Chapter: Solutions - Printable Revision Notes
✅ SHORT NOTES (Important Concepts)
🔹 Basic Terms
• Solution: Homogeneous mixture of non-reacting substances
• Binary Solution: Two components
• Solute: Lesser amount
• Solvent: Greater amount
🔹 Types of Solutions & Solubility
• Saturated: Max solute dissolved
• Unsaturated: Less solute
• Supersaturated: More solute than saturation
• Exothermic solutes: Solubility decreases with temperature
• Endothermic solutes: Solubility increases with temperature
🔹 Solubility of Gases
• Decreases with temperature
• Increases with pressure (Henry's Law)
🔹 Henry’s Law
• Solubility (‘C’) ∝ Pressure (P): C = KH ⋅ P
🔹 Concentration Terms
• Molarity (M) = Moles of solute / Litres of solution
• Molality (m) = Moles of solute / kg of solvent
• Normality (N) = Gram equivalents / L of solution
• Formality (F) = Formula mass / L of solution
6
• ppm = Mass of solute×10
Mass of solution
9
• ppb = Mass of solute×10
Mass of solution
• Mole fraction (x): xA + xB = 1
🔹 Raoult’s Law
• For volatile solutes: pA = xA p0A , pB = xB p0B
• Total pressure: P = xA p0A + xB p0B
0
• For non-volatile solute: p −p
p0 = xB
🔹 Ideal vs Non-Ideal Solutions
• Ideal: Follows Raoult’s Law, ΔH = 0, ΔV = 0
• Non-Ideal: Deviates from Raoult’s Law
• Positive deviation: Weak A–B interactions, higher vapor pressure
• Negative deviation: Strong A–B interactions, lower vapor pressure
1
🔹 Azeotropes
• Minimum BP: Positive deviation (e.g. ethanol + water)
• Maximum BP: Negative deviation (e.g. HNO3 + water)
• Cannot be separated by distillation
🔹 Colligative Properties
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
2. Elevation in boiling point
3. Depression in freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
📃 LIST OF FORMULAS
🔹 Concentration
•M = moles
L , m = kg
moles
gram equivalents gram formula
•N = L6 ,F = L
• ppm = w×10
W9
• ppb = w×10
W
🔹 Henry’s Law
1
•C = KH ⋅ P , P = KH ⋅ x , Solubility ∝ KH
🔹 Raoult’s Law
• pA = xA p0A , pB = xB p0B
• P = xA p0A + xB p0B
Δp
• p0 = xB = N n
🔹 Osmotic Pressure
•π = CRT = nRT
V = wRT
MV
🔹 Elevation in Boiling Point
Kb w×1000
• ΔTb = Kb m = M ⋅W
🔹 Depression in Freezing Point
Kf w×1000
• ΔTf = Kf m = M ⋅W
🔹 Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
Observed
•i = Calculated
• Dissociation: i > 1 , Association: i < 1 , None: i = 1
•α = i−1
n−1 (dissociation)
n(1−i)
•α = n−1 (association)
2
End of Printable Notes