion & Size of State

 Montesquieu was of the view that certain religions had a definite affinity for certain
types of governments.
 Islam goes well with Democratic Republican form of government, wherein fundamentals
of religion i-e., equality, fraternity and freedom are deeply inculcated and practiced for
the security of mankind and glory of the state.
 Roman Catholicism is closely affiliated with monarchial form of government with
arbitrary rule and Protestantism even in this modern age is deeply attached with
despotism and cruel expansionism.
 Republican form of government is possible only in a state of small size; monarchy suited
the moderate-sized state while a big country or an empire must have despotic
government.
 Real democracy is possible only ion small city-state. France of Montesquieu’s time was
too large for a republic form of government, Monarchy would suit her best.
Montesquieu declared monarchy, a worst form of government and he unlike
Machiavelli discarded the doctrine of aggrandizement and expansion.
Criticism
 It is quite wrong to assume, as Montesquieu does, that democracy and aristocracy are
sub-types of republican form.
 It is a quite unfair to place despotic government at par with monarchial and republican
forms. Despotic state is not at all state because it is established by the absence of
 established law, and hence it is a lawless state, which should not be included in the plan
at all.
 Montesquieu’s scheme creates distinction between the republican and monarchic form
based upon the number of persons who possess the supreme power, the distinction
between the monarchic and despotic types depends upon the way in which the power
of governments are to be exercised.

Montesquieu as the Aristotle of 18th Century

 Montesquieu follows the inductive and historical methods of Aristotle and like him,
takes keen interest in the practical political activities.
 Like Aristotle, Montesquieu too pays his attention on the influence of physical
environment on the life of man and social institutions.
 Montesquieu steps into the shoes of Aristotle, when he recognizes basic types of
government i-e, republican, monarchial and despotic.
 Montesquieu closely follows Aristotle when he says that the fundamental types of
political constitutions are fixed once and for all but they are different to some extent
under the impact of the local conditions.
 Montesquieu’s observation that the law of a society gives to its unique and particular
character, has its parallel in Aristotle’s statement that the constitution of a state
determines the very life and character of its people, if there occurs a change in the
constitution, the state itself becomes altogether a different state.
State System
 Introductory

STATE
Definition
 French king Louis XIV(1638-1715) says, “I’m the state” (Burgess)
 “particular portion of mankind viewed as an organized unit” (blentschilli)
 Aristotle defined the state as a “union of families and villages having for its end a
perfect and self – sufficing life by which it meant a happy and honourable life”.
 “state is the politically organized people of a definite territory” “a people organized for
law within an definite territory” (Woodrow Wilson)
 Prof. Laski defines “state as a territorial society divided into government and subjects
whose relationships are determined by the exercise of supreme coercive power.”
 The modern term “state” is derived from the word “status”. It was Niccolo Machiavelli (
1469 – 1527) who first used the term “state” in his writings.
 Modern definition: “state is a community of people occupying a definite territory
organized under a government, which is supreme over all persons and associations
 within its territory and independent of all foreign control or power”
 Elements of state: Population, Territory, Government and Sovereignty

Historical evolution of state

 State has evolved through the following stages:
I. Stateless society of the primitive times.
II. The tribal kingdoms
III. The oriental empires
IV. Greek-city states.
V. The roman empire
VI. Feudal states
VII. Nation-state:

Stateless society of the primitive times

 No written record of the society
 Patriarchal society but its not a political union
 State less society
 Families – clans – tribes
  Head was mostly a male who regulate sex life and property of the group
 Issues were solved by social contract

The tribal kingdoms

 Protohistoric period
 Population in the river valleys of Africa and Asia
 Nile (Egypt), Tigris (Sumerian), Harrapa (Indus, Pakistan), Yellow river (China)
 Rose about 5000 B.C.

The oriental empires

 Small city states emerged near rivers in Egypt, Iraq, Iran and China
 These are not like Greek city states
 Multiple geographical factors supported these states and these city states conquered
more territories and thus established as empires
 It was based on conquest and force
 City life was major feature which helped to establish the empire
 Social and class status also matters in this empire

The city state of Greek

 Around 1000 BC, Political theory may be said to begin with Greek city states.
Development of Greek city state
 Tribal administration developed into local principle of government.
Two integral ideas of Greek city state
 Each city was a politically organized state .
 The Greek city state was deliberately limited in size and population.
+Ve points of greek city state
 Developed to the stage of conscious effort directed to the realisation of liberty and equal laws.
 It was a great experiment not only in the art of self-government, but also in the quest of virtue.
 Direct and active involvement of each citizen in state affairs.
 The state was all inclusive. It was at once a state, church and school.
 Were typical examples of direct democracy.
-Ve points of greek city state
 Love for complete independence caused their collapse in front of powerful state under Philip
of Macedonia.
 Not a disciplined society--too much liberty.
 Wanting in humanity. Liberty that they wanted for themselves denied the same to others.
Considered slavery as natural.
 No distinction between state and other aspects of society

The Roman empire

 ⮚ order
⮚ Unity.
⮚ Centralization.
⮚ Imperialism.
⮚ Merger of church and state.
The feudal state
 it marked the transition from the imperialism of Roman world to the nationalism of modern
world.
Main characteristics of feudal state
⮚ Powerful nobles. No single sovereign authority.
⮚ Military power was concentrated in the lord chief.
⮚ No uniform and impartial law, rather customs served as the law of land.
⮚ Church exercising a powerful position.
Services of feudal state
⮚ After the downfall of Roman Empire it was feudal state that gave Europe order and avoided
total chaos.
⮚ Secondly, it fostered among the big landlords self-reliance and love of personal
independence.
Defects of feudal system
⮚ it was confusion of public and private rights.
⮚ it also rendered difficult the formation of strong national government, as a country was split.
Nation-state
The modern state is a nation state and it has become the basic pattern throughout the world. it
actualizes the principle of self-determination or the right of each nation to govern itself”
(J.C Johari)

Decline of feudal state

⮚ Internal disputes and constant situation of conflict.
⮚ Renaissance and reformation, Spirit of nationalism among Europeans.
 nation-state gave rise to modern theories of sovereignty and equality of states,
 it also helped the growth of international law.
Growth of nation state
⮚ Start of nation state as absolute monarchies. why??
 need for consolidation, impacts of thoughts of political thinkers like Machiavelli and
Hobbes.
Rise of democracy
⮚ Conflict b/w the king and people. People demanded rights and privileges.
⮚ Democracy brought with it three main principles; equality, popular sovereignty and
nationality.
 Declaration of the rights of Man 1789.
 ⮚ The selfishness of the ruling families was checked and methods of government became
milder and fairer.
⮚ Laws were made with due consideration of the interests of the people, and opinions were
freely brought to the test of discussion.
⮚ It also brought the policy of laissez-faire in the field of industry, trade and commerce.
⮚ Movement of diffusion owing to economic freedom.
⮚ A marked tendency in concentration both of capital and land.
 A nation state is a state based on the bonds of nationality, such as common religion
language, customs common aspirations etc. and is strengthened by national boundaries
it led to the growth of international law which recognized the sovereignty and equality
of all nation states.
 Since its advent in the 15th century Europe (age of Renaissance), the nation-state has
assumed several distinct forms. These are:
I. Absolute monarchy:
II. National democracies:
III. Colonial empire:
IV. Fascist dictatorship:
V. Communist states:

Theories of the origin of the state

 Knowledge of the ancient history and society did not exist in the past. When historical
knowledge fails, man resort to speculations. So, the philosophers of old ages speculated
about the causes and conditions in which the state originated. They expounded various
speculative theories: these are:
I. Theory of divine origin
II. Theory of force
III. Theory of social contract
IV. Patriarchal theory
V. Matriarchal theory
VI. Evolutionary theory or sociological theory:

Divine origin theory

 in ancient times politics and religion were not separate. It was then believed that God
created that state as he did everything else. Kings were both rulers and priests.
 In the middle ago it was believed that kings were “the shadows of God on earth” with
the rising importance of social contract theory, and the age of reason in 17th and 18 th
century the theory of Divine origin lost its appeal.
 “the state is created by God; the kings are divinely appointed; they are answerable to
God alone for their rule and to no human authority’
  The divine right of Kings: This theory was presented in 17th century by king James I of
England and Robert Filner.
 It said; “a king can never be vicious. Even if a king is wicked, it means God has sent him
as a punishment of peoples’ sins and it is unlawful to shake off the burden which God
has laid upon them”
Criticism
 State is a human, no a divine institution
 It justifies misrule and oppression of the people by bad rulers.
 This theory was an attempt to check popular awakening in England.

The theory of Force

 It says; “the state is a child of force i.e. of aggression, war, conquest and subjugation.
 In the primitive ages, a strong man or king, with the support of his warriors, subjugated
the weaker men of his tribe and established the political relation of command and
obedience”
 In other words, “state is the outcome of human aggression in the past and is
subsequently maintained, defended or destroyed by force, concern or compulsion’
Criticism
 They theory over-emphasis the role of force.
 Bertrand Russell: “ force or power is as necessary to politics as energy is to physics”

Theory of social contract

 State of nature-->social contract--->civil society
 Hobbes (1588-1679)
 Locke*(1623-1704)
 Rousseau (1712-1778)

Patriarchal Theory
 According to this theory state is the enlargement of the family.
 Family--->villages---->city state---->

Matriarchal theory
 Matriarchal society into patriarchal tribes.

The evolutionary/sociological theory

 Dr. Garner says; “state is neither the handiwork of God, nor the result of superior
physical force, nor the reaction of a contract, nor a mere expansion of a family”
  Origins are always obscure and the origin of the state is no exception to the general
rule.
 Speculation or speculative philosophy would not help us much in discovering the
beginning of the state in the remote past. Instead of that we have to seek the help of
history.
 Anthropology, archaeology and other social sciences to understand how the state
originated and developed into present form. In this respect “history” is our guide and”
“sociology is our ground to formulate a correct theory of the origin of the state.
 They give us the historical, evolutionary or sociological theory which is now accepted as
true or correct theory of the origin of the state.
 It explains both the forces and factors which created and developed the state and the
 historical stages through which it evolved.
 These forces and influences in the evolution of the state are:
I. Kinship
II. Magic and religion
III. Property and the rise of economic class.
IV. War and force.
V. Political consciousness.
Kinship
 Within the family, children obey their father, while the members of the tribe obey the
elders of them tribe. The council of the elders, led by a chief, was the first political
authority in the primitive age.
 Membership of the tribe state was determined by birth and blood relationship
Magic and religion
 Primitive man did not understand the forces of nature and the cause of their operation.
 He endeavored to control them by magical rites and practices. This was his religion. In
primitive tribes, the men who knew about magic and medicine. Acquired authority on
the tribe.
 They became the forerunners of the tribe chiefs and kings.
War and force
 In the beginning, might was right. Purpose was the capture of animals, wealth and land
of the neighboring tribes.
Political consciousness
 Progress began when men began to question the purpose of institution and social
order.
Concept of the state
 There are three different concepts of state i.e. Traditional, modern, Islamic,

Traditional concept of the state

Ethical concept of ancient Greeks
 The ancient Greeks were the first people in the world who had systematically thought
about the nature and the purpose of the state which they called “polis’ or city state.
 According to the Greeks, the state was an ethical society.
 Its arm was to make man’s life good and perfect.
 The good life was possible they education and full participation in all the activities of the
state by citizens.
 The ancient Greeks did not believe in the present day dichotomy of the individual (vs)
the state.
 For them, the individual was an integral part of the state. Some of the moral principles
which Greeks upheld were justice, moderate pursuit of truth and patriotism.
 Ethical concept of state by PLATO:
 His concept was deeply ethical. He believed that knowledge was the
supreme virtue, and justice consisted in doing the thing for which an
individual is by nature fit.
 The state exist to attain the idea of Good or vitue.
 According to him, the state like an individual has three virtues,
knowledge, courage, and appetite, they lie in three parts of human body.
Appetite in belly courage in heart and knowledge of good in head.
 Similarly the state consists of three classes. Artisans-soldiers and
philosopher rulers.
 Plato’s concept of state was based on the division of ethical qualities or
virtues. It was an ideal state.
 Religious concept of st. Augustine:
 Roman empire declared Christianity as state religion in 4th century A.D.
 in 410, Rome was conquered which was never attacked by anyone since
last 800 years.
 The Pegan Roman declared that Rome was defeated because of
Christianity.
 Pagans worshiped Roman Gods and Godesses. Augustine stood to
defend Christianity against this accusation and wrote his famous book
“the city of God” He gave religious concept of state in this book.
 By city he meant state like Greeks.
 According to him there were two states i.e. the city of Kingdom of God
and city of Kingdom of Satan.
  The kingdom of God is visible in the Christian church. Man should obey
the state only when it has adopted the Christian ways of life as taught by
Jesus Christ.
 He believed that the Christian church was the march of God on earth.
 The said that the church represented the city of God on earth, as a social
union of true believers.

Modern concept of state

 It is absolutely different from the traditional concept.
 It is secular national and legal.
Secularism
 It means state is separate from religion.
 Church is not to interfere in matters of politics and state.
 Secular state is not necessarily an irreligious state, but it Believes that religion is a
private matter of the individual.
 Thus modern state is different from Greek concept of state which was ethical and from
medieval concept which was deeply religious.
 The idea of secular state was first propounded by Machiavelli but it didn’t bring about
real secularism i.e.: complete separation of religion and state, for he advocated that the
ruler should use religion for his politically purposes.
 However it was in the 20th century that secular states came into being in Europe and
America.
Nationalism
 Modern state is a national state. A nation is a people united by the bonds of common
language, religion, culture or race ad common historical experiences.
 in other words a nation state means a people who are conscious of their separate and
independent natural identity under their separate and independent national identity
under their separate and independent state.
 Subjective elements like psychological factors of national feelings and consciousness
play important role in the formation of nation state apart from objective factor
(language, culture).
 it is said the psychological factors of nationhood are more important. In the respect
“Ruston” says,. “it is not mountains and valleys that make people a nation; it is their
consciousness of being a nation that makes than so”
 As a matter of fact, the rise of the national states in Europe in the modern time was a
revolt against the concept of universal Christian community presented by the Catholic
Church in the Middle ages.
 England and France were the first national states. After the French Revolution (1789),
several central and southern European nation-states came into being.
  After the 2nd WW, nationalism spread in Asia and Africa.
Legalism
 Modern state is based upon law.
 Law mean a general rule of external conduct, passed and enforced by the state.
 Law is an instrument of social control to prevent conflict, violence and crime in society.
 Subordination to law of all the people, whether rich or poor, high or law, is known as
rule of law.
 Modern state and law have grown together.

Islamic concept of the state

Nature of the Islamic polity
 Islam is a complete code of life nothing in human life and behavior is outside or beyond
Islam.
 Islam doesn’t believe in separation of religious from political life.
 The life In this world is meant for preparing for the eternal life of the next world, which
is everlasting.
 The concept of state in Islam, therefore, should be understood on the basis of this
integrative principle of Islam.
 Sovereignty of Allah:
 To Holy Quran Says: “to him belongs the dominions of the Heavens and
of the earth. It is he who gives life and death, and he has full knowledge
of all things’.
 Again: “the command is for none but Allah”
 Again: “Allah has power over all things”
 In short, sovereignty in Islam does and can belong only to Allah and none
other can claim to be sovereign.
 The basic allegiance of the Muslims is to God and his law, to which even
the head of the state is subservient.
 Khilafat
 The Holy Quran proclaims the vicegerency of man. It says “And when the
Lord said unto the angels: “Lo! I am about to place a vicegerent in the
Earth”
 The institution of Khilafat or Caliphate came into being after the demise
of Holy prophet (PBUH).
 The Khalifa was also known as Imam for he combined both political and
religious duties of leadership of the Muslim community.
 “Caliph is the temporal ruler of the state and defender of the Faith”
 Rosenthal: “const. Law is Islam”
 the institution of Caliphate has a very long him story.
  It had existed from 632 A.D, when Hazrat Abu Bakark became the first
Caliph in the history of Islam, down to 1924.
 Government by consultation
 It was also the practice of the Holy prophet (PBUH) who consulted his
companions in all matters of state.
 The institution of Shura was developed by Khulafa-i-Rashideen
afterwards.
 This system is the foundation of Democratic government is Islam.
 Obedience of the Aulul-Amar or the Ruler
 The Quranic injunction call up on the Muslims to obey the supreme
commander among them.
 Equality of mankind
 In Islamic polity, there is no distinction or discrimination of man and man
on the ground of race, color, language, profession or country.
 Order good and punish wrong
 Islam enjoins the state to maintain morality. It asks the ruler to order
good and punish wrong.
 Payment of Zakat
 Muslims are asked to pay it as dutifully as they perform five time prayers.
 Justice
 Welfare
 Amr bil ma’roof wan ahi anil munkir

Theories of Khilafat
 Caliph remained the political and religion leader of the Muslim Ummah.
 But when the Abbasia Caliphate began to decline from about 940 A.D, the Caliphate
theory was challenged by rival Caliphs.
 This critical situation made several Muslim political thinkers to expound various
theories of Caliphate.
 Among them al-Mawarli, Ghazali and Ibn-i-Khuldoon are important.
 Al-Mawardi’s theory of Khilafat:
 Al. Ghazali’s theory of khilafat:
 Khaldun’s theory of Khilafat:

Nature of the state

 There are three kinds of views about the nature of the state/ monist-Dualistk and
pluralist theories of the nature of the state.

Monist theory
  The monist view of the state is that it is single, unified whole, while the Individuals who
compose it have no separate and independent existence of their own, but are part and
parcel of the state in which they live.
 They exist merely as “atomic units in the whole mass.”
 they have no individuality of their own while the state has a personality of his own.
 The monistic view of the state nature has been expressed in several theories i.e.
Organic theory, idealist theory and juristic personality theory etc.

Pluralist theory
 Its view of the state is just opposite of the monistic view.
 It regards state as a composite body in which the individuals have distinct and
independent existence of their own.
 The extreme pluralist view rejects the state altogether and regards the society as a mere
aggregation of individuals.
 This view’s found in such theories like individualism etc.

Dualist theory
 In between the two extremes of monistic and pluralist theories is the third view of the
dualist theory.
 It is a compromise between the two.
 It regards both the state and the individual as distinct but interdependent.
 Neither individual is completely merged into the state nor he is entirely isolated from or
independent of it.
 This view is held by several theorists e.g. Lock’s theory of social contract, English
utilitarianism.

Theories of supporting monistic view

Organic theory:
 An organic is a living body .e.g an animal or a plant consisting of various parts.
 Each one of which exists upon the proper functioning of the other, as well as of the
whole.
 Each part has a specific function. But they subserve the common needs of the whole e.g.
the land works for the common need of who body.
 The organic theory asserts that state has the same characteristics as a living organism
has.
 The state is a living organism of which the individuals are calls or parts.
 State is identical with animal organism in every respect such as in Origin, structure and
function etc.
 Spencer’s organic theory: The organic theory of state received its most consistent and
systemic treatment at the hands of English philosopher Herbert Spence.
  He says: Individual is the cell of the state. Parallelism in growth and
development. Functional inter-dependence of the parts.
 Criticism: Individuals are not like the cells in natural organism. An
individual has a life of his own and can exist without the state. The state
is not an organism in physical sense. Unlike the individual organisms, the
state has no process of birth, growth, decay and death. State is a concept,
a abstract entity, while the organism is a concrete body.

The idealist theory

 Idealism is an old theory. Its origin can be traced to Aristotle and Plato.
 Plato presented an ‘ideal’ state in his book ‘the republic’. Both Plato and Aristotle held
that in the state alone the individual reaches his highest development.
 However their theory was best expounded by German philosophers was of 18th and
19th century of Kant and Hegal.
 It’s principles: The idealists regard state as an and individuals as a means to this end.
 It is only in the state that individual can be at his best.
 Out of state, he is nothing. Idealists have the same attitude towards the state as the
organic theory but with one difference.
 Idealists regard the state as a person. While organic thinkers regard it as an organism.
 Will of the state is the real will of individual.
 Rousseau’s “General will” The actions of the state are always right.
 Personality of the state and its absolution. “the individual is fleeting, the state is
everlasting, the leave wither, the tree stands “the state is reality while the individual is a
temporary actuality.
 Definition of State: “state is the march of God on earth’ (Hegal)
 individuals should worship it.
 Identity of the state and society: Like organic theorists the idealists also make no
distinction between the society and the state.
 Criticism:
 The state cannot request the real will of the people.
 Idealist theory denies the rights of the individual.
 It denies the individuality of individual

Juristic or personality theory

 This theory was presented by the juristic in the end of 19th and beginning of 20th
century.
 In the eyes of law, the individual is a ‘person’ in the sense that he has a will rights and
duties; he can do something which law recognizes as his ‘right’ jurists have also long
recognized that there are certain artificial person’ such as corporations which have
‘rights’ and ‘power’ recognized by law.
 The artificial personality of a corporation is a legal fiction.
  The state, according to them, has a will of its own and can act in the same way as does
human beings.
 So, the state is a super-person. The advocates of personality theory illustrate the real
personality, will and rights of the state by refereeing to fact that it owns property,
enters into contracts, direct economic enterprises and can sue or be sued in law courts.

Difference b/w state and society.

STATE SOCIETY

The scope is limited The scope is much wider

Fixed territory No fixed territory

Political organization Social organization

Has power to enforce laws No power to enforce law, instead is run on customs.

 DIFF B/W SATATE AND GOVERNMENT.

STATE GOVERNMENT

It consists of government, land ,population and Government is a part of state

sovereignty

State possesses original powers Powers of government are derived from the state.

Permanent and continuous Temporary

Abstract and invisible Concrete and visible