The overall objective of regulation can be

REGULATION summarized by these three keywords:

• measure;
ANALOGUE • compare
• correct.
1- Introduction 2-THE REGULATION is the action of adjusting
The conduct of a chemical or physical operation
automatically a magnitude such that
chemical involves knowledge and mastery this one constantly retains its value or remains
some parameters such as pressure, close to the desired value, whatever the
temperature, flow rate, etc........ perturbations that may occur.
A regulation strategy is, for aprocess 3-REMINDERS
industrial, the organization of the system ofcontrol LOGICAL MAGNITUDES
commandin order to maintain agrandeur These quantities can take only two values.
physicalwithin a given tolerance range. The rated 0 or 1
choice of strategy is very important in We generally use a so-called 'positive' logic.
themanufacturing industries (for example the No action 1 : action
industries chemicals, paper makers
agri-foods......) due to variability
0 1
of a large number of physical quantities
Closed open
incidents (referred to as "disturbances") that are there
Extinguished lit
presents. Stop market
It is this information that will enable us to: Off on
• quantifier
Analogous quantities
• compare and check
These quantities vary continuously (between
• duplicate, copy, repeat two limits
In the control room, one can access these Example: Level of a reservoir
information about:
• indicators
• recorders
• screens of consoles on different
specific views:
✓ synoptic
✓ working groups
✓ detailed views
✓ alarms
✓ historical
Logical magnitudes:
✓ Zone A : SH = 1 SL = 0
Zone B : SH = 0 SL = 0
Zone C : SH = 0 SL = 1
The level can continuously vary from 0 to 100%.
It is an analog quantity.

4-ELEMENTS CONSTITUTIVE
FROM A REGULATION LOOP
A control loop must consist of at least
the following elements:
• a measuring sensor ;
• a transmitter often integrated into the sensor;
• a regulator ;
• an actuator.
1
It is often complemented by:
• a recorder;
• of converters ; These signals are standardized
• safety measures.
PRINCIPAL SCHEMA OF A
REGULATION LOOP

The regulator receives two pieces of information:

• The measurement signal (M or PV) coming from the
sensor
• the instruction (C or SP) (which can be local or
external)
Depending on the gap between these two values and
the calculation algorithm for which it has been configured, it In digital, signals are encoded in binary.
delivers an output signal (S or OUT) directed towards on 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits in serial or parallel connection.
the actuator to cancel this gap and bring back the
measure towards the set value.
The regulator is the 'brain' of the loop
of regulation.

5-NATURE OF SIGNALS
They can be of different nature:
• Electric
• Tires
• Digital
• Less often hydraulics

2
6-EXAMPLE 1:
TEMPERATURE REGULATORS/ 7-EXAMPLE 2
PROCESS SERIES F4P • Level sensor by hydrostatic probe
• Digital regulator (computer)
• automatic valve with analog opening at
pneumatic command
PRINCIPLE SCHEMA OF A
Control Loop
COMPLEX

1: hydrostatic gauge
2: Pressure / Intensity Converter
3: Analog / Digital Converter
4: Digital / Analog Converter
5: intensity/pressure converter
6: automatic valve with pneumatic control

3
 Example: photodiodes, phototransistors (sensor of

The sensors speed LFIIP), thermocouples.

Smart sensor
The smart sensor is a sensor that integrates a
1-Definitions bidirectional communication interface and a
microcontroller/DSP.
Auncapteurisadevicethattransformsthestate.
of onephysical grandeur observed in a magnitude the communication interface allows for
usable. remotely control the sensor and manage it
several;
Allows to transform a physical quantity the microcontroller allows to manage the
(brightness, temperature, position, pressure, speed..) different measures and correcting errors
in an electrical quantity (voltage, current, due to variations in physical quantities
resistance,... parasites (example: simultaneous measurement of the
temperature to correct the thermal drift).
The sensor is the component that allows to inform the Output type
order part of a cooperative state or of the
external environment.
Sensorsanalog
Sensorsdigital
Sensorslogics
Classification of signals

Sensors can be classified into two categories:

Contact sensors that require contact

direct with the object to be detected.

Proximity sensors (contactless).

2-Classification
Energy input
Passive sensor
It is generally an impedance whose value
varies with the physical quantity, it must be integrated into
a circuit with a power supply.
A signal is said to be analog if the amplitude of the
Examples: platinum wire resistance (Pt100 probe), physical grandeur the representative can take a
thermistance (temperature alert in the SGA, TD11) infinite values in a given interval.
capacitive level sensor, end inductance
course.
Continuous signal: It is a signal that varies 'slowly'.
Active sensor over time: temperature, flow rate, level.

It is a direct generator of a voltage, of a

Shape: It is the shape of this signal that is important.
current or a charge based on the magnitude
blood pressure, chromatography, impact.
physical.
The provided value being generally low, it will be necessary to Frequency: It is the frequency spectrum that
the amplifier. transport the desired information: voice analysis, sonar,
spectrography.

1
 A signal is said to be digital if the amplitude of the Linearity
physical grandeur the representative cannot take A sensor is linear if its sensitivity is
a finite number of values. In general, this number constant. The relationship between physical magnitude to
the finite of values is a power of 2. measuring and electrical quantity is then linear
(equation of a line).
All or nothing (TOR): It informs about the bivalent state.
of a system. Example: variation of resistance with the
Example: a valve open or closed. temperature
Impulse train: Each impulse is the image
of a change of state. Example: a Case of a resistance à wire of
incremental encoder gives a finite and known number platinum (Pt100 probes):
impulse per turn. R(T) = R0(1 + a T) => Sc = dR/dT = a.R0=
Sampling: It is the digital image of a 0.385Ω/°C is a constant => linear sensor.
analog signal.
Example: temperature, flow, level, sound (pressure) ... Case of a thermistor (semiconductor material
Characteristics of a measurement chain driver–TD12) :
b
computerized R ab
R(T) = a. eb/T=>Sc  2 e T=> Sc
T T
Physical grandeur depends on T => nonlinear sensor.

4-Dynamic properties
Electric grandeur Speed/response time
Sensor
A sensor is characterized by its time of
YES
climb tm(or trrise time) to 90% or 95%: it is
Wiring circuit
Electric grandeur the time at which the output reaches 90% or
signal form
95% of its final value when the magnitude
The entrance is a step.
Digital data Acquisition Carted (CAN)

100% exit
90%
Processing unit entry
D
Computer Science
N
Memorization
microcomputer
and display tr

Example: a few seconds for the Pt100 probe.

3Static properties Exercise 1

Measurement range (Measurement range): Values At the 'Alpha' factory in the South, several sensors
extremes that can be measured by the sensor. Transmitters have been installed and calibrated as follows:
Flow meter with pneumatic transmitter:
Sensitivity Sc 400 gallons per minute gives 15 psi
It is the coefficient that relates the physical quantity. pound-force per square inch
0 Gallons per minute gives 3 psi.
input to measure electrical magnitude Pressure with 4 to 20 mA transmitter:
30 inches of mercury gives 20 mA;
exit 10 inches of mercury gives 4 mA.
Sc
d(entry) Level with voltage transmitter:
20 meters gives 5 DC Volts;

2
 0.5 meters gives 1 DC Volt.
Temperature with 4 to 20 mA transmitter;
120 C0 gives 20 mA;
-400Cgives4mA.
What is the sensitivity of each of them?
transmitter sensors?
Write the transfer function (equation
linear y = Mx + b) that allows to know
the value of outputs in relation to inputs?
If the pressure measured at the output of the sensor
The flow transmitter is 8.5 psi, what will it be
the corresponding flow rate?

Exercise 2
Let a 12.5 k potentiometer be used as a sensor
of movement, to measure a range of
movements from 0 to 600 cm, and powered by a
tension of 10 Volts.

Exercise No. 4

We have the following sensor: A pressure sensor

This is a pressure sensor in a chamber

of a diesel engine injection. Its is given
characteristic on the following curve:
What is the sensitivity of this device in
V/mm?
If the accuracy class of this sensor is
0.25% E.M., what is its absolute error and
his error related to 375 cm?
Repeat the question for a distance of 1
cm.

Exercise 3
Consider a temperature sensor whose characteristic
temperature in C 0

appears in Table (a).

The manufacturer indicates to us on the data sheet
that the measurement range is from 0 to 50 C and0 that the
output signal varies from 0 to 5 Volts. What is the physical input quantity of this sensor?
What is the equation of the best line
approximating this characteristic?
What is its output physical size?
What is the linearity error of this sensor?
% of the measurement range?
Is it an active or passive sensor?
What is the sensitivity of this sensor?
4. Represent the measurement chain associated with this sensor.

5. Calculate the sensitivity of this sensor.

6. Is the characteristic of this sensor linear?

7. Is the sensitivity of this sensor constant?

3
 ✓ Altitude (position % to the sea).
Measurement and sensors The average atmospheric pressure at sea level
Sea level pressure at 0 °C is 1013 mbar
• Absolute pressure is a pressure,
of pressure positive, measured relative to absolute vacuum,
for example, atmospheric pressure is a
1-Definition of pressure. absolute pressure.
• Relative pressure It's a pressure,
Pressure is the force applied to a surface or positive or negative, expressed in relation to the
atmospheric pressure.
spread over this. It is defined as follows:
It is the gap between the actual absolute pressure and the
atmospheric pressure
Pr = Pabs - Patm.
P: pressure in N/m² (1 Pa = 1 N/m²) If it is negative, it is called depression.
F : force in Newton If it is positive, it is called pressure.
S : surface in m² It is said that a device is under pressure when the
Pressure is often expressed in bar (1 bar = 105 the recorded pressure is greater than the pressure
Pa atmospheric.
Some manufacturers use imperial units Examples:
Fan discharge pressure;
saxons p.s.i (1 p.s.i = 0.07 bar)
Pressure of a tire inner tube;
Usual units It is said that a device is under pressure when the
- decapascal (daPa): 1 daPa = 10 Pa the recorded pressure is lower than the pressure
- kilopascal (kPa): 1 kPa = 103Pa atmospheric.
- Mega Pascal MPa: 1MPa = 106Dad Examples:
Depression of an intake fan;
1 bar = 105Dad Depression from the aspiration of a chimney;

- millibar (mbar): 1 mbar = 10^-3 bars = 102 Pa The differential pressure

- atmosphere (atm): 1 atm = 1.013 bars = 1.013 105Pa It is the difference between two pressures:
ΔP = PA – PB
Pressure measurement domains
Static, dynamic, and total pressures.

2-The different types of pressures

• Vacuum Vacuums is a pressure lower than the

atmospheric pressure. The perfect vacuum
theoretically corresponds to an absolute pressure
null.
• The pressure atmospheric you The different types of pressure
barometric It is the pressure felt in
each point on the Earth's surface. It is 3-Pressure sensors (or pressure gauges of
due to the weight of surrounding air layers pression
globe. Atmospheric pressure varies with:
✓ The temperature. A manometer or pressure sensor is a
✓ the latitude (position % to the earth). instrument intended to measure fluid pressure
1
(liquid or gas). Pressure measurements are
carried out according to different principles, namely:

Application of an unknown mass in reaction to

the effect of pressure on a known section
(manometric balances).
Modification of the level of a liquid under the effect of
pressure (liquid manometer).
Detection of deformation of a sensitive element
under pressure: on site for example:
✓ Bourdon tube.
✓ Metal gauge pressure sensors,
✓ Pressure sensors with piezoresistive gauges,
✓ Pressure sensors by inductance variation
✓ Piezoelectric pressure sensors.

Manometric balance

In the force balance pressure sensor or

manometric balance, the system counterbalances the
effects of pressure forces to stay in a
equilibrium position.
Elastic deformation sensors (manometer)
metallic)

The principle of operation of these devices relies on

on the deformation of a tube, a membrane, or a
bellows generally made of metal, under the action of the
force created by the pressure to be measured.

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Sensors using a liquid: It is the most

simple of all gauges. Its principle is based on
on the application of the relationship
PA–PB= ρ g (ZB–ZA)
and the measurement consists of determining the height
h = ZB - ZA
5
The manometers cover a range of 10 to 10 Pa for the 1. Engine organ, Bourdon tube
gas pressure measurement only. Tube support
Tube cap
4. Toothed sector
5. Bielletta
Gear
Needle
8. Dial

2
Operating principle Potentiometric Pressure Sensor

The Bourdon tube is brazed, welded, or screwed with the When the inside of a bourdon tube is subjected to
tube support which generally forms a piece a pressure greater than the ambient pressure, the tube
complete with the connection. Through a hole deforms; Its section rounds off which tends to unroll
in the connection, the fluid to be measured passes inside the tube (as when you blow into a party whistle
of the tube. The final movable part of the tube moves This deformation is used to move the
during pressure change (Bourdon effect). This slider of a linear potentiometer across the terminals of which
displacement that is proportional to the pressure at a constant voltage is applied. The voltage
measured, is transmitted through the collected between the cursor and the common point of the
movement to the needle and displayed on the dial as montage varies proportionately with the difference
what pressure value. The measurement system, the of pressure that exists between the Bourdon tube and the
The dial and the hand are mounted in a casing. ambient environment.

Electrical sensors

They are particularly well adapted to

modern regulation techniques, treatment
data computing, etc. The variations of
pressure can be translated into variations of
potential difference, capacity, induction, of
resistance etc. But are generally
transformed to obtain from the sensor an
electric current of intensity varying with the
pressure, generally from 4 to 20 mA.

Designation of
Phenomenon
sensor

Gauge sensor
Resistance variation
constraint

Sensor
Voltage variation
potentiometric

Variation capacity of a Variable sensor

capacitor capacity

Variable sensor
Induction variation
of induction

Creation of charges
Crystal sensor
electric in a
piezoelectric
crystal

3
 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW RATES dimensionless is sufficient to characterize
The flow is the Reynolds number.

1-Throughput
The flow rate is the amount of matter or fluid, liquid
or gaseous, which flows per unit of time.
Example: The flow rate of a watercourse, a pump... V: average flow speed in m/s
D: diameter of the pipe in meters
There are two types of flows kinematic viscosity of the fluid in m²/s
Mass flow rate (Qm) (freshwater n = 1.1 x 10-6m²/s
The volumetric flow rate (Qv). µ: dynamic viscosity of the fluid in poise (1
are linked by the relationship: centipoise = 1 [Link]

The kinematic viscosity of the fluid is:

ρ the density

In a circular cross-section pipe:

If Re < 2000, the flow is laminar

from 2000, the flow is turbulent

4-Viscosity

Is expressed in poises or in Pa·s.

1 Poise = 0.1 Pa·s.

Examples of viscosity (at 20 °C):
Water: 1.005 cPo; Castor oil: 6.27 cPo;
0.323 cPo Sulfuric acid: 27 cPo;
Mercury: 1.550 cPo; 0.651 cPo.
2-Flow regimes in a pipeline
Factors influencing fluid flow in
Laminated flow (The perfect fluid) the behaviors
Turbulent flow (The real fluid) The main factors influencing the flow of
fluids in a pipe are as follows:

Fluid velocity
Fluid friction in contact with the pipe
Viscosity of the fluid
Density of the fluid

5-Flow sensors

The choice of a flow sensor is based on 3 criteria:

Nature of the transported fluid (liquid or gas);
Measurement signal type; Analog, Digital
or logical.
The directly measured quantity: Speed, mass
or volume.
3-Reynolds number (R):

To facilitate the comparison between two flows,

we use dimensionless numbers. Thus, in a
incompressible flow (pressure = constant) and
isotherm (temperature = constant), a single parameter
1
Ultrasonic flow meters - transit time electromotiveeven stronger as the flow rate is high.
This type of flow meter requires that the fluid has
The ultrasonic flowmeter is an instrument using oneelectrical conductivitysufficient.
theultrasoundto measure the average speed of a
fluid. We consider a conductor ab moving in a field
uniform magnetic field B. We can then write:
Ultrasound is a mechanical and elastic wave that
propagates through fluid, solid, gaseous media
or liquids.
The frequency range of ultrasound is between
20,000 and 10,000,000Hertz,
Flowmeter by measuring the difference in times
transit: we measure the travel time of the wave
upstream/downstream ultrasound downstream/upstream. This difference
time is actually the image of the average speed of
fluid.
V = Speed of the driver
L = Length of the conductor
B = Uniform and constant magnetic field

Fixed flow meters: Use of flow meters Electromagnetic flow sensor.

fixes, particularly in the following sectors:
Magnetic induction, on the order of 10-3a 10-6T, is
Drinking water and sanitation (sewers, purification, produced by two coils placed on either side of
sectorization...) the measurement conduct.
Environment / rivers / irrigation The coils are powered by an alternating voltage.
Energy (hydropower, nuclear genius
(30 Hz for example).
Flow velocity can vary from 1 to 10 m/s;
climatic...)
Gas and hydrocarbons; Chemistry and petrochemistry
domain of use: viscous liquid, paste,
Pharmaceutical industry loaded with impurities, abrasive or very corrosive to
Agri-food industry; Mechanical industry... provided they are conductors of electricity
Portable flow meters (which is not the case for hydrocarbons)
pipe diameter: 3 mm to 3 m
Multisector use of portable flow meters, good accuracy of the order of 1%.
notably in the context of operations of: measure not depending on the characteristics
physics you liquid (viscosity, density
Control; Maintenance; Expertise granulometry) and possible at high temperature (450
Process; Sectorization... °C) and high pressure (1000 bars).

DEBITMETER WITH DEPRIMOGENIC ELEMENTS

Electromagnetic flow meter
A diaphragm is a rigid plate of low
An electromagnetic flowmeter (EMF) is a type thickness and breakthrough of an orifice.
offlow meterusing the principle of the'induction This plate is introduced into the pipeline
electromagnetic. To do this, achamp perpendicularly to the flow direction
magneticis applied to the fluid that we wish to One of the most commonly used techniques.
measure the flow, which creates aforce Based on Bernoulli's theorem:
2
Along a perfect fluid flow (viscosity
(null), the total pressure or load is constant.

So the speed of the liquid (flow rate) is:

The measurement is non-linear

Example
A Venturi is a measuring system that allows for
measurement of the flow of a liquid by converting a
variation in pressure at a mass flow rate using
the following equation:

Principle of conservation of mass: Where P1 and P2 are the pressures upstream and downstream of the
Venturi and d is the diameter measured of the tube.

Bernoulli's theorem:

[Link] K = 1.0, P1 = 1 bar, P2 = 0.999 bar, d = 20.0 cm

and r = 1.0 kg/l

Calculate the mass flow rate of the liquid in (kg/s)

2. If the possible error on each measurement of P1, P2 and

The terms of elevation are negligible. it is 1%, estimate the possible error on the flow
A change in pressure occurs. massive calculated.
static

3
Exercise 1.

The expected flow measurement (which we know to be between 4 and 10

m3is entrusted to an electromagnetic flow meter Promag 50H
Endress+Hauser (photo opposite).

The manufacturer of the flow meter provides the following characteristics:

measurement magnitude: flow velocity

v = 0.01 ... 10 m/s-1

- output current: 4 -20 mA; load resistance <700 .

The sensor is inserted along the PVC drain pipe, its

The orifice has a cross-section equal to that of the pipe, namely that it has a
inner diameter D = 50 mm.

The flow meter sends the information "flow Q" on a

output 4 - 20 mA.

This information will then be retrieved by a

analog input of the automated after conversion in
unetension VQranging from 0 to 10 V,
according to figure 4.

The converter 4-20 mA / 0-10 V has an impedance

input Ze500 .

[Link].

[Link]..
Are the specifications of the manufacturer of the flow meter compatible with the data above?

[Link] as VQ= KD .Q, knowing that the flow meter can return a value of Q
at most equal to 70 m3 .h-1Specify the unit.
 The measurement of the level
1-Definition
The level measurement is also a strong piece of information.
useful for many industrial applications. In
physics, the level corresponds to the distance between the
surface of a liquid and the bottom of the tank
container.
There are two types of information related to the level:
the continuous measure.
threshold detection. The diver is suspended from a sensor
The choice of an appropriate measurement method leads to Dynamometric. The sensor will measure a force F,
to take into account: equal to the difference between the weight of the diver
the physical and chemical properties of the liquid: theArchimedes' buoyant force.
conductivity We have: F = P - ρ.g.S.h
viscosity, foam formation, corrosive nature; With:
storage conditions: temperature, pressure F,apparentweight
presence of a stirrer; P,weightofthediver
the installation facilities. ρ, density of the liquid
2-Hydrostatic methods g, acceleration due to gravity
Hydrostatic methods concern all the S, air from the diver's section
level measures of which the provided information is a
continuous function of the liquid height. Measure by a pressure sensor
Measurement by float differential
The float is made up of a system held at the
surface of the liquid and attached to a position sensor. A differential pressure sensor is placed at the base.
The sensor transmits an electrical signal that of the tank where the pressure P is for value
corresponds to the level of the liquid in the tank. p=p0 +ρgh
p0 Pressure at the top of the tank.
ρgh is the hydrostatic pressure due to the height h
liquid of density ρ; the acceleration of gravity
being g.

Measurement by diver
A cylinder is vertically immersed in the liquid
Some details about the sensor: The test body
content in the tank. The height of this diver
the sensor is a membrane, subjected on one of its
must be at least equal to the maximum height of the
facing pressure P and on the other at pressure Po. The
liquid in the tank.
deformation of the membrane is proportional to the
height h.

3-ELECTRICAL METHODS
These are methods using sensors
specific, meaning directly translating the
level in electrical signal. Their interest lies in the
simplicity of devices and ease of their implementation
work.
Level detection
1
Level detection is a binary measurement, it is...
say that the sensor delivers binary information.
indicating whether the defined threshold level has been reached or not.

Microwave detection
The radiation used is electromagnetic, from
microwave domain (several GHz). The beam
electromagnetic waves are emitted along an axis
horizontal.
When the product intervenes between the emitter and the
receiver, the signal received speaks receiver is strongly
attenuated. The signal processing circuit then changes
the state of the binary output value.
Detection by vibrating blades

Thedeviceconsistsoftwometalblades
parallels, fixed on a metal membrane. The
lames are brought to their resonance frequency (by
piezoelectric effect). The resonant frequency is
chosen to avoid any disruption of the
sector frequency (50 Hz).

Acoustic waves
In continuous measurement, a transducer is used.
working successively as a transmitter and a
receiver. This transducer placed at the top of the
reservoir emits, in a cone of small opening,
acoustic wave trains that after reflection
on the surface of the liquid returns to the
transducer that converts them into an electrical signal.
Fiber optics
It is necessary that the refractive index of the liquid
is different from that of air.
When the level is low, the incident light beam
is reflected at the end of the optical fiber and is
detected upon its release.
When the level is high, the incident beam is
refracted in the liquid.

Radar
The principle is similar to that of ultrasound waves,
we use an infrared light wave. The advantage
on ultrasound is that the process is independent of the:
temperature, humidity level, dust, the
pressure, density, tribulations.
Precision: 0.5% of the measured distance, or 5 to 10
mm in most cases

2
 Temperature measurements Oxygen
Mercury
Tr
Tr
54.3584 -218.7916
234,3156 - 38,8344
1-Definition Water Tr 273.16 0.01
The temperature is a quantity not directly
measurable, but detectable by the variation of a magnitude Gallium F 302,9146 29,7646
associated (resistance, dilation). Indium C 429,7485 156,5985
Temperautre si an nietnsvie quanyti htat can be Zinc C 629,677 419,527
measured in two different ways:
At the atomic scale, it is linked to kinetic energy. Aluminum C 933,473 660,323
average of the constituents of matter; Silver C 1234.93 961.78
On a macroscopic level, certain properties of bodies Or C 1337.33
dependent on temperature (mass volume,
Copper C 1357,77 1084,62
electrical resistivity, etc...) can be chosen for
build temperature scales. pointtriple
2-Thermodynamic or absolute scales C: freezing point under p.a.n
The thermodynamic temperature is the temperature F: melting point below atmospheric pressure

defined solely from the first and second

principle of thermodynamics. It therefore does not depend Example 1: liquid expansion
not thermometers used to measure the
temperature and thus has a universal definition.

Conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale:

Example 02 gas dilation

Correspondence table:

temperatures Thermometric scales

Kelvin
(K) (°C) (°R) (°F)
Absolute zero 0 -273.15 0 - 459.67
Water mixture
ice under p.a.n
273.15 0 491.67 32 3-Contact temperature measurement
Point triple of There are three main families of sensors:
273.16 0.01 491.69 32,018
the water Passive sensors (Thermometry by
Boiling water resistance)
373.15 100 671,67 212
under p.a.n Resistance thermometry uses, like its
p.a.n: normal atmospheric pressure (=101,325 Pascals) As the name indicates, the variation of the resistance of a
material depending on temperature. This variation
International Temperature Scales Resistance can be made with a metal as well.
(EIT 90) metallic resistance
Substance Type of point* T(K) T(°C) Scope of
Metal Characteristics
Hydrogen Tr 13.8033 - 259.3467 measure
Neon Tr -224,0378 Platinium Precise, stable, durable -200 °C, 600 °C
 The integrated sensors (thermometry by
Significant cost: 30 € diode and transistor
Fromtungstentoplatinum The voltage across a semiconductor as well as
Less stable than platinum -100 °C The current that runs through it depends on the temperature.
Tungsten
Better linearity at high 1,400 °C
temperature
Highest sensitivity
High resistivity
Nickel -60 °C , 180 °C
Low linearity
Rather unstable

Linear
Low resistivity therefore These are so-called integrated sensors which have the advantage
Copper -190 °C , 150 °C
clutter that at constant current I, the measurement of V is linear in
Somewhat unstable
function of temperature and is presented in the
form: V = aT + b with a depending on the element
Active sensors (thermocouples) sensible.
Thermocouples are active sensors that provide a 4-Measurement at a distance
when they are subjected to a modification of the
temperature. The principle of operation is based on
Thermography
the Seebeck effect which occurs when two metallic conductors
Lathermography or infrared thermography is
are connected by two junctions subjected to temperatures a technique for obtaining an image
different, creates a potential difference at the terminals of thermal of a scene by analysis of theinfrared.
circuit. Once we have the emf to be able to go back to the The obtained image is called a 'thermogram'.
value of the temperature, The remote measurement of temperature is carried out at
by means of the following devices:
infrared thermometerscontactless
temperature measuring device, or,
strictly, a 'thermal state'
thermal camerameasuring device of the
thermography. The thermal camera provides
measures with image.
Thermal imagerimaging device
thermal, provides images without measurements
Letter Positive conductor infrared cameras special case of camera
Nickel-Copper thermal (for example cameraQwipFlir).
T Copper
Constantan radiometerflow measurement device
J Iron Constantan radiation (directional and partial flux)
Nickel-Chrome
system of thermography Together
E
(Chromel)
Constantan of devices or features intended for the
thermographic measurement, from the sensor
Nickel-Aluminum
K Chromel until the presentation of temperatures. A
Alumel
monobloc thermal camera can be a
Platinum-10% thermography system (case of devices
S Platinum-6% Rhodium
Rhodium for maintenance)
Nickel-Chrome- Nickel-Chrome-
N
Silicon (Nicrosil) Magnesium (Nisil)
Applications
U Copper Constantan
The technique is utilized in many
Tungsten-26% domains.
G Tungsten
Rhenium Thermography and automobile construction
…… ……… …….. Building thermography
Couple no Thermography and aerospace / aeronautics
Platinum Or
normalized Thermography and scientific research
Thermography and Non-Destructive Testing
Field of use Average sensitivity (
Letter Thermography and veterinary medicine
(°C) μV/°C
T -200 to 370 51
J -40 to 800 55
E -270 to 870 78.5
EXERCISE
We want to use a class B Pt100 sensor as a temperature sensor over a measurement range.
ranging from 0 to 300 °C.
1-Remind the meanings of Pt and 100 of the Pt 100 probe.
2-What are the input and output magnitudes of the Pt100?
3-Qualify this sensor?
4-Using Appendix 1, give the maximum temperature error ΔT at 200 °C. Deduce the range.
limit values of temperature.
We need to measure the temperature in an oven at 200°C located 20m from the measurement center. This is
consisting of a current generator of intensity I0 1,000mA constant regardless of the temperature and of a
voltage measurement system U.
This one is considered ideal (the measured current drawn is zero). We use it to connect the probe to
temperature a resistance wire of r= 85 Ω wire.
Method 2 wires: 4-wire method:

Analysis of the 2-wire method:

[Link]
resistance measured by the measuring center Rm =U/ I0
6-Istheerrorinducedbytheresistanceoftheconnectionwiresnegligible?Justify.
Analysis of the 4-wire method:
WhatisthevalueofIm?
8-Explain why this measurement system is more accurate?
In the following problem, we wil use the 4 wire method.
We wish to linearize the relationship betweenTetR forTvarying between 0 and 300 [Link] are therefore looking to establish
the equation T = a.R + b
9-Usingannex2,determinethecoefficientsaandbofthelinepassingthroughthepointsM(0°C)
and N (300°C). From this equation, find the temperature corresponding to a resistance
175.86 Ω.
10-ComparedtothevaluegiveninAnnex2,calculatethelinearityerrorgeneratedεl Isshe
negligible? Justify.
AvoltageU=173.6mVismeasuredwhentheprobeisplacedintheovenusingavoltmeterona
caliber 300mV with the uncertainty formula:
ΔU = 1 % U + 1.5 mV.
11-CalculatetheuncertaintyonthemeasurementofthevoltageΔUandthevalueRm of the measured resistance.

1
 ANNEX 1:Tolerance values ANNEX 2:Relation between resistance and
of a Pt100 temperature for the sensitive element of a
Pt100.

100
2-Input magnitude:

3- active passive analog digital TOR (all or nothing)

4-ΔT = ………°C minimum temperature = ……..°C

Maximum temperature = ……….°C
5-……….Ω Rminimale=………. Ω
6-Negligible: ……………, because ………………………………….
7-Im= ………….A
8-Explanation:........................
9-a= ……………..°C/Ω b= ……………..°C T(175.86 Ω) = ………….. °C
10-el = …………….°C
...
11-ΔU = ……………..mV ………………Ω