UNIT-2

4. Explain Switching and its Types. (16 marks)

Answer:
Switching is the process of transferring data between devices across a network by selecting paths
through intermediate nodes. There are three principal switching techniques:
1. Circuit Switching:
• A dedicated communication path is established between source and destination before data
transfer starts (setup phase), maintained during the session, and released after completion.
Classic telephone networks are circuit-switched.
• Advantages: Constant bandwidth, predictable latency, simple delivery.
• Disadvantages: Inefficient for bursty data (channel remains reserved even when idle), setup
delay, not scalable for data networks.
2. Message Switching:
• Entire message is routed from source to destination in store-and-forward mode. Each
intermediate node stores the whole message, examines routing, then forwards it. No
dedicated path.
• Advantages: No need for dedicated circuits, flexible routing.
• Disadvantages: High latency (store-and-forward), large buffer requirements, potential for
blocking and long delays.
3. Packet Switching:
• Data is divided into packets (or frames). Each packet is routed independently based on
destination address. Two variants:
o Datagram (connectionless): Each packet contains full addressing and may take
different paths; no fixed route. Example: IP.
o Virtual Circuit (connection-oriented): A logical path is established (virtual circuit)
and packets carry a VC identifier; e.g., Frame Relay, ATM.
• Advantages: Efficient for bursty traffic, scalable, statistical multiplexing improves utilization.
• Disadvantages: Variable delay (jitter), possible packet loss and out-of-order delivery requiring
reassembly and reliable transport.
Comparison & use cases: Circuit switching suits real-time continuous media (voice), packet switching
suits data networks with bursty traffic and internet services. Message switching is largely historical
but conceptually important. Modern networks predominantly use packet switching (IP).

5. Explain Multiplexing and its Types. (16 marks)

Answer:
Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple signals or data streams to share a single
communication channel, maximizing utilization and reducing costs. Key types:
1. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):
• Multiple signals are modulated onto different frequency bands within a channel; each user is
assigned a unique carrier frequency. Examples: FM radio, analog telephone trunking.
• Advantages: Continuous transmission for all users; simple.
• Disadvantages: Requires band-guarding, susceptible to crosstalk, inefficient spectral use for
bursty traffic.
2. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing):
• Users share the channel in time slices (time slots). Types:
o Synchronous TDM: Fixed time slots allocated even if idle.
o Statistical (Asynchronous) TDM: Variable assignment based on demand, more
efficient.
 • Advantages: Suitable for digital signals, easier to implement with digital switching.
• Disadvantages: Requires synchronization and time slot management.
3. WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):
• Optical equivalent of FDM used in fiber optics; different wavelengths (colors) carry separate
data streams. Includes CWDM and DWDM (dense).
• Advantages: Very high capacity, efficient fiber utilization.
• Disadvantages: Costly equipment, precise wavelength control needed.
4. CDM / CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
• Multiple users share same frequency/time by using orthogonal or pseudo-random codes to
separate signals; widely used in cellular 3G systems.
• Advantages: Robust to interference, flexible capacity.
• Disadvantages: Complex receivers, near-far problem, code management.
Conclusion: Multiplexing is foundational for efficient network design. Choice depends on medium
(wireless vs fiber), traffic characteristics (continuous vs bursty), and cost/performance tradeoffs.

6. Explain Analog and Digital Modulation Techniques. (16 marks)

Answer:
Modulation maps information onto a carrier signal suitable for transmission over a medium. Two
broad categories: analog modulation and digital modulation.
Analog Modulation (for analog signals):
1. AM (Amplitude Modulation): Information varies the amplitude of carrier; bandwidth is
twice message frequency. Simple but susceptible to noise.
2. FM (Frequency Modulation): Frequency of carrier varies according to message; better noise
immunity and fidelity; used in radio broadcasting.
3. PM (Phase Modulation): Phase of carrier changes; closely related to FM.
Digital Modulation (for digital signals):
Digital modulation changes discrete properties of the carrier to represent bits:
1. ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying): Carrier amplitude switched between levels representing bits
(e.g., 0,1). Simple but noise-sensitive.
2. FSK (Frequency Shift Keying): Carrier frequency shifts to represent symbols. More robust to
noise than ASK.
3. PSK (Phase Shift Keying): Carrier phase changes represent bits. Examples: BPSK (one
bit/phase), QPSK (two bits/phase). Good spectral efficiency.
4. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation): Combination of amplitude and phase to
represent multiple bits per symbol (e.g., 16-QAM, 64-QAM). High data rates but requires
higher SNR.
Performance considerations:
• Bit error rate (BER) depends on modulation, SNR, and channel conditions.
• Bandwidth efficiency: bits/sec/Hz; higher-order schemes offer higher efficiency but need
better SNR.
• Power efficiency: some schemes need less power for same BER.
Applications: Analog modulation used in traditional broadcasting; digital modulation dominates
modern digital communications (DSL, cellular, Wi-Fi, cable). Selection depends on channel, required
data rate, and noise resilience.