SOLUTIONS

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures made up of 2 or more substances.

The solution is made up of at least 2 components: - solvent (dissolvent, the component is in a larger quantity)
solvate (dissolved, the component is found in smaller quantity)
The spreading of the particles of one substance among the particles of another substance is called DISSOLUTION.
Dissolution is determined by the free movement of particles, a physical phenomenon called diffusion.
Solutions can have components in the same state of aggregation.

Classification

after the state of aggregation

oGaz
. Gas in gas:
the airsolvent: oxygenș the old gaze; solvent:nitrogen
. Solid in gas:
atmospheric pressure dissolved inaer
. Liquid to gas:
water vapor in the air

oLichid

If the solvent is afluid, ait has both gas andș Liquids or solids can be dissolved. Examples are:

. Gas in liquid:
Oxygenin water
Carbon dioxide in water(siphon
. Liquid in liquid:
Ethanol(ethyl alcohol) in water
Alcoholic beverages are generally a solutionț ethanol in water
. Solid in liquid:
Sugar(sugaron the table) in water
Sodium chlorateand any other salt forms in water aelectrolyteduring
In dissolution, salt dissociates intoions.

Counterexample: liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous such as:coloids, ssuspensions (a dispersion of relatively particles)
I die in a liquid)ș iemulsions(suspension of certain liquid particles in another liquid that does not mix.

oSolid

In case the solvent is asolidthen both the gases andș Liquids or solids can be dissolved.

. Gas in solid:
Hydrogenit dissolves generally in metals (for example: platinum).
. Liquid into solid:
Mercurydissolves inand,forming aamalgam.
Hexanol inparaffin.
. Solid in solid:
Oț elul, orsolutionț the atoms ofcarbonin a crystalline matrix of atoms ofproud.
Alpacaaaliajcomposed ofzinc15%-30%),nickel(10%-30%)ș icopper50%-60%
 after the number of components:
binary solutions
ternary solutions
multicomponent solutions.

after concentration:
diluted solutions
concentrated solutions

after the amount of dissolved substance

dilute (with a small amount of dissolved substance)
concentrate(….mare….)

Dissolution
the phenomenon of the dispersion of solute particles among the molecules of the solventa homogeneous mixture

It is influenced by the factors:

the degree of fragmentation of the dissolved substance
the agitation of the solution components
temperature.

Insotita of 2 phenomena:
physical expansion through particles
chemical bonding of water molecules, of crystal ions; ion-dipole or dipole-dipole bond

It can be:
Exotherm:H2SO4, NaOH, KOH
Endotherm: NaOH3, NH4NO3

Solubility
the property of a substanceț and to dissolve in another substanceț From a quantitative point of view, this is
equal to the quantity of substanceț and what dissolves at a certain temperature in 100 g of solvent (water).0

Solubility can be influencedț date of:

Temperature - how much it increasesș the temperature increases accordinglyș the solubility (exceptionț by producing gases
The degree of agitation of the solutionț iei
The size of the substance granulesț it dissolves
Gas pressure - the higher the pressure, the greater the solubility

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

The concentration of a solution expresses the ratio between the dissolved substance and the solution or solvent. There are numerous ways to express it.
the concentration of solutions, depending on the units of measurement in which the two components (the solute and the solution or s

Percentage concentration
The percentage mass concentration: represents the amount of substance dissolved, expressed in grams per 100 grams of solution.
 ms=md+msolve

Where: c %m - mass percentage concentration [%];

md- mass of the solution [g];

msmass of the solution [g];

[Link] of the solvent.

The percentage concentration by volume: expresses the number of liters of solute from 100 liters of solution.

Vs=Vd+Vsolve

Where: c%vpercentage concentration in volume percent;

Vdthe volume of the solvent [l];

Vsthe volume of the solution [l];

Vsolvethe volume of the solvent [l].

This way of expressing concentration applies when the components of the solution are gases.

Volumetric percentage concentration: represents grams of solute per 100 ml of solution.

Molar concentration (molarity)

It represents the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution. So:

1 L solution............Md...........1 M

Vsthe solution..........md...........m

[mol/l]

unde: m - molar concentration [mol/l];

Mdmolar mass of the solvent [g].

 The laws of gases

The state of aggregation in which a substance is found depends on pressure, volume, and
temperature. These quantities are called state variables, as they are used to describe the state of a substance or
of a mixture.
At a certain amount of substance, the state variables are dependent on each other. For example, when it
When a body is heated, it expands, meaning that volume is a function of temperature; if the volume of a gas increases at
constant temperature means that pressure decreases, so it is dependent on volume. The mathematical relationship of
variable
The state law represents the thermal equation of the state of the respective substance. Thus, if pressure is denoted by p,
the volume V and the absolute temperature T, then there is a functional relationship between these quantities:
f(p, V, T)=0
From where, for example, pressure can be expressed as a function of volume and temperature, that is, p=f(V,T).
In gas, the forces of mutual attraction between particles are weak. From this point of view, a
difference between perfect or ideal integers and real numbers.

Perfect gaze (ideal)

Ideal (perfect) gases are understood to be gases where the forces of mutual attraction between particles can be
considerate null.
To investigate the thermal state equation of perfect gases, one constant will be considered for each of the
state variables and the dependence between the other two will be studied. The laws deduced in this way will then be included in a
general law.

Boyle-Mariotte's law

Boyle-Mariotte's law states that: at constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is
inversely proportional to the pressure under which the gas is.
For example, if the pressure exerted on 2 liters of gas is doubled, the volume of the gas decreases to 1 liter.
Mathematical law is written as:
V1/ V2 = p2/ p1,
sour
p1 V1= p2 V2 ,
In case V1 and p1 represent the initial volume and pressure of the gas, while V2 and p2 represent the new volume and new pressure.
So, at constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume of a certain mass of gas is
constant:
pV=k; k=const.
k is a constant valid for a certain temperature (and a certain amount of gas). Represented graphically
The dependence of pressure p on volume V produces an equilateral hyperbola for each temperature. Similar
Curves are called isotherms (in Greek: isos = equal, thermos = warm).
Boyle-Mariotte's law is valid in the field of not very high pressures and at temperatures
normal. At very high pressures, all gases exhibit deviations from this-
Thus, for example, if at nitrogen at a pressure of 1 At, the product pV=1, at 1000 At, pV>2, which
demonstrates a deviation from perfect gas behavior.
 Gay-Lussac's Law

The variation of the volume of a gas with temperature at constant pressure is expressed by its law.
Gay-Lussac: at constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas increases (or decreases),
for each increase (or decrease) of 1 °C, with 1/273 of the volume it occupies at 0 °C).
The value 1/273, more precisely 1/273.15, is called the coefficient of thermal expansion of gases.
ideal.
Noting with V0 the volume of gas at 0 C, and with V1 the volume it occupies at temperature t1, the law
can it be written:
V1 = V0 + V0/273t1 = V0(273 + t1/273).
Adopting the temperature notation in degrees Kelvin: T=273+t, Gay-Lussac's law can be
expressed in a more appropriate form:
V1 = V0 * T1 / 273.
Since V0/273 has a constant value for the respective gas, it means that at a
the temperature T2, the volume of the same gas will be:
V1 = V0 * T2 / 273.
So:
V1/V2 = T1/T2 or V1/T1 = V2/T2.
Thus, at constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas varies directly proportional.
with absolute temperature:
V/T=k'; k'=const;
The graphical representation of the relationship between the volume of gas and temperature at constant pressure
this is a line that intersects the ordinate at a point corresponding to the value V0. Such a line
it is called izobara (in Greek barys = heavy).
For different masses of gases, a family of lines results that intersect the ordinate at
different points meet at a point on the x-axis, corresponding to
t=-273 C
In analog mode, Gay-Lussac's law shows that: at constant volume, the pressure of a gas increases (or
for each increase (or decrease) of 1 °C, by 1/273 of the pressure that the gas has at 0 °C.
The graphical representation of the relationship between gas pressure and temperature at constant volume is
a line that intersects the ordinate at a point corresponding to the value p0. Such a line is
it is called isocora (in Greek: core=space).
For different masses of gases, p0 has different values, and the isocores are straight lines that meet.
at a point on the abscissa, corresponding to t=-273 C.

Avogadro's law

When a volume of hydrogen combines with a volume of chlorine, two volumes of hydrochloric acid result;
Indeed, when two volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen, two volumes are produced.
of water vapor; by combining three volumes of hydrogen with one volume of nitrogen, two volumes of
gaseous ammonia. It is noted that the volumes of gases that combine are found in ratios between them.
numere intregi si mici 1:1; 2:1; 3:1.
Just as between the volume of the resulting compounds and the volume of each of the components.
there is also a simple ratio of 2:1; 2:2; 2:3, respectively 2:1; 2:1; 2:1.
 Studying the relationships of combining volumes during chemical reactions between gases, Gay-
Lussac established (1808) that the volumes of two gases that combine are related to each other, just as the faces are to the volume.
combination results from the reaction, in a report of integers and small numbers (the law of constant volumes).
The behavior of gases under changes in pressure and temperature and how it relates to their simple volume ratios.
results from their chemical reactions led A. Avogadro to state (in 1811) the hypothesis that later became
equal volumes of different gases, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the same number
de molecule. This law shows that if, for example, at a certain temperature and pressure, a volume of
hydrogen contains a molecule of hydrogen, the same volume of chlorine, at the same temperature and pressure,
a molecule of chlorine.
When a volume of hydrogen combines with an equal volume of chlorine, it means that all the molecules in
the volume of hydrogen combines with all the molecules in the volume of chlorine and results in 2 A molecules of acid
hydrochloric.
According to Avogadro's law, at equal numbers of molecules, the volumes of gaseous substances
The corresponding must be equal, and since at A a molecule corresponds to a volume, at 2A molecules
two volumes must correspond. This explains why hydrochloric acid occupies two volumes.
When two volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen, the reaction occurs between
2 hydrogen molecules and 1 oxygen molecule. Gases having molecules formed from two atoms, in
Reaction 4A hydrogen atoms combine with 2A oxygen atoms
Since the water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, the reaction results in
2A of water molecule.
In a similar way, when three volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of nitrogen, they combine to form 3A.
molecule of hydrogen with A molecule of nitrogen. This means that the reaction takes place between 6A atoms of
hydrogen and 2A nitrogen atoms. Since a molecule of ammonia is made up of three hydrogen atoms.
If one nitrogen atom results in 2A molecules of ammonia from the reaction, which correspond to two volumes.
Therefore, with the help of Avogadro's law, considering the combination ratio, the law
the constant volumes are fully verified.

Determining the number of atoms in a molecule of gas.

From Avogadro's law results a very important consequence, namely that the molecules of the most
Known elementary gases, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and chlorine, are diatomic. The reasoning is
the following: if a volume of hydrogen reacts-
negates with a volume of chlorine to form two volumes of hydrochloric acid, means that each molecule of
the compound must contain at least one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine. Since two volumes of
hydrochloric acid is obtained from one volume of hydrogen and one volume of chlorine, the conclusion is that each
A hydrogen or chlorine molecule contains two atoms.
Molar volume. With the help of Avogadro's law, the volume of a gram-molecule of can be determined
gas.. If equal volumes of different gases, taken under the same temperature and pressure conditions, contain
the same number of molecules occupy equal volumes.
Taking into account that a mole of a substance (one mole) represents the amount of a
the substance whose mass, expressed in grams, is numerically equal to its molecular mass means that in
The mole-gram of different substances contains the same number of molecules. Thus, one mole of any gas
continue 23
6,025*10 molecule. This number is called the number
Avogadro's number is denoted by N. It also represents the number of atoms contained in a gram-atom.
 Because, according to Avogadro, the same number of molecules in a gram of gas under equal conditions occupies
the same volume means that a gram-molecule of gas contains
23
6.025*10 molecules occupy the same volume, regardless of the nature of the gas.
The volume occupied by one gram-molecule of any gas (at 0 °C and 760 mm Hg) is 22.414 l. It is
called molar volume or molecular volume.
The molar volume was calculated from the ratio of gram-molecule to the density of gases. Knowing
The molar volume of gases can be used to solve problems related to the relationship between volume and mass of gases.

The equation of state of perfect gases

Boyle-Mariotte's law pV=k, and Gay-Lussac's law: V/T=k’, can be combined into a single
expression. For this, it is considered that the respective gas has an initial pressure
p0=1 At, T0=273 K if the volume V0. (These conditions are called normal.)
If, while maintaining constant pressure, the gas is heated to temperature T, volume-
will grow from V0 to Vt:
Vt = V0 / T0 * T. (1)
If maintaining a constant temperature, the pressure of the gas increases from p0 to p, the volume
it will increase from Vt to V:
p0 Vt = pV (2)
Substituting the value of Vt from relation (1), it results in:
p0V0/T0 = pV/T (3)
Since the left side of the equation consists only of constant values, it means that the right side as well
it must be constant, that is:
pV/T=k. (4)
If relationship (4) is applied to one mole of a gas, which, according to Avogadro's law, has a volume
constant V, it follows that:
pV/T=R (5)
The constant R is independent of the nature of the gas; it is called the constant of perfect gases.
more simply, the gas constant). The expression:
pV=RT
it is called the equation of state of perfect gases.
A molecule of gas occupies volume V, then 1 mole will occupy the volume
The equation of state of perfect gases then becomes:
p*V/n=RT,
sauce
pV=nRT. (6)
The number of molecules per gram is, however, equal to the ratio of the mass m of the gas, expressed in
the mass and the value of its molecular mass, M, that is:
n = m/M
By substituting this relationship into the formula above, the expression is obtained:
pV=m/M*RT.
 ACID

1. Definition of acids

Acids are substances composed of which, in addition to nonmetal atoms, one or more
hydrogen atoms, which can be substituted with metal atoms, giving rise to salts.

According to the definition, chemical substances that have the form HBr, HI, HCl.

2. Classification of acids

After composition, acids are classified into:

hydrates – contain in their molecule only hydrogen and non-metal atoms;
they continue in their molecule, alongside hydrogen and non-metal atoms, and oxygen atoms.
According to the number of hydrogen atoms that can be replaced by metals, acids are divided into 3 groups:
monobasic
odibazici
otribazici

3. The Nomenclature of Acids

The name of hydrides is formed from the term acid followed by the name of the non-metal, to which the suffix is added.
WATER
The name of oxyacids in which the nonmetal has a lower valence is formed from the term acid followed by the name
of the non-metal, to which the suffix OS is added.
The name of oxoacids in which the nonmetal has its maximum valence is formed from the term acid followed by the name
the non-metal to which the suffix IC is added.

4. Acid radical

From the chemical reactions in which acids participate, it is observed that in their molecules, in addition to hydrogen atoms, there are
gases and atoms or groups of atoms, which remain unchanged during reactions.

The definition of the acid radical

The atom or group of atoms that is part of the composition of acid molecules and that remains in chemical reactions.
they change, they are called acidic radicals. The acidic radical comes from the total or partial removal of hydrogen atoms.
the molecule of the acid and is noted as A.

Value of the acid radical

The acidity of the acid radical is determined by the number of hydrogen atoms that are substituted or eliminated from
molecule of acid.

5. General formula of acids

The general formula of acids is HmA. If we replace A with known radicals and m with their valency, we can
obtain the formulas of the acids.

For A=Cl(I), we have HCl

 6. General methods for obtaining acids

Hydracids can be obtained through synthesis.

Acidic oxides can be obtained from acidic oxides by reacting with water.

The most common laboratory method, used for both hydrides and oxyacids, consists of treating the salts.
with stronger acids.

7. Properties of acids

Physical properties

Acids are gaseous, liquid, or solid substances. They dissolve in water, forming solutions with a sour taste and are good
conductors of electricity.
. The action of acids on indicators
Acids turn the litmus solution red, while phenolphthalein remains colorless in an acidic environment.

Chemical properties

. The reaction of acids with metals

Acids react with some metals, forming salts and releasing hydrogen.
Zn + HCl = ZnCl2+ H↑
. The reaction of acids with metal oxides
Acids react with basic oxides to form salts and water.
CuO + 2HCl = CuCl2+ H↑
. The neutralization reaction
Acids react with bases to form salts and water, according to the general reaction: acid + base = salt + water.
HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O
. The reaction of acids with salts
From the reactions of acids with salts, new acids and salts are obtained.
HCl + AgNO3Silver chloride precipitate + nitric acid3

8. The importance and uses of acids

The importance of acids is so great that the presentation of their uses cannot be easily exhausted.
Hydrochloric acid is used in the laboratory to obtain hydrogen, chlorine, chlorides, and acids.
weak. It is also used in the dyeing, pharmaceutical, leather, textile, and plastics industries.
plastic.
Sulfuric acid (vitriol) is considered the blood of the industry. It is used in the production of sulfates, of
chemical fertilizers, hydrazines and oxyacids, in the pharmaceutical industry.
Nitric acid has wide uses in the chemical fertilizer industry, explosives, dyes, fibers and
synthetic fibers.
 BASES

1. Definition of bases
Bases are compounds composed of a metal atom and a number of hydroxyl groups equal to
the valence of the metal. In the composition of each base, there is one metal atom and one or more OH groups, called hydroxyl
hydroxyl group. The hydroxyl group is monovalent (-OH), as it is obtained from water by removing one atom of
hydrogen.

2. Classification of bases
After solubility in water, bases are classified into 2 categories:
soluble bases;
insoluble or difficult to dissolve bases.

3. The naming of bases

The names of the bases are formed from the term hydroxide, followed by the name of the metal. When the metal presents
the valence variable and forms several hydroxides, to the name of the metal the valence of it is added.

[Link] formula of the bases

The general formula of bases is M(OH)n.
According to the general formula, the bases of monovalent metals are of the form MOH, and those of divalent metals are M(OH)2.2of the ones
trivalent M(OH)3etc.

[Link] methods for obtaining bases

Soluble bases are obtained in the laboratory through 2 methods:
the reaction of strongly electropositive metals with water
the reaction of metal oxides with water.
The poorly soluble bases in water are obtained through the exchange reaction between a soluble salt and an alkaline base.

6. Properties of bases

Physical properties
Soluble and insoluble bases are solid substances, white or colored. The solutions of soluble bases are caustic and
Smoking damages the skin and the body.
. The action of bases on indicators
All soluble bases turn litmus blue and phenolphthalein red, properties used for identifying bases.

Chemical properties
. The neutralization reaction
All bases react with acids, forming salts and water.
NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O
. The reaction of bases with acidic oxides
Bases react with acidic oxides, forming salts and water.
Ca(OH)2+ CO2Calcium Carbonate3down + H2O
. The reaction of bases with salts
Soluble bases react with salts and form new bases and salts.
2NaOH + FeCl2= 2NaCl + Fe(OH)2

7. The importance and uses of databases

The bases of alkaline substances NaOH and KOH are reagents frequently used in laboratories. In industry,
sodium hydroxide is used in soap making, in the production of synthetic fibers, in mercerization
of cotton, in the manufacture of laundry soda.
Calcium hydroxide is a substance of primary importance in industry and construction. Lime milk, a solution that
It is obtained by dissolving calcium hydroxide in water, it is used for whitewashing buildings, making mortar, etc.
Water is used in the sugar industry, in medicine, and for the detection of carbon dioxide in the laboratory.

Strong acids and weak acids, strong bases and weak bases

The ease with which protons are transferred from acids to bases determines a differentiation in chemical behavior.
of these.
In the year 1900, Arrhenius demonstrated that a solution conducts electric current when particles are formed in it.
Incarcerate electric, called ions, that migrate to the electrode of opposite sign. Positive ions, cations, are attracted to
cathode, negative pole; negative ions, anions, are attracted to the anode, positive pole.
Acids, bases, and salts that form ions in aqueous solution are electrolytes, whose solutions conduct electricity.
Electric. Substances that do not form ions in solution are called nonelectrolytes and do not conduct electric current.
The degree of ionization of an electrolyte is the ratio of the number of ionized molecules to the initial number of molecules.
dissolve.
Based on the degree of dissociation, electrolytes are classified into strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes. A strong electrolyte is a
A substance that in aqueous solution is completely dissociated into ions. Strong electrolytes are strong acids, strong bases, and salts.
A weak electrolyte is a substance whose molecules, when in solution, ionize to a small extent. Electrolytes
weak acids and weak bases are weak.
Strong acids are acids that readily donate protons.
Weak acids are acids that dissociate protons with difficulty.
The bases of the country are the bases that easily accept protons.
Weak bases are bases that accept protons with difficulty.

Proton transfer theory

In classical theory of electrolyte dissociation, an acid is defined as a chemical species that produces, upon dissolution
in an acid, a hydrogen ion, and a base, as a species that gives rise, in the same solvent, to a hydroxyl ion. Outside
the fact that this definition limits the phenomenon to aqueous solutions, it is entirely inappropriate for a
quantitative representation of catalysis by acids and bases. In fact, hydrogen ions, that is, protons without a shell of
Electrons, although they can have a transient life in a gaseous state, cannot exist freely in an aqueous solution (nor in other states).
solvents), due to their extreme tendency to combine in water molecules, in the form of hydronium ions and, in
similar mod, with the molecules of other solvents.
In 1923, Swedish chemist J. Bronsted and English chemist T. M. Lowry proposed definitions that were more ...
general, for acids and bases.
According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are substances capable of donating one or more protons. After the number.
Based on the protons they can donate, acids are classified as mono-, di-, and polyprotic.
Bases are substances capable of accepting one or more protons. Bases can be mono- or polyacidic.

The ionic product of water

Water is an acid-base amphoteric substance, because, according to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, a water molecule acts as an acid.
Can a proton donate to another water molecule, acting as a base.
Water molecules can ionize according to the equation 2H2O↔OH⁻ + H2O, resulting Ke = [OH‾] [H3O+] / [H2O]²
Since the ionization of water is very low, the concentration in water molecules is constant and can be
incorporated in Ke. Thus, we can write:
What [H2O]² = [OH‾] [H3O+] = KH2O,
under KH2This is the ionic product of water.
The room temperature, this product has a constant value, that is, the product of hydronium ions and ions
the hydroxyl is equal to 10ˉ¹ mol²/l².
In pure water, the number of hydronium ions is equal to the number of hydroxyl ions, that is equal to 10⁻ mol/l.
By adding a small amount of acid, the number of hydronium ions in the solution increases, and the equilibrium is disturbed. A
Some of the hydrogen ions bond with the hydroxyl groups to establish a new equilibrium. In this case, in solution, the number.
the hydronium ions is greater than that of the hydroxyl group, and the concentration of H+it is greater than 10.
By adding a certain amount of base, the equilibrium is disrupted in this case as well. A number of hydroxyl groups are introduced.
hydronium ions from the solution react, forming un-ionized water molecules. Thus, the concentration of ions of
the hydronium will decrease. In solution, the concentration of H ions+ it will be less than 10‾.

PH and POH

The acidic or basic character of a solution is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions and is expressed in numbers of the type
10‾. For easier expression, the concept of pH was introduced.
The pH of a solution indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions and is expressed as the negative logarithm of [H+].+]
[H+= 10; pH = -lg [H+]
OH is the concept equivalent to pH, but refers to the concentration of hydroxide ions.

The neutralization reaction

The neutralization reaction is one of the most important chemical reactions. The term is usually attributed to
the reaction between an acid and a base.
The neutralization reaction is a particular case of protolytic reactions. When aqueous solutions of
strong acids with aqueous solutions of strong bases combine hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions to form water. In the same
a salt is also formed over time.
HCl + NaOH→NaCl + H2O
H +Cl‾ + Na+OH- → Na++Cl- + H2O
+

H3O++Cl⁻ + Na++OH‾→Na++Cl‾+ 2H2O

Since sodium and chloride ions are also present in the salt that forms, the equation can also be written as: H3O++
OH → 2H2O.
If an exact amount of a strong base necessary for the total neutralization of the acid is added to a quantity of strong acid,
the character of the environment at neutralization is neutral, having a pH = 7. This phenomenon can be highlighted with
the help of the indicators.
Understanding the processes that occur during the neutralization of acids with bases is of particular importance, especially in analysis.
chemistry. Neutralization reactions are the basis of many analytical methods.