Prepared by J.

Suman

Unit-I
Electrical Circuits
Basic Definitions
Electric Charge: Charge is the property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an
electric field. It can be positive or negative. Donated with ‘Q’ and measured in Coulomb (C).

Electric Current: It is defined as flow of charges/electrons in a conductor. Denoted with ‘I’

and measured in Amperes(A).
Formula: I = Q/t
Electric Potential: It is the work done per unit charge in bringing a positive test charge from
infinity to a point. It is measured in Volts(V).
Potential Difference / Voltage: Potential difference is the difference in electric potential
between two points. It causes current to flow in a circuit. Denoted with ‘V’ and measured in
Volts(V).
Electro-Motive Force (E.M.F): The force which causes the movement of electrons is called
Electromotive Force (EMF). Measured in volts (V).
Electric Power: The total work done per unit time in an electric circuit is called Electric Power.
(or)
The total energy consumed or generated per unit time in an electric circuit is nothing but
Electric Power.
It is donated with ‘P’ and measured in Watts or joule / sec
Formula:

Or
Electrical Energy: Electrical Energy is the total work done or power consumed/generated in
an electrical circuit over a given period of time. Denoted with ‘E’ and measured in watts.
Electrical Energy (E)=Power (P)×Time (t)
Direct Current (DC): DC is the type of electric current that flows in one constant direction
only.
Alternating Current (AC): AC is the type of electric current that changes its direction and
magnitude periodically with time.

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Conductor: A conductor is a material that allows electric current to flow through it easily.
This is because conductors have a large number of "free electrons" in their atomic structure.
Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Silver.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that partly conducts electricity – it behaves

like an insulator at low temperatures but conducts at higher temperatures or when doped.
Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge).

Insulator: An insulator is a material that does not allow electric current to pass through
easily because it has very few free electrons.
Examples: Rubber, Glass, Plastic.

Types of Elements
(i) Active Elements
● Elements that can supply energy to the electrical network.
Example: Voltage source, current source, battery.

Current Source

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(ii) Passive Elements:

● Elements that consume or store energy but do not generate it.
Examples: Resistor (R), Inductor (L), Capacitor (C)

Resistor: A resistor is a component that opposes the flow of electric current in a circuit. It
dissipates electrical energy in the form of heat when current flows through it.

Resistance: Resistance is the property of a resistor that opposes the flow of electric current.

Unit: Ohms (Ω)

Symbol: R

Inductor: An inductor is a coil of wire that opposes changes in current. An inductor stores
energy in a magnetic field when an electric current flows through it.

Inductance: The ability of a inductor which stores energy in the form of an electromagnetic
field is called Inductance.
Unit:Henry(H)
Symbol: L

Capacitor: A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in the form of an electric field
between two plates.

Capacitance: Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an

electric field
Unit: Farad (F)
Symbol: C

(iii) Unilateral: A bilateral element is the element that allows current in only one
direction. Unilateral elements offer low resistance for the flow of current in one direction and
high resistance for the flow of current in the opposite direction.
Example: Vacuume diodes and semiconductor devices.

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(iv) Bilateral Elements: A bilateral element is the element that allows current in both
directions. Bilateral elements offer same resistance for the flow of current in two directions.
Example: resistor, inductor, and capacitor

(v) Linear Elements: A circuit element is said be linear if it satisfies the Ohm’s law.
(v) Non-Linear Elements: A circuit element is said be non-linear if it does not satisfy
Ohm’s law.

Ohm’s Law:
(i) Statement: Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, provided the temperature
and physical conditions remain constant.

(ii)Mathematical Form:

(iii)Limitations of Ohm’s Law

• It does not apply to non-ohmic materials like semiconductors (diodes, transistors),

vacuum tubes, thermistors, etc., where current does not vary linearly with voltage.
• Ohm’s law assumes resistance is constant, so it fails when temperature varies
significantly, especially in filament bulbs or heating elements.

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• Ohm’s Law is not applicable to devices with non-linear V-I characteristics, such as
LEDs, Zener diodes, Gas discharge lamps

Resistors Connected Series and Parallel

(i)Resistors in Series

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the same amount of current flows
through all the resistors. In such circuits, the voltage across each resistor is different.

For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as:

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + …. + Rn
The total resistance of the system is just the total sum of individual resistances.

(ii) Resistors in Parallel

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Electrical Circuit Definition: An electrical circuit is a closed loop made up of components

like batteries and resistors that allow electric current to flow.
Node in Electrical Circuit: A node is a point in an electrical circuit where two or more circuit
elements are connected.
Branch Definition: A branch is the part of the circuit between two nodes.
Loop/Mesh Definition: A loop is a closed path in the circuit where one returns to the starting
node without crossing any intermediate node twice.
Network vs. Circuit: A network may not provide a closed path, but an electric circuit always
includes one or more networks forming closed paths.

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KVL and KCL

(i) Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff's Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction
or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to
leave, as no charge is lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the
currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero.

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two
currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite
the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0

(ii) Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network being driven by a
voltage source, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops
within the same loop” which is equal to zero. In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltage
sources and voltage drops within a closed loop must be equal to zero.

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Network Reduction Methods

(i)Source Transformation Technique

(a) Voltage Source to Current Source Conversion: A voltage source with a series resistor
can be converted into a current source with a parallel resistor.

Convert the voltage source into an equivalent current source using the formula:

Where, V is the voltage of the source, and R is the series resistor.

(b)Current Source to Voltage Source Conversion: A current source in parallel with

a resistor can be converted into a voltage source in series with the same resistor.

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Convert the Current source into an equivalent voltage source using the formula:
Vs=IR

Voltage and Current Division Rules

Current division rule:
• The current flowing through a particular resistor in a parallel circuit is equal to the
total current multiplied by the opposite branch resistance divided by the total
resistance of all parallel branches.

Voltage Division Rule:

The voltage across a particular resistor in a series circuit is equal to the total voltage
multiplied by that resistor's value divided by the total resistance in the circuit.

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