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Course : TNPSC Group I Mains Material

Subject : Role and impact of Science and Technology in the development of India
Topic : Science and technology ( Role, Achievements, Development and Applications)

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 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Science and Technology are fundamentally altering the way people live, connect,
communicate and transact, with profound effects on economic development. Science
and Technology are key driver’s scientific revolutions and their embracement by society
led to economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and
infrastructure.

The technological revolutions of the 21st century is emerging from entirely new based
sectors, based on microprocessors, telecommunications, biotechnology and
nanotechnology. Products are transforms business practices across the economy, as
well as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most remarkable
breakthroughs will come from the interaction of insights and applications arising when
these technologies converge.

Access and application are critical. Service and technology are the differentiators
between countries that can tackle poverty effectively by growing and developing their
economies and those that are not.

The extent to which developing economies emerge as economic powerhouses depend

on their ability to grasp and apply insights from science and technology and use them
creatively. Innovation is the primary driver of technological growth and drives higher
living standards.

In India:

In 1947, with the emergence of a new politically independent nation, India continued to
march ahead pursuing a programme of using modern science and technology for
national development. Today India spends about 1.5 percent of its GNP on science and
technology. In this effort not only has India established capabilities of its own but has

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also cooperated with developed as well as developing countries in its progress towards
the use of science and technology for national development.

Soon after Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of India, he created a
Ministry of Scientific Research and Natural Resources, and actively supported the
atomic energy programme for peaceful purposes.

In 1948, the Atomic Energy Act was passed and the Department of Atomic Energy was
directly under his charge. Till his death in 1964, he was the Chairman of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research. His long association with the India Science
Congress Association is well known. Under the farsighted leadership of Nehru, the
nation, the government and the public leaders became committed to the promotion of
science and technology for national development in a phased manner.

The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar led to the expansion of the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research into a chain of national laboratories
spanning a wide spectrum of science, technology, engineering and biomedical sciences.
The vision of Homi .J. Bhabha led to advanced research in nuclear energy and other
fundamental areas through the creation of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
(TIFR) and what has now come to be known as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center
(BARC), and the entire gamut of activities today coming under the Atomic Energy
Commission.

Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed a Scientific Man-power Committee and
had the satisfaction of seeing five Institutes of Technology come up at Kharagpur,
Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi, besides a number of regional engineering
colleges. A number of institutions for specialized training such as the National Institute
of Foundry and Forge Technology, School of Planning and Architecture, the Institutes
of Management and the All India Institute of Medical Sciences were set up. A similar
expansion took place in science education.

The number of universities and science graduates and post-graduates multiplied.

Nehru diversified the area of operation in science and technology. India was the first
country, originally on the foot-pound system, to change over the metric system during
the present century.
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In 1948, Nehru directed the SCIR to prepare a National Register of Scientific and
Technical Personnel. The Defence Science Organisation was set up in 1948, on the
advice of Professor P.M.S. Blackett, for the scientific evaluation of weapons and
equipment, operational research and special studies using scientific technique.
Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi gave the highest priority to self- reliance in science and
technology and the achievement of self-sufficiency in food.

In 1971, recognizing the importance of developing integrated and self-reliant electronic

capabilities in the country, she set up the Electronics Commission. There have been
many accomplishments in the field. To ensure that developmental activities took place
in harmony with the environment, Mrs. Gandhi created a new Department of
Environment at the Centre in 1980.

It was at her initiative that the first Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica took place
in December 1981. She was deeply aware of the great importance of energy for
development and, in particular, the pressing needs in rural areas. Accordingly, she set
up a Commission on Additional Sources of Energy in March 1981, and thereafter a
Department of Non-Conventional Energy Source.

India’s development plans have consistently emphasised the need for sustained
investment in research and related activities leading to creation of substantial capacity
and capabilities in science and technology (S&T). The fruits of this effort are evident in
India’s nuclear and space programmes, information and communication technology
services, automotive and pharmaceuticals industries and other areas.

As the Indian economy continues on the path of rapid, more inclusive and sustainable
growth, it will be necessary to ensure that India’s capabilities in S&T grow in strength.
This is especially important if India is to become one of the major economies of the
world over the next 20 years.

The country needs to move up from investing 1 per cent of gross domestic product
(GDP) in the R&D sector to 2 per cent of GDP and more, as has been the case with
several developed and emerging economies for quite some time now. This must be

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achieved not only through an additional government effort, but also a much-increased
private sector effort.

ROLE OF THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Introduction

About 200 years ago the pace of technological change in western society began to
quicken. Wind, water, and animal power, with their limitations of place and capacity,
were supplemented and then replaced by the steam engine, which went on to power the
factories of the industrial revolution. The railroad made it possible to move things and
people quickly over great distances. The telegraph and, later, the telephone carried
communications across the countryside. Electric lighting supplanted the dim glow of
candles, kerosene, and gas lights.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the notion of progress was closely linked
with technological development, and that linkage intensified in the following decades.
The automobile and the airplane changed not only travel but the nature of our cities
and towns. Radio and then television brought more of the outside world into everyone’s
homes. Knowledge about the causes of diseases brought new treatments and preventive
measures. Computers appeared, and soon the transistor made them smaller, more
powerful, more accessible, and cheaper.

Today, the system by which research and development leads to new products is
fundamentally different than it was in the nineteenth century. To the role of the
individual inventor has been added the power of organized scientific research and
technological innovation. Organized research and development, which are increasingly
international in character, have greatly increased the production of new knowledge.
Deeper understanding of living organisms is leading toward cures of diseases once
thought untreatable.

Basic insights in materials science enable the development of structures that are
lighter, stronger, and more durable than anything available before. The computer and
novel modes of communication, such as optical fibers, bring new, interactive modes of

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work and more capable machinery. These new devices and new ways of working, in
turn, speed the growth and dissemination of new knowledge.

The accumulation of scientific knowledge and new technologies has transformed

human life. Technologies have helped provide many—though far from all—people with
standards of warmth, cleanliness, nutrition, medical care, transportation, and
entertainment far beyond those of even the wealthy two centuries ago. They have also
presented us with difficult questions about how to use science and technology most
effectively to meet human needs.

The rapid rate of material progress can continue, but it is not inevitable. The extent to
which the products of science and technology are useful depends on the needs of
society. Each of the four areas discussed in this chapter—industrial performance,
health care, national security, and environmental protection—uses these products in
different ways. Progress is more likely if we understand these differences. Only then
can we effectively translate scientific and technical understanding into the techniques,
tools, and insights that improve the quality of our lives.

IN INDUSTRY:

Industries differ in the manner and extent to which they use the results of research.
Some, such as the semiconductor industry, the biotechnology industry, and parts of the
chemical industry, were created and shaped almost entirely by ideas that grew out of
science. The technologies at the heart of these industries were initially
characterized more by promise than by real products.

Semiconductors were in this stage right after the invention of the transistor; more
recently, biotechnology went through this stage after the development of recombinant
DNA techniques. High-temperature superconductivity is a scientific discovery that
shows promise of leading to new industries and is in this stage today.

As science-based industries continue to develop, they remain closely dependent on

continuous inputs of new science, often produced by university researchers. These
industries depend as well on the technological development of these ideas in order to
grow and to widen their range of products.

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At an early stage, these industries tend to be small, to move at a fast technical and
competitive pace, and to have enormous potential. Biotechnology is now in this stage.

In a more mature stage, a science-based industry may still be growing quickly, but it
depends on the progress of academic scientists. The semiconductor industry, for
example, moves at a fast-technical pace and requires increasingly detailed knowledge
of its materials and, as the individual transistors buried in its chips become ever
smaller, even of new quantum phenomena. But its scientific needs are met almost
entirely by the work of semiconductor scientists and engineers working in the plants
and laboratories of the semiconductor companies. Indeed, industry scientists are often
the only ones with the detailed knowledge needed to make incremental improvements
in the technologies.

Another example of an industry at a mature stage is the aircraft industry, where

thousands of scientists and engineers are required to deal with the enormous
complexities of new plane design. Investments in manufacturing tools and plants are
often measured in hundreds of millions of dollars. Only major companies can
act on this scale, and only they have the technological knowledge and experience
needed to design these complex products.

The most mature industries—for example, the automobile or construction industries—

move at a slower technological pace and require fewer inputs from current science,
whether generated by their own laboratories or by university research. Many of these
were not based on science even at their birth. They do, however, require the highest
levels of technological and production know-how.

For industries that rely on high technology but are technically self-contained (such as
the semiconductor industry) and industries that do not depend heavily on current
science (such as the automobile industry), the results of current fundamental research
are generally not decisive. Japan, which has not been a leading research
power, has exhibited great strength in such industries.

In these areas, productivity gains and product leadership can be attained by a number
of strategies largely separate from scientific research but highly dependent on
engineering, such as developing new technology in corporate laboratories, improving
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the development cycle to hasten the marketing of improved products, better
coordination of design and manufacture, maximizing the creative capabilities of
employees, and responding quickly to changes in consumer preferences. Additional
university research can help, but it will be of peripheral importance to such industries.
Nor can research rescue a failing industry that has difficulties in other areas.

ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN MEETING OTHER NATIONAL

OBJECTIVES:

In addition to their influence on industrial performance, science and technology are

directly involved in efforts to achieve a number of other important national goals. As in
the case of industry, many other factors must also be in place for the goals to be
achieved, but science and technology provide many of the crucial insights and
techniques that enable progress.

The following sections briefly describe some of the linkages between science and
technology and several of these goals.

Health Care:

Maintenance of health and prevention of illness are among the highest goals of our
society. Science and Technology have become critical factors in achieving those goals,
and the health sciences—including the life sciences, health services research, and
public health research—will remain vital elements in the promotion of the nation’s
wellbeing. In health care, as in other areas, science and technology are embedded in
much broader social and institutional structures. For example, a research discovery can
lead to experimental products in a very short time.

Yet those products may require very long lead times to bring to market because of the
need to ensure their safety and efficacy. The most visible public policy issue in health
care today is cost. Many of the medical products generated by research and
development, such as vaccines, actually reduce total health care costs.

Other new products derived from research and development, such as complex imaging
devices and expensive surgical procedures, raise costs in the short term while

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enhancing overall care. Still other procedures reduce unit treatment costs, but
these reductions make treatments more available and thus increase demand and total
costs.

The development and pricing of health care products are unusual for a number of
reasons. In a normal market economy, differences in the costs of technologies are
reflected in the level of use. But our current system of health care reimbursement
insulates patients from the true costs. In addition, the government directly regulates
many aspects of medical technology to ensure safety and control costs, further
distorting market signals. Finally, health care involves such basic human conditions as
birth, disease, and ultimately death. Under such conditions, individual consumers
often ignore economic considerations; yet the total cost of health care is a matter of
enormous national concern.

The effects of technical progress on costs depend to a large extent on the social and
institutional structures surrounding the health care system. As the nation undertakes a
broad reassessment of its health care system, a central challenge is to create
administrative structures that promote the development of medical technology while
improving care and containing costs.

National Security

Since World War II, the United States has sought military advantage through
technological rather than numerical superiority. For example, technological superiority
in the hands of a well-trained military contributed greatly to the success of the Persian
Gulf War.

The United States will continue to rely on this strategy to retain military advantage, but
the sources of new military technology are shifting. In the past, the segment of industry
that has supplied both hardware and software to the U.S. military has been largely
separate from civilian industry. This segment of industry has had essentially one
customer, and its requirements were focused on product performance more strongly
than on cost.

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In the 1950s and 1960s, the defense industry produced much technology of value to
civilian industry. But today the technological sophistication of civilian industry in many
cases surpasses that of the defense industry. As a result, the military has become more
dependent on civilian technologies. This trend will make improvements in national
security more dependent on overall national economic performance.

A major challenge facing the military today is to maintain technological superiority in

the face of declining defense budgets. Meeting this challenge will require a
reexamination of the broad scientific and technological base that contributes to
military needs, including research and development in government laboratories, in
industry, and in universities.

Environmental Protection

Over the past two decades, the United States has recognized and has made substantial
progress in curbing the degradation of the environment. Nevertheless, difficult
problems remain. Environmental degradation continues to accompany many aspects of
economic growth. Emissions and effluents of contaminated materials continue, waste
disposal plagues urban areas, forests continue to be devastated, and biodiversity losses
are growing. At the same time, science and technology have exposed new issues of great
complexity and uncertain consequences, such as global warming, acid precipitation,
the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer, and the contamination of water
supplies.

By the middle of the twenty-first century, the human population is projected to double
to around 11 billion people, and, to meet their basic needs, the global economy will
need to be several times larger than it is now. Many industrial and agricultural
practices and products used today in energy and food production, transportation, and
manufacturing will need to be restructured to prevent pollution if sustainable economic
growth is to be achieved. In some situations, existing technologies can be made cleaner
and more efficient; in others, entirely new technologies, including energy technologies,
will be needed.

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Almost all fields of science and technology can contribute to the reduction of
environmental degradation. Biotechnology, materials science and engineering, and
information technologies can enable the efficient use of raw materials and prevent
pollution at the source. Reducing and preventing pollution is an important goal of the
new field of industrial ecology, which, by examining industrial processes, strives to
maintain sustainable technological growth.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF INDIA IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

India was a land of sages and seers as well as a land of scholars and scientists. Research
had shown that from making the best steel in the world to teaching the world to count,
India was actively contributing to the field of science and technology centuries long
before modern laboratories were set up. Many theories and techniques discovered by
the ancient Indians have created and strengthened the fundamentals of modern science
and technology.

India has the second largest group of scientists and engineers in the world. In the
context of technological advancements and scientific achievements, Indian scientists
have developed several projects and augmented the life of world populace. Scientific
research conducted by Indian has transformed the way the world works, from healing
and eradicating lethal diseases to understanding the world. While some of these
ground breaking contributions have been acknowledged, some are still unknown to
most. Some of the major ancient breakthrough achievements by Indians in different
fields are discussed below.

Mathematics

1. The Idea of Zero – Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a
symbol for zero and it was through his efforts that mathematical operations like
addition and subtraction started using the digit, zero. The concept of zero and its
integration into the place-value system also enabled one to write numbers, no
matter how large, by using only ten symbols. (The mention of Zero is also found
in Bakhshali Manuscript)

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2. Bakshali manuscript is a mathematical text written on birch bark that was
found in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, (near Peshawar in present-day
Pakistan) dated A.D. 224-383. It is notable for being ‘the oldest manuscript
in Indian mathematics”. In 2017, three samples from the manuscript were
shown by radiocarbon dating.
3. The heliocentric Theory – Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their
mathematical knowledge to make accurate astronomical predictions.
The most significant among them was Aryabhata whose book, Aryabhatiya
represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge all the time. He correctly
propounded that the Earth is round, rotates on its axis and revolves around the
Sun i.e. the heliocentric theory. He also made predictions about the solar and
lunar eclipses, duration of the day as well as the distance between the Earth and
the Moon.
4. The Invention of Binary Number – Vedic Indian Scholar Pingala
Invented Binary Number System in 2nd century BCE in his book
Chandahsastra. Pingala (in Chandahsastra) has assigned the following
combinations of zero and one to represent various numbers, much in the same
way as the present-day computer programming procedures.
5. The decimal system – India gave the ingenious method of expressing all
numbers using ten symbols – the decimal system. In this system, each symbol
received a value of position as well as an absolute value. Due to the simplicity of
the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this system made the uses of
arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier.
6. Fibonacci Number – The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear
in Indian mathematics a matrameru mentioned by Pingala in connection with
the Sanskrit tradition of prosody.
7. Brahmagupta-Fibonacci identify expresses the product of two sums
of two squares as a sum of two squares in two different ways. Hence
the set of all sums of two squares is closed under multiplication, later on, the
methods for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians
Virahanka, Gopala and Hemacandra, much before the Italian mathematician

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 Fibonacci introduced the fascinating sequence to Western European
mathematics.
8. Algebraic abbreviations – The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun
using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century. He employed abbreviations
for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem. Brahmagupta also
used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.
a. Brahmagupta’s theorem states that if a cyclic quadrilateral is an Orth
diagonal (that is, has perpendicular diagonals), then the perpendicular to a
side from the point of intersection of the diagonals always bisects the
opposite side. It is named after the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta.
9. Chakravala method – The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve
indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhaskara II, (c.
1114 – 1185 CE) although some attribute it to Jayadeva (950-1000 CE).
a. Jayadeva’s method was later refined by Bhaskara II in his Bijaganita
treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, Chakra meaning “wheel” in
Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm. Concerning the
Chakravala method, E.O. Selenuis held that no Eruropean performances
at the time of Bhaskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of
mathematical complexity.
10. Astronomy: Ancient India’s constitutions in the field of astronomy are well
known and well documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found
in the Rig Veda, which is dated 2000 BC. During the next 2500 years, by 500
AD, ancient Indian astronomy has emerged as an important part of Indian
studies, and its effect is also seen in several freatises of that period. In some
instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain, matters, about
astrology, like the casting of a horoscope. Apart from this linkage of astronomy
with astrology in ancient India the science of astronomy continued to develop
independently, and culminated into original findings, like.
1. The calculation of occurrences of eclipses.
2. Determination of Earth’s circumference.
3. Theorizing about the theory of gravitation.

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 4. Determing the Sun was a star determination of some planets under our
solar system.
11. The Plelades hold a prominent place as the mothers or wet nurses of the
newborn infant in one of the most ancient and central Hindu myths, that of the
birth of the war-god Rudra/Skanda, who represents, among other things, the
victorious rising Sun (and as the vernal Sun the new year). The Pleiades are said
to have been the wives of the seven sages, who are identified with the seven stars
of the Great Bear.
12. The Great Bear’s Old Tamil name elu-mean ‘seven-star’ corresponds to
the combination of the pictograms ‘7’ + ‘fish’, which alone constitutes the entire
text of one finely carved Indus seal. The Satapatha-Brahmana states that
the six Pleiades were separated from their husbands on account of their
infidelity; other texts specify that only one of the seven wives. Arundhati,
remained faithful and was allowed to stay with her husband; she is the small star
Alcor in the Great Bear, pointed out as a paradigm of marital virtue to the bride
in the Vedic marriage ceremonies.
13. Evidence for the Harappan origin of this myth is provided, among other things,
but Indus seals which show a row of six or seven human figures; their female
character is suggested by the one long plait of hair, which to the present day has
remained characteristic of the Indian ladies.

Physics

1. From ancient times, Indian philosophers believed that except ether or space, all
other elements were physically palpable and hence comprised of small and
minuscule particles of matter. They believed that the smallest particle which
could not be subdivided further was paramanu, a Sanskrit word. Paramanu is
made of two Sanskrit words, param meaning ultimate and meaning atom.
Thus, the term “paramanu” literally means ‘beyond atom’, and this was a
concept at an abstract level which indicated the possibility of splitting the atom,
which is row the source of atomic energy. The term ‘atom’ however should not be
conflated with the concept of the atom as it is understood today.

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 2. Kanad’s Theory of Atom – Ancient Indian Sage and Philosopher, Kanad
(happen lived between 6th century and 2nd century BCE) was also known as
Kashyap, Kanada, who founded the Vaisheshika (one of the six orthodox
schools of Vedic Systems) schools of Indian philosophy invented theory of atom
which is an indestructible particle of matter also. He used invariance arguments
to determine the properties of the atoms.

Medicine

1. Charaka authored a foundational text, Charakasamhita, on the ancient

science of Ayurveda. Referred to as the Father of Indian Medicine,
Charaka was the first physician to present the concept of digestion,
metabolism and immunity in his book. Charaka’s ancient manual on
preventive medicine remained a standard work on the subject for two
millennia and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and
Latin.
2. Ayurvedic and Siddha medicine – Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems
of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu.
Text (mid-first millennium BCE), The Sanskrit word ayur-vedah ‘knowledge
(Veda) for longevity (ayur)’. Siddha medicine is most prevalent in South
India, and is transmitted in tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals
are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins
may be dated to the early centuries CE.
3. Cataract surgery – The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed
by the ancient Indian physician Sushruta, way back in 6th century BCE. To
remove the cataract from the eyes, he used a curved needle Jabamukhi
Salaka, to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The
eye would then be bandaged for a few days till it healed completely. Sushruta’s
surgical works were later translated to Arabic language, and through the Arabs,
his works were introduced to the West.
4. Plastic Surgery – The earliest mention of plastic surgery was found in
Sushruta Samhita Written by Sushruta in 6th Century BC. Sushruta Samhita is
considered to be one of the most comprehensive textbooks on ancient surgery.

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 The text mentions various illnesses, plants, preparations and cures along with
complex techniques of plastic surgery. The Sushruta Samhita’s most well-known
contribution to plastic surgery is the reconstruction of the nose, also known as
rhinoplasty.
5. Vagbhata is one of the most influential classical writers of Ayurveda. Several
works are associated with his name as author, principally the
Ashtangasangraha (“Compendium of Medicine”) and the
Ashtangahridayasamphita (“Heart of Medicine”). Both works make frequent
reference to the earlier classical works, the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta
Samhita. Vagbhata is said, in the closing verses of the Ashtangasangraha, to have
lived in Sind (today in Pakistan). In his writings praise for the Shiva has been
shown by name at the start of the Ashtangasargraha, and his praise of the Shiva
under the title “Unprecedented Teacher” in the opening verse of the
Ashtangahridayasamhita.

Metallurgy

1. Wootz steel - A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is
crucible steel, characterized by a pattern of bands that was known in the
ancient world by many different names such as Ukku, Hindiwani, and Seric
Iron. This steel was used to make the famed Damascus swords of yore that could
cleave a free-falling silk scart or a block of wood with the same ease. Produced by
the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty, this finest steel of the ancient world was made
by heating black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible
kept inside a charcoal furnace.
2. Iron pillar of Delhi – The iron pillar of Delhi is a 7 m (23 ft) Kirtistambha
(victory column), originally erected and dedicated as dhvaja (banner) to
Hindu deity Lord Vishnu in 3rd to 4th century CE by king Chandragupta II. The
pillar has attracted the attention of archaeologists and materials scientists
because of its high resistance to corrosion.
3. Smelting of Zinc – India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process,
an advanced technique derived from a long experience of ancient alchemy. The
ancient Persians had also attempted to reduce zinc oxide in an open furnace but

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 had failed. Zawar in the Tiri Valley of Rajasthan is the world’s first known
ancient zinc smelting site. The distillation technique of zinc production goes
back to the 12th Century AD and is an important contribution of India to the
world of science.
4. Seamless metal globe – Considered one of the most remarkable feats in
metallurgy, the first seamless celestial globe was made in Kashmir by Ali
Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of Emperor Akbar. In a major feat in
metallurgy, Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting to
make twenty other globe masterpieces in the reign of the Mughal Empire. Before
these globes were rediscovered in the 1980s, modern metallurgists believed that
it was technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even
with modern technology.
5. Iron cased Rocket – The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s
by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who successfully used these rockets against the larger
forces of the British Eash India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. He
crafted long Iron tubes, filled them with gunpower and fastened them to bamboo
poles to create the predecessor of the modern rocket. With a range of about 2
km, these rockets were the best in the world at that time and caused as much
fear and confusion as damage. Due to them, the British suffered one of their
worst ever defeats in India at the hands of Tipu.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Science & Technology (S & T) as an integral part of the Indian culture has been
enabling force behind the longevity of India’s civilisation. It not only allowed to
question natural landscape with a sense of enquiry but also opened the gate to
prosperity by helping society to lead technologically driven life.

Indus Valley Civilisation

The archaeological remains at various sites of the Indus Valley Civilization allow us to
know about its technological progress. The key scientific developments and
achievements by Indus Valley people include:

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1. Architecture and Civil Engineering – The well planned urban centres based
on definite layout pattern with scientific roads; drainage system (with use of corbel
technique), public structures (like granaries and great bath); world’s first tidal port
at the head of Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat were much ahead of times and precursor
to the modern concept of architecture and civil engineering.
2. Irrigation System – They had an innovative irrigation system of artificial
reservoirs that led them to achieve size and prosperity.
3. Weights, Measurement and Metallurgy – There were standardised systems
of weights and measurements along with calibration in multiple subdivisions.
4. Medical Science – It was announced in Journal Nature in April 2006 that oldest
evidence in human history for the drilling of tooth in vivo, that is, in a living
person, was found in Mehrgarh around 7000 BC. The people of Indus Valley
Civilization practised Trephination which is kind of medical intervention making a
burr hole in the skull to treat migraines and mental disorders.

Post-Indus Valley

During this time India was a land of sages, saints and seers as well as a land of scholars
and scientists. Ancient India’s contribution to science and technology include:

1. Mathematics – Vedic literature is replete with concepts of zero, the techniques of

algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. Arguably, the origins of Calculus
lie in India 300 years before Leibnitz and Newton.
2. Astronomy – Rig Veda (2000 BC) refers to astronomy.
3. Physics – Concepts of atom and theory of relativity were explicitly stated by an
Indian Philosophies around 600 BC.
4. Chemistry – Principles of chemistry did not remain abstract but also found
expression in the distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes
and pigments, and extraction of sugar.
5. Medical Science & Surgery – Around 800 BC, the first compendium on
medicine and surgery complied in ancient India.
6. Fine Arts – Vedas were recited, and recitation has to be correct, which gave rise to
a finer study of sound and phonetics. The natural corollary was the emergence of
music and other forms of performing arts.

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7. Mechanical & production technology – Greek historians, have testified to
smelting of certain metals in India in the 4th century BC.
8. Shipbuilding & navigation – Sanskrit and Pali texts have several references to
maritime activity by ancient Indians.

Medieval India
During the medieval period, Science and Technology in India developed two facets:
one concerned with the already chartered course of earlier traditions and other with
the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European impact.
Mathematics:

1. Narayana Pandit, son of Narasimha Daivajna, was well known for his works in
Mathematics – Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa.
2. Gangadhara, in Gujarat, wrote Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika, and Lilavati
Vyakhya. These works provided rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine
tangent and cotangent.
3. Nilakantha Jyotirvida complied Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian
technical terms.
4. Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit. Akbar ordered to
make Mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the education system.

Biology:

1. Hamsadeva complied a work in the field of Biology entitled Mrga-paksi-sastra in

the thirteenth century. It gives a general, though not always scientific, an account of
some animals and birds of hunting.
2. Both Babur and Akbar, in spite of being busy in their political preoccupations and
war, found time to study the work. ‘Akbar had a special interest in producing good
breeds of domestic animals like elephants and horses.
3. Jahangir, in his work Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and
experiments on breeding and hybridisation. He described 36 species of animals.

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Chemistry:

1. An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir,

Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore
became well-known centres of paper production.
2. The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in
gunnery, another application of Chemistry. The Indian crafts persons learnt the
technique in evolved suitable explosive composition. The work Sukraniti attributed
to Sukracarya contains a description of how gunpowder can be prepared using
saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns.
3. The work Ain-i-akbari speaks of the regulation of the perfume office of Akbar.

Astronomy

Astronomy was another field that flourished during this period, in astronomy, some
commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared.
1. Mahendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed an
astronomical, instrument ‘Yantraja’.
2. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur was a patron of Astronomy. He set up the
five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.

Medicine:

The Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously as it did in the ancient
period because of the lack of royal patronage. However, some important treatises on
Ayurveda like the Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena, the
Yagaratbajara and the Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra were compiled.
1. The Sarangdhara Samhita, written in the thirteenth century, includes the use of
opium in its material medical and urine examination for diagnostic purpose. The
drugs mentioned include metallic preparation of the rasachikitsa system.
2. The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished in India during the medieval period.
Ali-bin-Rabban summarised the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the
Indian medical knowledge in the book, Firdausu-Hikmat.

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Colonial India

The continuous march towards scientific advancement paralleled colonial age of

frequent struggle for power, resources and ideology. According to the account of
Stephen Oliver Fought & John F. Guilmartin, in 18th century. Hyder Ali, prince of
Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to
contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude,
the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier
paper construction.

Thus, a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the
propulsive jet. Tippu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket
weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of
5,000.

In the 19th century, The British education system, aimed at producing able civil and
administrative services candidates, exposed some Indian scientific scholars to a foreign
institution. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray, Satyendra Nath Bose,
Meghnad Saha, P.C. Mahalanobis, Sir C.V. Raman were among the notable among
them.

Post-Independence

The innate ability to perform creatively in science came to be backed with an

institutional set-up and strong state support after the country’s independence in 1947.
As the economic development of the country at that time had not reached a stage where
the private sector could play a leading role in the S&T development, the Government
took this task upon itself and provided the initial momentum.

India’s first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru gave whole-hearted support to a
concerted programme for the promotion of S&T in the country. Nehru firmly believed
that Science and Technology could be the twin tools that would help bring about social
equity and economic development to enable India to join the mainstream of the world
community.

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This conviction was reflected in the Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) of 1958, the aim
of which was “to foster, promote and sustain the cultivation of sciences and scientific
research in the country and to secure for the people all the benefits that can accrue
from the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge’’. This has resulted in a
broad-based and extensive S&T network. As a result, many new S&T departments and
laboratories were set up, and the pursuance of scientific research started in an
organized manner.

The departments of Atomic Energy, Science and Technology, and Space were thus
among the first S&T departments in the country with the Prime Minister, himself
taking the reins. The Industrialisation of the country, according to the founding fathers
of modern India, was essential for improving the quality of life. Consequently, the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) expanded with the establishment
of various institutions dedicated to the development of specific industries.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING FIVE YEAR PLANS

The five-year planning on science and technology aimed to foster, promote and sustain
the cultivation of the sciences and scientific research and to encourage individual for
dissemination of scientific knowledge and above all to secure for the people of the
country all benefits that accrue from the acquisition and application of scientific
knowledge. The focus of five-year plans on science and technology was on the needs of
the times and continuously evolving.

The First Plan aimed at the setting up of new national laboratories and research
institutes, training the personnel for manning the research institutes and running
industries.

The Second Plan focused on generating scientific human resources insufficient.

The Seventh Plan recognized new thrust areas in S&T emerging on the world scene,
such as microelectronics, informatics, telemetric, robotics, biotechnology, material
science, instrumentation etc.

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The Eighth Plain sought to integrate science and technology win socio-economic
sectors and more particularly rural areas to meet the basic needs of water, nutrition,
health and sanitation, shelter, energy, education and employment.

The Ninth Plan emphasized on self-reliance due to growing global restrictions on

high-technology movement.

The Eleventh Plan envisaged the formulation of a National Innovation Policy to

encourage competition among enterprise and greater diffusion of knowledge. Other
proposals include the Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural
Technology (CAPART) to become an effective link between technology generation
centres and various ministries for dissemination and propagation of technology
packages through employment generation and capacity building schemes. Despite
much progress, a very large part of the Indian population continued to be excluded
from the benefits of S&T applications.

The Twelfth Plan aimed to overcome this exclusive if the goal of inclusive
development in the Decade of innovation has to be me. It dealt with inclusive health;
biodiversity-based knowledge systems and grassroots innovations; linking modern S&T
with traditional arts and other artisanal goods, sustainable land use and climate change
etc.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNDER NITI AAYOG

NITI Aayog replacing erstwhile planning commission continues to focus on

technology-driven growth by proceeding technology up-gradation and capacity
building for implementation of programmes and initiatives.

NITI Aayog taken the initiative on Blockchain usages in E-governance and has
conceptualized the tech stack as “India Chain”. India Chain is the name given to Niti
Aayog’s ambitious project to develop a nation-wide blockchain network. The vision is
to link India Chain with India Stack, the digital infrastructure that forms the backbone
of the Aadhar project. The NITI Aayog initiative on the blockchain system will enforce
contracts quicker, prevent fraudulent transactions. And help farmers through the
efficient disbursement of subsidies. This project is the first step to a larger system of
record keeping and public good disbursement.
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Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) including Self-Employment and Talent Utilization
(SETU) under NITI Aayog is Government of India’s endeavor to promote a culture of
innovation and entrepreneurship. Its objective is to serve as a platform for the
promotion of world-class innovation Hubs, Grand Challenges, Start-up businesses and
other self-employment activities, particularly in technology driven areas.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS AND EFFECTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Introduction:

In present global scenario, application of science and technology is increasing at great

pace. Global populace depends on technology and they use various technologies to
accomplish specific tasks in their lives. Today, people have various emerging
technologies which impact their lives in different ways. Technology is being
implemented in almost every section of lives and business structures.

Therefore, it is important to embrace it and learn how to use technology in business

and lifestyle. Due to high speed development and rapid changes in world, technology
will be changed. So, it is better to go with latest trends and new emerging technologies
and learn how to embrace and use them in daily life.

Use of technology in education:

Modern technology has made major change in the education field. With the invention
of technological gadgets and mobile apps which helps students to learn easily. Now-a-
days students can access a full library via a mobile app on any smart phone or ipad.
Before inventing this technology, students had to go to physical libraries to get the
information they need. Teachers can also use modern technology to teach their
students.

The Government of India has initiated major reforms in the education sector to
improve the quality and access to education. Aimed at expanding access to quality
education, new premier higher education institutions have been opened across the
country, marking the highest ever such expansion in the history after Independence.

1. SWAYAM MOOCs portal (Study Webs of Active learning for Young Aspiring
Minds) is an indigenous MOOCs portal that provides high quality education -
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 anyone, anytime, anywhere at no cost- has been made operational. The portal
has courses by the best teachers in the country and offers video lectures, e-
reading material, discussion forum and assessment system - resulting in award
of credits to the successful learners. So far, more than 1000 courses are made
available and more than 33 lakh users are registered in this forum. Upto 20 %
credit transfer into the academic record of students, is allowed now, for the
courses taken on the SWAYAM portal. To reach high quality educational content
to the most backward areas using satellite communication, 32 DTH channels
have been made functional, under SWAYAM Prabha programme. These
channels air 4 hours of new content every day
2. The initiative of National Digital Library (NDL) is a virtual repository of
learning resources with a single window search facility. It has already brought
together 15 million digital books and journals and 31 lakh learners are using this
facility. It supports all academic levels including researchers and life-long
learners, all disciplines, all popular form of access devices and differently abled
learners.
3. e-pathshala has been developed by NCERT (National Council for Educational
Research and Training) for showcasing and disseminating all educational e-
resources including textbooks, audio, video, periodicals and a variety of other
print and non-print materials. So far, 3,062 audios and videos, 650 e-books (e-
pubs) and 504 flip books have been made available on the portal and mobile
app.
4. ‘Operation Digital Board’ in all schools (class 9 onwards) and colleges as a
joint effort of Centre, States, CSR and community initiatives to provide good
quality education by effective use of technology and telecom services and convert
every class room in the country (from class IX and above) into a digital class
room.

Use of technology in banking:

Banking sector is advanced due to various technological developments. Now electronic
banking is used to transfer money and it eases customers.

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Bank net is a first national level network in India, which was commissioned in
February 1991. It is communication network established by RBI on the basis of
recommendation of the committee appointed by it under the chairmanship of the
executive director T.N.A. Lyre.

E-banking: This enables the bank to deliver its services easily to its high-end
customers. To make the system user friendly to all clients, banks have used a Graphical
User Interface (GUI), with this software, customers can access their bank details on
their own computers, make money transfers from one account to another, print bank
statements and inquire about their financial transactions. Another technology used by
banks to exchange data between the bank and clients is called Electronic Data
Interchange (EDI); this software can be used to transmit business transaction in a
computer-readable form. So, the client on the other end will be in position to read the
information clearly.

NRI Banking Services: This technology has been embraced in countries like India,
USA, UAE, just to mention but a few. Since many people go abroad to work, they have
a need of supporting their families. So, technology has made it simple for them to send
money to their loved ones easily.

Plastic money: Credit cards or smart cards like ‘’VISA ELECTRON’’ have made the
banking industry more flexible than before. With a credit card, a customer can borrow
a specific amount of money from the bank to purchase any thing and the bank bills
them later. In this case, they don’t have to go through the hassle of borrowing small
money. Then with ‘’Smart Cards’’ like visa electron, a customer can pay for anything
using that card and that money is deducted from their bank accounts automatically,
they can also use the same card to deposit or withdraw money from their accounts
using an ATM machine.

Use of Technology in Agriculture:

Technology has played a big role in developing the agricultural industry. Today it is
possible to grow crops in a desert by use of agricultural biotechnology. With this
technology, plants have been engineered to survive in drought conditions. Through

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genetic engineering scientists have managed to introduce traits into existing genes with
a goal of making crops resistant to droughts and pests.

A bacterium known as ”Bacillus Thuringiensis” acts like a reservoir , it enables crops to

be insect-resistant , so these genetically modified crops will grow without any
interference from pests. The invention of this technology is being used in developing
countries to grow cash crops like cotton, since this genetically engineered cotton plants
are pest resistant, they grow better than the normal cotton plants hence yielding good
results.

Genetically produced plants like potatoes, can resist diseases and pests, which rewards
the farmer with good yields and saves them time. These crops grow very fast they
produce healthy yields. Since they are resistant to most diseases and pests, the farmer
will spend less money on pesticides, which in return increases on their (RIO) return on
investment.

Questions:

1. Describe the role of the Science and Technology in India.

2. Mention the Achievements of India in the field of Science and Technology.
3. Highlight the Development of Science and Technology in India’s Pre
independence Stage.

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