CE G547

Pavement Failure Evaluation and

Rehabilitation

Prof. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Pavement Roughness
Deviations of the pavement surface from a true planar surface

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Pavement Roughness
PIARC Specification of Frequency Ranges for Road Surface Characteristics
(Descornet, 1990)

Frequency range
Surface Characteristic
Wavelength Wave Number (cycle/m)
Micro texture < 0.5 mm > 2000
Macro texture 0.5 – 50 mm 20 – 2000
Mega texture 50 – 500 mm 2 – 20
Roughness 0.5 – 50 m 0.02 – 2

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 Pavement Roughness

Causes
• Construction defects/ deficiencies
• Traffic movement – Consolidation
or displacement of different
materials

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[Link]
Pavement Roughness
Affects
• Vehicle dynamics
• Ride quality
• Dynamic loads
• Drainage
• User delay costs, maintenance costs,
operating costs, accident costs

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Pavement Roughness Source: Jiang et al., 2019

Effect on Road Safety

• Vibrations
 Induce fatigue ⇒ Accident
• Steering capability
 Change in normal forces at tyre-pavement
interface ⇒ Affects lateral forces
• Braking force or slip resistance
 Differences of roughness in each wheel path ⇒ Differences in the braking and
sliding forces ⇒ Exposure of vehicle to different levels of friction on each side

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Pavement Roughness
Effect on Vehicle Operation Cost

Higher roughness, more:

 Fuel consumption
 Oil consumption
 Tyre wear
 Maintenance and repair
 Depreciation

Source: Parkman and Bradbury, 2012 7

Pavement Roughness
Effect on Vehicle Riding Comfort
• Higher roughness, less comfort
• Dependent on
 Travel speed
 Dynamic characteristics of vehicle
 Spectral characteristics of road roughness

Effect on Vehicle Speed

• Higher roughness, lower free flow speed

Source: Chandra, 2004

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Pavement Roughness – Indices
• Present Serviceability Rating (PSR)
• Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
• Bump integrator value (mm/km)
• MERLIN roughness index
• International Roughness index (IRI)

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Present Serviceability Rating (PSR)
• Ride quality rating
• Panel of observers – Ride an
automobile over pavement
• Guidelines made based on
AASHTO Road Test
conducted in 1958-60
• Rating: 0-5 scale

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Present Serviceability Rating (PSR)
PSR 4-5
• Only for new roads, smooth and distress free roads

PSR 3-4
• Less smooth, few visible signs of deterioration
• Flexible pavement – May show rutting and fine random cracks
• Rigid pavement – May show minor cracks and spalling

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Present Serviceability Rating (PSR)
PSR 2-3
• Riding quality noticeably inferior to those of new pavement
• Not suitable for high speed traffic
• Flexible pavement – Rutting, cracking and patching
• Rigid pavement – Joint failure, faulting and/or cracking and some pumping

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Present Serviceability Rating (PSR)
PSR 1-2
• Affect speed of free flow of traffic
• Flexible pavement: May have large potholes and deep cracks. Raveling, cracking and
rutting occurs over 50% of surface
• Rigid pavement: Joint spalling, patching, cracking, and may include pumping and
faulting

PSR 0.1-1
• Extremely deteriorated, driving at reduced speed, considerable ride discomfort,
distress over 75% or more surface
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Present Serviceability Rating (PSR)
Limitations
• Variation in rating on same road section
• No actual measurement of severity of distresses
• No standard vehicle for survey
• Expensive and Not practical for large scale road network

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Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
• Based on same 5-point rating system as PSR
• Goes beyond a simple assessment of ride quality

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Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
AASHO Road Test equation for PSI of Flexible Pavement

𝑷𝑺𝑰 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟗𝟏 log 𝟏 + 𝑺𝑽 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝑹𝑫𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑷 𝟎.𝟓

𝑆𝑉 = Slope variance × 106 (avg. for both wheel paths)

𝑅𝐷 = Rut depth (inches) over 4-ft span (avg. for both wheel paths)
𝐶 = Cracking area (sq. ft/1000 sq. ft of pavement)
𝑃 = Patched area ([Link]/1000 sq. ft of pavement)

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Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
AASHO Road Test equation for PSI of Rigid Pavement

𝑷𝑺𝑰 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟏 − 𝟏. 𝟖 log 𝟏 + 𝑺𝑽 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 𝑪 + 𝑷 𝟎.𝟓

𝑆𝑉 = Slope variance × 106 (avg. for both wheel paths)

𝐶 = Cracking area (sq. ft/1000 sq. ft of pavement)
𝑃 = Patched area ([Link]/1000 sq. ft of pavement)

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Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
Measurement of Slope Variance

𝟏
σ 𝒀𝟐 − σ 𝟐
𝑺𝑽 = 𝒏 𝒀
𝒏−𝟏

𝑌 = Difference between two elevations

𝑛 = Number of elevations readings

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Present Serviceability Index (PSI)

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Bump Integrator
Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator (FWBI)/Automated Road Unevenness Recorder (ARUR)

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Bump Integrator
FWBI/ARUR
Dashpots Sensor
Equipment (Suspension Assembly
System)
• Trailer towed by a vehicle
• Standard pneumatic tyre wheel Clamping
Unit
mounted within the trailer chassis,
with a single leaf spring on either side
of the wheel supporting the chassis Standard
Test Wheel
• Two dashpots provide viscous
Support
damping between chassis and axle Wheels

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Bump Integrator
FWBI/ARUR
Dashpots Sensor
Equipment (Suspension Assembly
System)
• Frame – Counter weight at the front
• Mechanical integrator Clamping
Unit
 Cumulative measurements of the
unidirectional vertical movement
of the wheel relative to chassis. Standard
Test Wheel
• Distance measuring unit Support
Wheels

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Bump Integrator
FWBI/ARUR
• One measurement per lane, travel on wheel path
• Tyre pressure = 2.1 kg/m2
• Speed of vehicle during test = 32 ± 1 kmph
• Length of road = 1 km
 Wheel revolution counter = 1000 units

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Bump Integrator
FWBI/ARUR
• Measurement
 Vertical movement of the suspension system of the roughness meter
 Distance travelled
𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑘𝑚 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑

• Roughness measured corresponds to the path along which the fifth wheel travels
• Calibration – Using Class-1 equipment

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Bump Integrator
Car Mounted Bump Integrator (CAMBI)
• Bump integrating unit fitted with the rear
axle and mounted in the rear portion of
the car or rear floor of a jeep

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Bump Integrator
CAMBI
• Measurement – Differential movement between the rear axle and the body of the
vehicle due to road unevenness
 Measured by upward vertical motion of a wire which is transmitted into
unidirectional rotator movement of the pulley of the integrator unit
 Rotational movement converted into electric pulses
o Recorded as counts/ loggers
o 1 Count = 1 cm relative movement between axle and floor of the vehicle
o 1 count in distance = 1 m length of distance travelled

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Bump Integrator
Car Mounted Bump Integrator
• Requirements
 Maintain constant speed or calibrate equipment for multiple survey speeds
 Laden weight – Standardized
o Maximum 3 passengers while data collection
 Calibration – Using Class-1 equipment

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MERLIN
Machine for Evaluating Roughness using Low Cost Instrumentation

• Easily built
• Robust
• Easily calibrated
• Easily used
• Easily maintained

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MERLIN

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MERLIN
Principle of operation
• 2 feet – 1.8 m apart
• Moveable probe – Placed on road surface midway between 2 feet.
• Measurement
 Vertical distance, y (Mid-chord deviation)
 Distance between road surface under the probe and the center point of an
imaginary line joining the bottom of the two feet

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MERLIN
Method of use
• 200 measurements ≈ 415 m
• Rest machine on road with the wheel in
its normal position and the rear foot,
probe and stabilizer in contact with the
road surface
• Mark position of pointer on the chart.
• Count – Mark cross in tally box on chart

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MERLIN
Calculation of Roughness
• Mark position mid-way between 10th
and 11th crosses from top and bottom
 If 10th and 11th cross are in different
column ⇒ Mark point between 2 rows
 If 10th and 11th cross are in the same
column ⇒ Allocate portion of the
column width

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MERLIN
Calculation of Roughness
• Count number of rows between 2
marks
• Distance, 𝐷 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 × 0.5
• For earth, gravel, surface dressed or
asphaltic concrete roads, calculate
International Roughness Index
𝐼𝑅𝐼 = 0.593 + 0.0471 × 𝐷

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MERLIN 1

2
4, 3
6, 5
Calculation of Roughness – Example 10, 9, 8, 7
13, 12, 11

• Mark position mid-way between 10th

and 11th crosses from top and bottom
 From top = Between rows
 From bottom = In the same column
o 5 points in the column 14, 13, 12, 11, 10
9, 8, 7, 6
o 10th cross – 1st point in the column 5, 4
3
2, 1
o Assign 1/5 from bottom edge of
column

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MERLIN 1

2
4, 3
6, 5
Calculation of Roughness – Example 10, 9, 8, 7
13, 12, 11

• Count number of rows between 2

marks = 18 + 4/5 = 18.8
• Distance, 𝐷 = 18.8 × 0.5 = 89 mm
• 𝐼𝑅𝐼 = 0.593 + 0.0471 × 89
14, 13, 12, 11, 10
𝐼𝑅𝐼 = 4.8 𝑚/𝑘𝑚 9, 8, 7, 6
5, 4
3
2, 1

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MERLIN
Conversion between IRI and BI scales
• BI – Fifth wheel bump integrator travelling at 50 kmph

Roughness Conversion Equations 𝑰𝑹𝑰 = 𝑨𝟎 + 𝑨𝟏 × 𝑩𝑰ൗ𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

Surface type 𝑨𝟎 𝑨𝟏 𝑩𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙

Asphaltic concrete 0.32 1.45 1270 5370
Surface Dressed -0.05 1.25 2145 4920
Gravel 1.25 1.13 2010 12225
Earth 1.47 0.92 2935 16750

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International Roughness Index (IRI)
An index computed from a longitudinal profile measurement using a quarter-car
simulation at a simulation speed of 80 km/h

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IRI
• Quarter car with a specific set of parameters is called Golden car
• Golden car parameters
 Stiffness of suspension spring/Body mass = 63.3
 Stiffness of the tyre spring/Body mass = 653
 Damper rate/ Body mass = 6
 Axle mass/ Body mass = 0.15
 Speed of the vehicles = 80 km/h

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IRI

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Roughness Measurement Methods
• Class 1: Precision Profilers
• Class 2: Other Profilometer Methods
• Class 3: Response Type Measurements
• Class 4: Subjective Ratings

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Roughness Measurement Methods
Class 1: Precision Profilers
• Highest standard of accuracy
• Requirement – Longitudinal profile of a wheel-track be measured as a series of
accurate elevation points closely-spaced along the travelled wheel-path
• Accuracy requirement
Walking speed profilometer High speed road profilers
Longitudinal sampling interval < 250 mm < 25 mm
Vertical measurement resolution < 0.5 mm ≤ 0.1 mm

Equipment – Rod and Level, TRRL Beam, Dipstick, MERLIN and Walking Profiler
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Roughness Measurement Methods
Class 2: Other Precision Profilers
• Relatively less accurate than Class 1
• All other methods in which profile is measured as the basis for direct computation
of the IRI
• Accuracy requirement
Walking speed profilometer High speed road profilers
Longitudinal sampling interval < 500 mm 25 to 150 mm
Vertical measurement resolution < 1 mm 0.1 to 0.2 mm

Equipment – APJ Trailer

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Roughness Measurement Methods
Class 3: Other Precision Profilers
• Response Type Road Roughness Measuring System (RTRRMS)
• Measure the dynamic response of vehicles to the road surface by using either
mechanical or accelerometer devices
• Estimation of roughness index
 Using correlation equation after calibration with Class-1 road profiler

Equipment – FWBI, ARUR, CAMBI

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Roughness Measurement Methods
Class 4: Subjective Ratings
• Investigator physically drives along the road or makes a visual survey
• Uncalibrated RTRRMS – Also Class 4

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Precision Rod and Level
Operation is very similar to that of a normal rod and level operation, as used for surveying

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Straightedge
• Most basic device used for
measuring the surface
irregularities in longitudinal and
transverse direction
• 3-metre straight edge made of
steel or box type aluminum alloy
bar with sectional dimensions of
75 mm X 125 mm

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Rolling Straightedge
• Rolls on two wheels under two ends, with another
rolling wheel fixed at centre
• Mid wheel is free to move in such way that it
detects depression
• Rolling straightedge is operated on a longitudinal
test-line or lines, parallel to the centre line of the
carriageway
• Bell is fitted to sound when a 4 mm depression is
exceeded

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Rolling Straightedge
• Distance odometer is provided to know the
distance travelled
• Two peoples are required to operate the
instrument, one to push it and other to note
down the location sizes of any depressions
• Should be pushed at a slow walking space (1-2
km/hr)

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TRRL Beam Static Profilometer
• Consists of a rigid aluminum beam of 3 m length
• Portable device and electronically instrumented
with high precision displacement transducer
• The electronic system is capable of computing IRI

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CHLOE Profilometer
• Device developed to determine the slope variance on pavements in the field
• Towed by vehicle over any section of pavement
• Slope is measured at 6 inch intervals along the pavement wheel path
• Panel of electronic device of towing vehicle gives the value of slope variance

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DIPSTICK
• Precise electronic digital level and profiler
• Stands on two support legs
 Swivel footpads
 Diameter ≈ 32 mm
 Spacing – C/C ≈ 304.8 mm
• Readings along a survey line
 Simple twist of the wrist
Measures, displays and records the elevation
difference between front and the rear leg

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DIPSTICK
Field testing
• Task 1: Personnel Coordination • Task 3: Dipstick® Measurements
 Dipstick® crew (operator and recorder)  Mark wheel paths
 Traffic control crew  Perform operational checks
• Task 2: Site Inspection on the Dipstick®
 Assess general pavement condition  Obtain Dipstick®
measurements
 Identify wheel paths

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DIPSTICK
Field testing
Site Inspection and Layout
• Site – Clear of ice, snow, and
Procedure to locate center of travel lane
puddles of water
Scenario Location of center of lane
• Wheel paths and center of Wheel paths = Easily identified
Midway point between the
two wheel paths
travel lane Wheel paths = Not clearly identifiable Midway between the two
Lane edges = 2 are well defined lane edges
 Identify and mark location
Wheel paths = Not apparent
1.83 m from that edge
 Remove loose debris Lane edges = 1 is well defined
* Distance of each wheel from the center of the travel lane is 0.826 m.

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DIPSTICK
Field testing
Site Inspection and Layout
• Markings for test section
 Station 0+00 = From centre line, 0.826 m on right and left. Connect transverse line (1.832 m)
 Longitudinal lines from Station 0+00 = Length of 152.4 m. Join end points by transverse line.
 Closure circle (Diameter = 0.61 m) = Station 0+00 for RWP and Station 152+40 for LWP
152.4 m Closure
Circle
Left Wheel Path (LWP)
Φ = 0.61 m
0.826 m

Right Wheel Path (RWP)

Station 0+00

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DIPSTICK
Field testing
Longitudinal Profile Measurements Transverse
measurements

• Starting = Station 0+00 in the Start

Longitudinal
measurements
right wheel path
• Longitudinal measurements = In
the direction of traffic toward the
end of the section.
• Transverse measurements = Right
to left wheel path.

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DIPSTICK
Longitudinal
Field testing measurements
Closure circle

Longitudinal Profile Measurements

• Closure circle (Diameter 0.61 m)
= Closing transverse
measurements on this start
location.
• Longitudinal measurements =
Left wheel path back to Station
0+00.

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DIPSTICK
Field testing
Longitudinal Profile Measurements Transverse
measurements
• Transverse measurements = Left Closure circle

to right wheel path

• Closure circle = Close the survey
on starting point

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Walking Profilometer
• Precision instrument designed to
collect surface profile data
• Accurate assessment of the
characteristics and quality of any
continuous paved surface.
• Operation at a moderate and steady
walking pace in a straight line

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Walking Profilometer
Preparation for testing
• Establish the sampling pattern

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Walking Profilometer
Precautions while testing
• Do not test during periods of rain or where the road surface is wet
• Do not operate the Walking Profiler in ambient temperatures outside the
temperature range of 0 to 45°C or on road surface temperatures > 75°C
• Ensure the test speed is within the Validated Speed Range

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Walking Profilometer
Roughness testing
• Start of section: Record time and following temperatures
 Ambient temperature
 Road surface temperature
 Air temperature within the cowling
• Ensure that the laser system is kept clean and no debris adheres to the Walking
Profiler foot pads or tyres

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Walking Profilometer
Roughness testing
• Test each Path in the Section in the same direction of travel
 Record the start and end point for the Section
 Record the quarter-car roughness, left path and right path.
• Commence recording data at the nominated start Point of the test ± 0.2 m and
maintain constant speed.

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Walking Profilometer
Roughness testing

𝑰𝑹𝑰𝑸𝑳 + 𝑰𝑹𝑰𝑸𝑹
𝑰𝑹𝑰𝑸𝑺 =
𝟐

𝐼𝑅𝐼𝑄𝑆 = Quarter-car Ride Quality for the Section (m/km)

𝐼𝑅𝐼𝑄𝐿 = Quarter-car roughness for Left Path within the Section (m/km)
𝐼𝑅𝐼𝑄𝑅 = Quarter-car roughness for Right Path within the Section (m/km)

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Laser Profilometer
• High-speed road roughness measuring system
• ASTM E950 (Class-1 category)
• Installed in the front or back of survey vehicle
• Measurement of vertical displacements using
laser rays
• Equipment: Two laser sensors – Longitudinal
profile of two wheel paths of pavement surface

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Accelerometer Based (AB) Equipment
Distance
• Equipment measuring
instrument
 Accelerometer (sensor) device installed
at the rear axle of the survey vehicle
 Distance measuring instrument
Accelerometer
 Interface module
 GPS; Controller

Controller GPS
Accelerometer Based (AB) Equipment
• Measurement of vertical acceleration of survey vehicle.
• Vehicle speed during survey = 50 ± 10 kmph
• Generally, self-calibrated. But, recommended to calibrate with Class-1 equipment.

66
Units for Measuring Roughness
• Roughness Index
 Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator
 Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator

• International Roughness Index

 Reference average rectified slope
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

67
Units for Measuring Roughness
• Correlation between IRI and RI
𝑹𝑰 = 𝟔𝟑𝟎 × 𝑰𝑹𝑰 𝟏.𝟏𝟐

𝑅𝐼 = Roughness Index, mm/km

𝐼𝑅𝐼 = International Roughness Index, m/km
Equation valid for IRI < 17

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Roughness Norms
Maximum Permissible Values of Roughness for Expressways, NH & SH

Condition of Road Surface

S.
Type of surface Good Fair Poor
No.
RI IRI RI IRI RI IRI
1 Bituminous < 1800 < 2.55 1800-2400 2.55-3.3 > 2400 > 3.3
2 Cemented < 2000 < 2.81 2000-2400 2.91-3.3 > 2400 > 3.3

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Roughness Norms
Maximum Permissible Values of Roughness for MDR & ODR
Condition of Road Surface
S.
Type of surface Good Fair Poor
No.
RI IRI RI IRI RI IRI
1 Surface Dressing < 3000 < 4.03 3000-3800 4.03-4.98 > 3800 > 4.98
2 Open Graded Premix Carpet < 2800 < 3.79 2800-3500 3.79-4.62 > 3500 > 4.62
3 Mix Seal Surfacing < 2600 < 3.55 2600-3200 3.55-4.27 > 3200 > 4.27
4 Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete < 2200 < 3.05 2200-3000 3.05-4.03 > 3000 > 4.03
5 Bituminous Concrete < 2000 < 2.81 2000-2600 2.81-3.55 > 2600 > 3.55
6 Cement Concrete < 2200 < 3.05 2200-2600 3.05-3.55 > 2600 > 3.55

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Roughness Norms
Maximum Permissible Values of Roughness for VR
Condition of Road Surface
S.
Type of surface Good Fair Poor
No.
RI IRI RI IRI RI IRI
1 Surface Dressing < 3200 < 4.27 3200-3800 4.27-4.98 > 3800 > 4.98
2 Open Graded Premix Carpet < 3000 < 4.03 3000-3500 4.03-4.62 > 3500 > 4.62
3 Mix Seal Surfacing < 2800 < 3.79 2800-3200 3.79-4.27 > 3200 > 4.27
4 Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete < 2400 < 3.30 2400-3000 3.30-4.03 > 3000 > 4.03
5 Cement Concrete < 2200 < 3.05 2200-2600 3.05-3.55 > 2600 > 3.55

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Roughness Norms
ASTM
E1926-08
(2021)

Road Roughness Estimation Scale for Paved

Roads with Asphaltic Concrete or Surface Road Roughness Estimation Scale for
Treatment (Chipseal) Unpaved Roads with Gravel or Earth 72
Surfaces
Roughness Measurement
Operating Conditions (Measurement Speed)
Low (10 to 40 kmph) Medium (40 to 60 kmph) High (> 60 kmph)
Plain Rolling Hilly Plain Rolling Hilly Plain Rolling Hilly
CAMBI
FWBI/ FWBI/ (With
Not
ARUR & ARUR & multiple LP, USBP, CAMBI, AB LP and USBP
Applicable
CAMBI CAMBI speed
calibration)

LP = Laser Profilometer (ASTM E950 Class-1) ARUR = Automated Road Unevenness Recorder
USBP = Ultrasonic Sensor Based Profilometer CAMBI = Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator
FWBI = Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator AB = Accelerometer Based Equipment

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Roughness Data Analysis and Reporting
Intermediate
Equipment Single Lane Double Lane Multiple Lane
Lane

Individual Lane Wise

FWBI/ ARUR/ RI or Converted RI or Converted Individual Lane Wise
(RI or Converted
CAMBI IRI IRI (RI or Converted IRI)
IRI)

Individual Lane Wise Individual Lane Wise

IRI or IRI or
LP/ USBP and Average (IRI or Converted
Converted RI Converted RI
(IRI or Converted RI) RI)

Individual Lane Wise

IRI or IRI or Individual Lane Wise
AB (IRI or Converted
Converted RI Converted RI (IRI or Converted RI)
RI)

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