• Clay structure

• Water-clay particle interaction

• Clay characterization
• Compaction
IV – Fine soils - Colloids • Soil classification

What is a fine soil?

According with the size of particles soil could be classified in two main groups:
• coarse-grained1: particulate soils or single-grain arrangement soils “[…]each particle being
in direct contact with adjoining particles without there being any bond between them.”
• fine-grained1: “[…] soils whose properties are influenced mainly by clay and silt size
particles.” They are identified on the basis of its plasticity.

fine-grained coarse-grained

Particle Size Ranges in millimeters

(after Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Fine-grained (Kaolinite clay sheets) [left] and Coarse-grained or single grain structure [right]
([Link] [left], [Link] [right])

What is a colloid?
Colloids are particles of size <0.002 mm created by chemical weathering. There are four types:

• Crystalline silicate clays: Phyllosilicates (tetrahedral and octahedral crystal sheets)

• Non-crystalline silicate clays: Andisols (dominantly amorphous clays: allophane and
imogolite)
• Iron and aluminum oxides: Oxisols (dominantly gibbsite [Al-oxide] and goethite [Fe-oxide])
• Organic (humus): Histosols (non-crystalline colloids dominated by long C-chain molecules)

1 Knappett, J. and Craig, R. (2012). “Craig’s Soil Mechanics”. Eight Edition. Spon Press.

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4.1 STRUCTURE OF CLAYS, WATER MOLECULE, IONS, CLAY AND WATER

Fine solids + water = plastic properties

More water More plasticity

Too much water Fluid

The reaction of water with fine grained soils cannot be fully understood without an understanding
of the architecture of both clay particles and water on an atomic scale.

The basic structural units are silica tetrahedron and alumina octahedron or magnesium
octahedron.

Clay minerals: basic units

(Knappett and Craig, 2012)

([Link]

IV-2
They are plate-like particles with high specific surface. Surface forces govern their behavior.

Specific surface (surface area to mass ratio): is a good indication of the relative influence of
electrical forces on particle’s behavior of the particle.

3-OH 3-OH

1-Al 1-Mg

3-OH 3-OH

Aluminum octahedron Magnesium octahedron

4-O

4-Si

6-O

Silica

Valence
6-OH

4-Al

6-OH

Gibbsite (Aluminum octahedral)

6-OH

6-Mg

6-OH

(Magnesium octahedral)
Brucite

IV-3
 Brucite Gibbsite
Silica Silica

Brucite Gibbsite
7.2 Ǻ
Silica Silica

Symbolic structure of Symbolic structure of

pyrophyllite kaolinite

Silica Silica

Gibbsite Gibbsite
Silica Silica

K K

Gibbsite
Gibbsite

Symbolic structure of
montmorillonite Symbolic structure of illite
muscovite

Clay Comparison Table (thickness, diameter and specific surface)

Edge View Typical Thickness Typical Diameter Specific Surface

(nm) (nm) (m2/g)
Montmorillonite
3 100 - 1000 800

Illite

30 10 000 80

Kaolinite

50 - 2000 300 - 4000 15

Average values of relative sizes, thicknesses and specific surfaces of the common clay minerals
(after Yong and Warkentin, 1975, Vlachopoulos, 2001)

IV-4
Mineral is a chemical compound formed by a geologic process. A rock is an aggregate of one or
more minerals or glasses.

Kaolinite Illite (platy)

Chlorite Halloysite

Vermiculite Montmorillonite
Examples of Clay Minerals
([Link]

IV-5
Bonding

Primary Bonds (strong bonds):

Ionic - sharing of electrons i.e. NaCl (an electron given to one atom from another)
Covalent - sharing of electrons by two atomic nuclei so that they complete the outer shell of
each atom

([Link]

Secondary Bonds (weaker bonds):

Hydrogen bonding: attraction of hydrogen to oxygen or hydroxyls; occurs in the dipole action of
water molecules when O2- of the molecule acts as the negative end and H+ acts as the positive
end.

van der Waals forces: arise from fluctuations in the number of electrons on one side of an atomic
nucleus. They are attractive forces between molecules, and may result in cohesion if sufficiently
strong.

Osmotic forces: repulsive force between particles resulting from osmotic pressures due to
differences in fluid concentrations.

The primary bonds occur between molecules to form the soil minerals, whereas the secondary
bonds are due to the surface forces of the minerals and they affect the behaviour of the pore fluid
(water) surrounding the soil minerals.

IV-6
Clay minerals are formed by chemical action which produces particles of colloidal size (< 0.002
mm). Changes in the mineral form of the parent rock occur due to water, oxygen and carbon
dioxide. For example, Kaolinite is formed by the breakdown of feldspar (action of water and
carbon dioxide).

Aluminum and Silicon could be replaced by other elements. This is known as isomorphous
substitution. Kaolinite presents limited isomorphous substitution because it has lengths up to 100
stacks and they are held together fairly tightly by hydrogen bonding. Illite is more likely to have
isomorphous substitution: aluminum by magnesium and iron, and silicon by aluminum. The
combined sheets are linked by weak bonding. Montmorillonite presents partial substitution of
aluminum by magnesium. There is a very weak bonding due to water and ions between the
combined sheets.

Clay particle surface is negatively charged due to:

a) Isomorphous substitution
b) Disassociation of hydroxyl ions
c) Unsatisfied charges due to “broken bonds” at the edges of particles

Water molecule

Bond energy 40% ionic, 60% covalent

Dipole: 1050
Molecule size: 4.5 Å
The presence of H-bonds maintains unit weight at 9.8 kN/m3. Temperature increase implies
decrease in density.
Freezing 9% volume increase.

([Link]

Water and ions

Ions are atoms or molecules that have a net electric charge

There is a coulombian electric field around ions
Ions attract water, i.e., hydrate: cations and anions (Ca+) (O=H2++) (Cl-) (H2++ O=)

IV-7
Ions, Clay and Water

Dry clays:

• Cations are tightly held by negatively charged surfaces

• Cations neutralize negative surface charges
• Cations in excess precipitate in salt
• Clays experience true cohesion

Wet clays:

• Precipitated salts go into solution

• Adsorbed cations are at high concentration (n)
• Diffusion takes place to equalize n
• Diffusion is limited by the attraction of cations and repulsion of anions
• Diffuse double layer is present

Clay H+ H+
particle Oriented in field
O=
surface Mobilized by diffusion

IV-8
4.2 DIFFUSE DOUBLE LAYER

Diffuse double layer theory is a model that explains the interactions among clay surfaces,
interlayer cations, water that is loosely bonded to the interlayer cations, and the solution that
surrounds the clays.

[Link]

Concentration
(n)

Distance from surface of clay particle

Double layer thickness (d)

1/ 2
 DT 
d 2 
v n
D: dielectric constant T: temperature v: ionic valence n: ionic concentration

Ion exchange order: Na+ < K+ < NH4+ < Mg+2 < Ca+2 < Al+3 < Fe+3

IV-9
The thicker the double layer the higher the:

• repulsive forces between the particles

• swelling pressure. Lower tendency to flocculate
• liquid limit

This layer of bonded water is called adsorbed water, whereas the unbonded water is called free
water. This adsorbed water behaves differently than free water in the soil/water matrix, both
physically and electrically.

The structure of clay soils and their engineering properties ultimately depend on the nature of this
adsorbed water layer. The thickness of the adsorbed water layer is approximately the same for
different clays; but because of the size differences, high specific surface clays will have a higher
plasticity, greater swelling, shrinkage, and volume change due to loading.

200Ǻ Double Layer

30 Ǻ

200Ǻ Montmorillonite
Adsorbed Water plate

Clays
• Presence of clay minerals in soil significantly impacts engineering behavior
• High void ratio
• Water sensitive
• Water adsorb to surface is tightly held→ Low hydraulic conductivity

Clay consistence state

• Very soft High void ratio

• Soft High water content
• Firm
• Compact
• Stiff Low void ratio
• Very stiff Low water content

IV-10
Clay Engineering properties:

• Compressibility
o Soft: high and time dependent
o Stiff: low and time dependent

• Strength
o Low in soft state
o High for compact or stiff state

• Permeability
o Very low in soft and stiff sate (10-5 to 10-9 cm/s)

Clay Structure:

([Link]

Special types of clay:

• Sensitive clay

o Structure changes substantially due to disturbance → engineering properties

change

• Quick clay

o After disturbance clay changes from solid to flowable fluid

IV-11
4.3 PLASTICITY OF SOILS

The behavior of soil can be divided into four basic states which depend on moisture content:
solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid.

IV-12
IV-13
Related phenomena:

Atterberg limits: These are properties of soils which should be determined for soil
classification purposes (see the section ‘Classification of Soils’)

Liquid limit (LL): water content at which the transition to fluid occurs (L). The definition is
to some extent arbitrary and it is used for comparison purposes. At liquid
limit different clays flow similarly. Strength  2.5 kPa.

Plastic limit (PL): if water content is too low fine grained soils loose plastic properties.
Plastic limit indicates water content at which the soil loses plastic
properties (P).

So (m2/g) LL PL
Kaolinite (OH) 15 30 – 110 25 – 40
Illite (K) 80 60 – 120 35 – 60
Montmorillonite (H2O) 800 100 – 900 50 – 100

Plasticity index: IP = (L) - (P)

Range of water content within which a soil exhibits plastic behaviour

Liquidity index: IL = ( - P) / IP

Defines proximity of soil state to liquid and plastic limits

IL = 1 for soil at liquid limit IL = 0 for soil at plastic limit

Shrinkage limit: Volume clay normally reduces to when dried out. Below the
water content corresponding to shrinkage limit (S) the volume of
soil remains constant as the soil dries out.

Water content (N.T.S.)

S P L

IV-14
IV-15
IV-16
IV-17
IV-18
IV-19
IV-20
4.4 COMPACTION
Compaction is the densification of soil by the application of mechanical energy.

Reasons for compaction: Compact soil becomes denser, increases stiffness, less volume change,
increases strength, reduces detrimental settlements

Dry density, d, is the best parameter to describe compaction. The higher d the denser the soil.
S w
d =
M  w
d = s  = w + S
Recall
Vt
d
1 + w  s

wop
t

Below wopt there is a water deficiency (called dry of optimum); we can add water to lubricate
particles to reorient them to a denser configuration.

Near wopt the clay particles are lubricated and cannot take any more water.

Above wopt (called wet of optimum), some of the compaction effort is taken up by water and air,
water takes up space that could be occupied by particles; particles “float” in air/water mixture.

The next figure shows the effect of compaction on the curve shown above. The curve after
compaction on the soil is called the ‘Modified compaction curve’.

IV-21
 ([Link]

([Link]

IV-22
Example IV-1

The following results were obtained from a standard compaction test on a soil:

Mass (g) 2010 2092 2114 2100 2055

Water content (%) 12.8 14.5 15.6 16.8 19.2

Plot the dry density-water content curve and give the optimum water content and maximum dry
density. The volume of the mold is 1000 cm3. Assume  = 15.2%. Determine:

a) the moist unit weight (kN/m3)

b) the void ratio
c) the degree of saturation
d) the air content,
e) what is the mass of water in, kg/m3, to be added to reach optimum compaction, if  = 12.8%

IV-23
4.5 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
The object of soil classification is to divide soils into groups with similar characteristics and
engineering properties. Main classification characteristics:

a) Grain-size distribution (for coarse-grained soils: 60mm to 0.06mm)

b) Plastic properties (for fine grained soils < 0.06mm)

Unified Soil Classification System

Each soil group is identified by a group symbol, which consists of a primary and a secondary
descriptive letter:

Primary Letter Secondary letter

G- gravel W - well graded
S- sand P - poorly graded
M- silt M - non-plastic fines
C- clay C- plastic fines
O- organic L - low plasticity
Pt- peat H - high plasticity

IV-24
Soil classification chart

Definitions: R(x) = % Retained (size mm #sieve) Well graded sand 1< Cc < 3 and Cu > 6
Well graded gravel 1< Cc < 3 and Cu > 4

Gravel: G Sand: S Silt: M Clay: C Organic: O Peat: P

75 mm (3”) 4.75 mm (#4) 0.075 mm (#200) 0.002 mm --

> 50% Gravel

Coarse
> 50% 𝑹(4.75 #4)
Fine or Coarse 𝑹(0.075 #200)
< 50% Sand
R(0.075 #200) ? =?

< 50% Fine

Plasticity chart
M, C, O, P ?
Fig 5.3 textbook, shown on next page

GW
< 5% fines
GP
fines ML or MH GW - GM
fines CL or CH
GW or CL-ML GW - GC
Gravel 5% -12% fines
GP
fines ML or MH GP - GM
fines CL or CH
or CL-ML GP - GC

GM
fines ML or MH
> 12% fines fines CL or CH GC
fines CL-ML
GC - GM

Sand Same procedure as for gravel

IV-25
IV-26
IV-27
IV-28
IV-29
IV-30
IV-31
Example IV-3

For a base soil described by curve a, define the range of grain-size curves for a good filter
material.

D85 4D85
100
A
80
Percent Passing

Curve a Curve b
60

40 Curve c
D15 4D15
20
C D B

Grain size, D

IV-32