Barani Institute Of Sciences ( Sahiwal Campus)

Life Science Department

Assignment # 01
Research Methadology
Topic: Diabetes
Group Members:
( Sadia Gull , KIsa Zahra , Eman , Haida
Mohsin , Abdulrehman )
 Diabetes
Introduction

Diabetes is a condition that happens when your blood sugar (glucose) is too high. It develops when your
pancreas doesn’t make enough insulin or any at all, or when your body isn’t responding to the effects of
insulin properly. Diabetes affects people of all ages. Most forms of diabetes are chronic (lifelong), and all
forms are manageable with medications and/or lifestyle changes.

Glucose (sugar) mainly comes from carbohydrates in your food and drinks. It’s your body’s go-to source
of energy. Your blood carries glucose to all your body’s cells to use for energy.

When glucose is in your bloodstream, it needs help — a “key” — to reach its final destination. This key is
insulin (a hormone). If your pancreas isn’t making enough insulin or your body isn’t using it properly,
glucose builds up in your bloodstream, causing high blood sugar (hyperglycemia).

Over time, having consistently high blood glucose can cause health problems, such as heart disease,
nerve damage and eye issues.

The technical name for diabetes is diabetes mellitus. Another condition shares the term “diabetes” —
diabetes insipidus — but they’re distinct. They share the name “diabetes” because they both cause
increased thirst and frequent urination. Diabetes insipidus is much rarer than diabetes mellitus.

What are the types of diabetes?

There are several types of diabetes. The most common forms include:

Type 2 diabetes: With this type, your body doesn’t make enough insulin and/or your body’s cells don’t
respond normally to the insulin (insulin resistance). This is the most common type of diabetes. It mainly
affects adults, but children can have it as well.

Prediabetes: This type is the stage before Type 2 diabetes. Your blood glucose levels are higher than
normal but not high enough to be officially diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes: This type is an autoimmune disease in which your immune system attacks and
destroys insulin-producing cells in your pancreas for unknown reasons. Up to 10% of people who have
diabetes have Type 1. It’s usually diagnosed in children and young adults, but it can develop at any age.

Gestational diabetes: This type develops in some people during pregnancy. Gestational diabetes
usually goes away after pregnancy. However, if you have gestational diabetes, you’re at a higher risk of
developing Type 2 diabetes later in life.
Other types of diabetes include:

Type 3c diabetes: This form of diabetes happens when your pancreas experiences damage (other than
autoimmune damage), which affects its ability to produce insulin. Pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, cystic
fibrosis and hemochromatosis can all lead to pancreas damage that causes diabetes. Having your
pancreas removed (pancreatectomy) also results in Type 3c.

Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA): Like Type 1 diabetes, LADA also results from an
autoimmune reaction, but it develops much more slowly than Type 1. People diagnosed with LADA are
usually over the age of 30.

Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY): MODY, also called monogenic diabetes, happens due to
an inherited genetic mutation that affects how your body makes and uses insulin. There are currently
over 10 different types of MODY. It affects up to 5% of people with diabetes and commonly runs in
families.

Neonatal diabetes: This is a rare form of diabetes that occurs within the first six months of life. It’s also
a form of monogenic diabetes. About 50% of babies with neonatal diabetes have the lifelong form called
permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus. For the other half, the condition disappears within a few months
from onset, but it can come back later in life. This is called transient neonatal diabetes mellitus.

Brittle diabetes: Brittle diabetes is a form of Type 1 diabetes that’s marked by frequent and severe
episodes of high and low blood sugar levels. This instability often leads to hospitalization. In rare cases, a
pancreas transplant may be necessary to permanently treat brittle diabetes.

How common is diabetes?

Diabetes is common. Approximately 37.3 million people in the United States have diabetes, which is
about 11% of the population. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form, representing 90% to 95% of all
diabetes cases.

 About 537 million adults across the world have diabetes. Experts predict this number will
rise to 643 million by 2030 and 783 million by 2045.

What are the symptoms of diabetes?

Symptoms of diabetes include:

 Increased thirst (polydipsia) and dry mouth.

 Frequent urination.
 Fatigue.
  Blurred vision.
 Unexplained weight loss.
 Numbness or tingling in your hands or feet.
 Slow-healing sores or cuts.
 Frequent skin and/or vaginal yeast infections.

 It’s important to talk to your healthcare provider if you or your child has these symptoms.

What causes diabetes?

Too much glucose circulating in your bloodstream causes diabetes, regardless of the type. However, the
reason why your blood glucose levels are high differs depending on the type of diabetes.

Causes of diabetes include:

Insulin resistance: Type 2 diabetes mainly results from insulin resistance. Insulin resistance happens
when cells in your muscles, fat and liver don’t respond as they should to insulin. Several factors and
conditions contribute to varying degrees of insulin resistance, including obesity, lack of physical activity,
diet, hormonal imbalances, genetics and certain medications.

Autoimmune disease: Type 1 diabetes and LADA happen when your immune system attacks the
insulin-producing cells in your pancreas.

Hormonal imbalances: During pregnancy, the placenta releases hormones that cause insulin
resistance. You may develop gestational diabetes if your pancreas can’t produce enough insulin to
overcome the insulin resistance. Other hormone-related conditions like acromegaly and Cushing
syndrome can also cause Type 2 diabetes.
Pancreatic damage: Physical damage to your pancreas — from a condition, surgery or injury — can
impact its ability to make insulin, resulting in Type 3c diabetes.

Genetic mutations: Certain genetic mutations can cause MODY and neonatal diabetes.

Long-term use of certain medications can also lead to Type 2 diabetes, including HIV/AIDS medications
and corticosteroids.

What are the complications of diabetes?

Diabetes can lead to acute (sudden and severe) and long-term complications — mainly due to extreme
or prolonged high blood sugar levels.

Acute diabetes complications

Acute diabetes complications that can be life-threatening include:

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS): This complication mainly affects people with Type 2 diabetes.
It happens when your blood sugar levels are very high (over 600 milligrams per deciliter or mg/dL) for a
long period, leading to severe dehydration and confusion. It requires immediate medical treatment.

Diabetes-related ketoacidosis (DKA): This complication mainly affects people with Type 1 diabetes or
undiagnosed T1D. It happens when your body doesn’t have enough insulin. If your body doesn’t have
insulin, it can’t use glucose for energy, so it breaks down fat instead. This process eventually releases
substances called ketones, which turn your blood acidic. This causes labored breathing, vomiting and
loss of consciousness. DKA requires immediate medical treatment.

Severe low blood sugar (hypoglycemia): Hypoglycemia happens when your blood sugar level drops
below the range that’s healthy for you. Severe hypoglycemia is very low blood sugar. It mainly affects
people with diabetes who use insulin. Signs include blurred or double vision, clumsiness, disorientation
and seizures. It requires treatment with emergency glucagon and/or medical intervention.

Long-term diabetes complications

Blood glucose levels that remain high for too long can damage your body’s tissues and organs. This is
mainly due to damage to your blood vessels and nerves, which support your body’s tissues.

 Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessel) issues are the most common type of long-term
diabetes complication. They include:

 Coronary artery disease.

 Heart attack.
 Stroke.
  Atherosclerosis.

Other diabetes complications include:

 Nerve damage (neuropathy), which can cause numbness, tingling and/or pain.
 Nephropathy, which can lead to kidney failure or the need for dialysis or transplant.
 Retinopathy, which can lead to blindness.
 Diabetes-related foot conditions.
 Skin infections.
 Amputations.
 Sexual dysfunction due to nerve and blood vessel damage, such as erectile dysfunction or
vaginal dryness.
 Gastroparesis.
 Hearing loss.
 Oral health issues, such as gum (periodontal) disease.

Living with diabetes can also affect your mental health. People with diabetes are two to three times
more likely to have depression than people without diabetes.

Diagnosis and Tests

Healthcare providers diagnose diabetes by checking your glucose level in a blood test. Three tests can
measure your blood glucose level:

Fasting blood glucose test: For this test, you don’t eat or drink anything except water (fast) for at
least eight hours before the test. As food can greatly affect blood sugar, this test allows your provider to
see your baseline blood sugar.

Random blood glucose test: “Random” means that you can get this test at any time, regardless of if
you’ve fasted.

A1c: This test, also called HbA1C or glycated hemoglobin test, provides your average blood glucose level
over the past two to three months.

 To screen for and diagnose gestational diabetes, providers order an oral glucose tolerance
test.
  The following test results typically indicate if you don’t have diabetes, have prediabetes or
have diabetes. These values may vary slightly. In addition, healthcare providers rely on
more than one test to diagnose diabetes.

Type of test In-range (mg/dL) Prediabetes (mg/dL) Diabetes (mg/L)

Fasting blood glucose Less than 100. 100 to 125. 126 or higher.
test
Random blood glucose N/A. N/A. 200 or higher (with
test classic symptoms of
hyperglycemia or
hyperglycemic crisis).
A1c Less than 5.7%. 5.7% to 6.4%. 6.5% or higher.

Management and Treatment

Diabetes is a complex condition, so its management involves several strategies. In addition, diabetes
affects everyone differently, so management plans are highly individualized.

 The main aspects of managing diabetes include:

Blood sugar monitoring: Monitoring your blood sugar (glucose) is key to determining how well your
current treatment plan is working. It gives you information on how to manage your diabetes on a daily
— and sometimes even hourly — basis. You can monitor your levels with frequent checks with a glucose
meter and finger stick and/or with a continuous glucose monitor (CGM). You and your healthcare
provider will determine the best blood sugar range for you.

Oral diabetes medications: Oral diabetes medications (taken by mouth) help manage blood sugar
levels in people who have diabetes but still produce some insulin — mainly people with Type 2 diabetes
and prediabetes. People with gestational diabetes may also need oral medication. There are several
different types. Metformin is the most common.

Insulin: People with Type 1 diabetes need to inject synthetic insulin to live and manage diabetes. Some
people with Type 2 diabetes also require insulin. There are several different types of synthetic insulin.
They each start to work at different speeds and last in your body for different lengths of time. The four
main ways you can take insulin include injectable insulin with a syringe (shot), insulin pens, insulin
pumps and rapid-acting inhaled insulin.

Diet: Meal planning and choosing a healthy diet for you are key aspects of diabetes management, as
food greatly impacts blood sugar. If you take insulin, counting carbs in the food and drinks you consume
is a large part of management. The amount of carbs you eat determines how much insulin you need at
meals. Healthy eating habits can also help you manage your weight and reduce your heart disease risk.
Exercise: Physical activity increases insulin sensitivity (and helps reduce insulin resistance), so regular
exercise is an important part of management for all people with diabetes.

Due to the increased risk for heart disease, it’s also important to maintain a healthy:
 Weight.
 Blood pressure.
 Cholesterol.

What is the prognosis for diabetes?

The prognosis (outlook) for diabetes varies greatly depending on several factors, including:

1. The type of diabetes.

2. How well you manage the condition over time and your access to diabetes care.
3. Your age at diagnosis/how long you’ve had diabetes.
4. If you have other health conditions.
5. If you develop diabetes complications.

o Chronic high blood sugar can cause severe complications, which are usually irreversible. Several
studies have shown that untreated chronic high blood sugar shortens your lifespan and worsens
your quality of life.
 In the United States, diabetes is the eighth leading cause of death. A large number of people
with diabetes will die from a heart attack or stroke.

However, it’s important to know that you can live a healthy life with diabetes. The following are key
to a better prognosis:

 Lifestyle changes.
 Regular exercise.
 Dietary changes.
 Regular blood sugar monitoring.

 Studies show that people with diabetes may be able to reduce their risk of complications by
consistently keeping their A1c levels below 7%.
Prevention
You can’t prevent autoimmune and genetic forms of diabetes. But there are some steps you can take to
lower your risk for developing prediabetes, Type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes, including:

 Eat a healthy diet, such as the Mediterranean diet.

 Get physically active. Aim for 30 minutes a day at least five days a week.
 Work to achieve a weight that’s healthy for you.
 Manage your stress.
 Limit alcohol intake.
 Get adequate sleep (typically 7 to 9 hours) and seek treatment for sleep disorders.
 Quit smoking.
 Take medications as directed by your healthcare provider to manage existing risk factors for
heart disease.

 It’s important to note that there are some diabetes risk factors you can’t change, such as your
genetics/family history, age and race. Know that Type 2 diabetes is a complex condition that
involves many contributing factors.

Living With
When should I see my healthcare provider?

If you haven’t been diagnosed with diabetes, you should see a healthcare provider if you have any
symptoms of diabetes, such as increased thirst and frequent urination.

If you have diabetes, you should see your provider who helps you manage diabetes (such as an
endocrinologist) regularly.

A note from Clinic

o Being diagnosed with diabetes is a life-changing event, but it doesn’t mean you can’t live a
happy and healthy life. Managing diabetes involves consistent care and diligence. While it’ll
likely be very overwhelming at first, over time you’ll get a better grasp on managing the
condition and being in tune with your body.
o Be sure to see your healthcare provider(s) regularly. Managing diabetes involves a team effort
— you’ll want medical professionals, friends and family on your side. Don’t be afraid to reach
out to them if you need help.