Chapter 9 — Carbon Compounds
1. Why carbon is special — Versatile Nature
• Tetravalency: Carbon has 4 valence electrons → forms 4 covalent bonds with other atoms (C, H, O,
N, halogens...).
o Example: Methane — CH₄ (each H shares 1 e⁻ with C).
• Catenation: Carbon atoms can join with each other to form long chains, branched chains and
rings (unique among elements).
o Makes millions of compounds possible.
• Result: Carbon compounds show varied structures and varied properties.
Important terms
• Valency — combining capacity of an atom (C = 4).
• Catenation — ability of carbon to form bonds with itself.
2. Bonds in carbon compounds — Covalent bonding
• Carbon atoms share electrons with other atoms → covalent bonds (strong and directional).
• Types of covalent bonds between carbons:
o Single bond (C—C): sigma (σ) bond — free rotation
o Double bond (C=C): one sigma + one pi (π) bond — no free rotation
o Triple bond (C≡C): one sigma + two pi bonds — linear shape
• Polar vs non-polar covalent bonds: If bonded to atoms of different electronegativities (e.g., C—O is
polar).
Simple structure diagrams
Methane: H
|
H - C - H
|
H (CH4)
Ethane: H H
| |
H-C--C-H (CH3-CH3)
Ethene: H H
| |
C = C (H2C=CH2)
Ethyne: H-C≡C-H (HC≡CH)
3. Hydrocarbons — types, general formulas & examples
Hydrocarbons = compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
A. Saturated hydrocarbons — Alkanes
• Single bonds only (C—C).
• General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ (for open chain alkanes).
• Naming (examples):
o Methane — CH₄
o Ethane — C₂H₆
o Propane — C₃H₈
o Butane — C₄H₁₀
• Properties: less reactive than unsaturated; undergo combustion and substitution (halogenation).
B. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Alkenes
• Contain one or more C=C (double bond).
• General formula: CₙH₂ₙ (for one double bond, open chain).
• Example: Ethene (C₂H₄) — H₂C=CH₂.
• Reactions: Addition reactions (e.g., H₂, halogens add across the double bond).
Alkynes
• Contain one or more C≡C (triple bond).
• General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ (for one triple bond).
• Example: Ethyne (C₂H₂) — HC≡CH.
• Reactions: Addition reactions (but different reagents/conditions).
Summary table
Type Bond(s) General formula Example
Alkane Single (C—C) CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ C₂H₆ (ethane)
Alkene Double (C=C) CₙH₂ₙ C₂H₄ (ethene)
Alkyne Triple (C≡C) CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ C₂H₂ (ethyne)
4. Nomenclature (IUPAC) — simple rules & examples
Basic steps
1. Find the longest carbon chain (parent chain).
2. Number the chain so that functional groups/double bonds get the lowest possible numbers.
3. Name substituents (prefixes), then parent name, then suffix for the functional group.
Common functional groups and IUPAC endings/prefixes
• Alkane: suffix -ane (ethane)
• Alkene: suffix -ene (ethene)
• Alkyne: suffix -yne (ethyne)
• Halogen (halo-): prefix chloro-, bromo-, fluoro-, iodo- (e.g., chloromethane)
• Alcohol (—OH): suffix -ol (ethanol). If necessary: list position — e.g., propan-2-ol.
• Aldehyde (—CHO): suffix -al (ethanal for CH₃CHO).
• Ketone (—C(=O)— within chain): suffix -one (propanone for CH₃COCH₃).
• Carboxylic acid (—COOH): suffix -oic acid (ethanoic acid for CH₃COOH).
Examples
• CH₃—CH₂—OH → Ethanol (IUPAC: ethanol)
• CH₃—CHO → Ethanal (aldehyde)
• CH₃—CO—CH₃ → Propanone (common name acetone)
• CH₃—COOH → Ethanoic acid (common name acetic acid)
• CH₃—Cl → Chloromethane
5. Homologous series
• A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with:
o Same functional group
o Same general formula
o Successive members differ by CH₂ unit
o Show gradation in physical properties (e.g., boiling points) and similar chemical
properties
• Example: Alkanes — CH₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₈, ... each differs by CH₂.
6. Chemical properties of carbon compounds
1. Combustion
• Carbon compounds burn in oxygen to give CO₂ and H₂O (if complete).
• Example (methane):
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O (complete combustion)
• Incomplete combustion → CO (carbon monoxide) + soot (C).
• Many hydrocarbons are good fuels (release energy on combustion).
2. Oxidation
• Organic compounds can be oxidised by suitable oxidising agents.
• Ethanol → Ethanoic acid:
CH₃CH₂OH + [O] → CH₃COOH + H₂O
(mild oxidation gives aldehyde; stronger → acid)
• Primary alcohol → aldehyde → carboxylic acid
• Secondary alcohol → ketone
3. Addition reactions (typical of unsaturated compounds)
• Double/triple bonds open up and atoms add across the bond.
• Hydrogenation (addition of H₂):
CH₂=CH₂ + H₂ → CH₃—CH₃
• Halogenation (addition of Cl₂, Br₂):
CH₂=CH₂ + Br₂ → BrCH₂—CH₂Br
(useful test: bromine water decolourises with alkenes)
4. Substitution reactions (typical of alkanes)
• An atom (usually H) is replaced by another atom or group.
• Halogenation of methane: (in presence of UV light)
CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl
• Alkanes are less reactive; require energy (UV/light) for substitution.
7. Important carbon compounds in daily life
A. Ethanol (C₂H₅OH or CH₃CH₂OH)
Properties
• Clear, colourless liquid; volatile; miscible with water.
• Burns with a clean flame (used as fuel).
• Can be oxidised to ethanal (acetaldehyde) then ethanoic acid. Uses
• Alcoholic drinks (dilute, regulated)
• Solvent in labs and industry (paints, varnishes)
• Fuel and fuel additive (bioethanol)
• Antiseptic (hand sanitizers contain ethanol)
B. Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH) — acetic acid (vinegar is 4–8% solution)
Properties
• Weak, sour-smelling acid; miscible with water.
• Reacts with metal carbonates to give CO₂ and salt. Uses
• Food industry: vinegar (preservative, flavor)
• Chemical industry: manufacture of esters (fragrances), cellulose acetate, etc.
• Laboratory reagent
Example reactions
• Neutralisation: CH₃COOH + NaOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O
• Ester formation (with alcohols): CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O (acidified, gives ethyl
ethanoate, a fruity-smelling ester)
8. Macromolecules and Polymers
Definitions
• Monomer: small molecule that can join with others to form a polymer.
• Polymer: large molecule made of repeating monomer units (macromolecule).
• Macromolecule: very large molecule (natural or synthetic) — e.g., proteins, DNA, plastics.
Types of polymerisation
1. Addition (chain) polymerisation: monomers add without loss of atoms.
o Example: Ethene → Polyethene (polyethylene)
n CH₂=CH₂ → —[CH₂—CH₂]—ₙ
2. Condensation polymerisation: monomers join and small molecule (H₂O, HCl) is lost.
o Example: Nylon (a polyamide) made from diamine + dicarboxylic acid releasing water.
o Proteins are condensation polymers of amino acids (peptide bond formation with release of
water).
Examples — natural & synthetic
• Natural macromolecules
o Proteins (polymers of amino acids) — structure & enzymes
o Carbohydrates (starch, cellulose) — polymers of glucose
o Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) — polymers of nucleotides
• Synthetic polymers
o Polyethylene (PE) — plastic bags, containers
o Polypropylene (PP) — packaging, ropes
o Polystyrene (PS) — foam cups, packaging
o Polyester (Terylene) — clothes
o Nylon — fibres, ropes
o Bakelite — first synthetic plastic (thermosetting)