CM-Course Generalities about metal frame structures

1.1 METAL FRAME STRUCTURE

Definition
A metallic structure is an assembly of metal elements in the form of
of commercial profiles or welded reconstructed profiles (PRS), used for construction
of a metal framework following a well-defined shape and use. Figure 1.1
represents the main elements of a metal frame.

Scope
Truss

Fig.1.1Terminology of elements in Metal Construction.

The components of the framework in figure 1.1 are listed in table 1.1.
Tab 1.1: Terminology of a Metal Framework Structure
1 Post (HEA or IPE)
2 Closed or crossing (HEA or IPE)
3 Slender thread
4 Bayonet
5 Diagonal of the slope
6 Flange (IPE or IPN)
7 Folded sheet metal gutter
8 Metallic framework
9 Metallic cover
10 Half round gutter
11 Glazed chassis
12 Metal cladding with vertical waves
13 Cladding board
14 Stability Cross
15 Pine cone post (HEA or IPE)
16 Jarret

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CM-Course Generalities on steel frame structures

1.1.2-Application Areas
The main motivations which require the use of a framework construction
metallic, are:
− The use of a durable and ductile material such as steel with its good properties
mechanics,
− Ease of use in the industrial and construction sectors in the construction of skeletons
of frameworks,
− Short deadlines for the completion of different types of structures.
Thus, the main areas of application of metal framework structures are very
vast and varied. They find their contributions in the majority of the following disciplines:
− Mechanical Engineering: Overhead cranes, lifting cranes, gantries, etc. (Fig.1.2)

Fig.1.2: Photo of a Lifting Crane on a Construction Site

− Electrical Engineering: High voltage pylons, telecommunications, construction of

halls for turboalternator group,...etc. (Fig.1.3),

Fig.1.3: Photo of a high voltage power line tower

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

− Civil Engineering: Buildings and urbanization, warehouses, industrial factories,...etc. (Fig.1.4)

Fig.1.4: Photo of a tall industrial building

− Petroleum engineering: Derick, offshore platforms, port cranes, cranes

floating, etc...

Fig.1.5: Photo of an oil platform [6]

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FRAMES

Steel has the best mechanical properties in terms of strength and ease.
of implementation, thus they offer multiple choices in their uses. Indeed, one can cite
four types of structures that can encompass needs from a structural perspective and
architectural.

1.2.1-Structure in commercial profiles

In commerce, there are several standard profiles that meet the choice of shapes and
dimensions obtained after study and determination of constraints according to a specifications document
pre-established in advance by the project owner. The following profiles can be found:
− IPE, UAP and HEA: They are used for lightweight load-bearing structures.
like sand pit failures...etc (Fig.1.6)

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CM-Course General information about steel frame structures

Figure 1.6: Commercial IPE profiles. Figure 1.7: UAP commercial profiles.
− They are used for heavy loads, such as return floors, beams
of rolling (Fig. 1.8).

Figure 1.8: Commercial profiles (HEB)[9]

1.2.2- Welded reconstituted profile structure [PRS]

PRS frameworks are lightweight and highly resistant structures that have a
well-thought-out architecture and innovative architectural possibilities. The reconstituted profiles
Welded (PRS) are profiles whose shape has been designed to optimize their performance.
in relation to the requests (Figure 1.9). The PRS offers the advantages:
− Resistance: optimization of the profile with respect to the stresses,
− Architectural: liberation of space, possible large span, more aesthetic than the
truss beams,
− Economic: mass gain, reduction in the number of assemblies.
On the other hand, in terms of disadvantages, resorting to the PRS incurs additional costs compared to a
classic structure and this in:
− Study: the sizing of a unique part based on its own loads is more
long queue for a classic case,
− Supply: the fabrication of the piece being unique, which increases the time of
supply of the part. This additional cost can vary greatly depending on the type of PRS,
− Manufacturing: assembly and machining that can be complex at times.

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

Figure 1.9: Metallic Structure in PRS[10].

1.2.3-Grid Framework
Trusses are widely used in the construction of framing structures.
metallic. These are structures whose parts are assembled in such a way as to form
triangles. The latter was taken as the basis for these constructions because it is the only entity
invariant from a geometric point of view (Figure 1.10). The use of trusses aims to
to minimize the weight of the structure and maximize rigidity. They appear as trusses of
roofs, bridge frames, cranes, overhead cranes, and pylons, ...etc.
This mode of realization is used primarily to lighten the whole of a
construction while ensuring greater stability. However, lattice structures
lead to additional costs mainly in:
− Supply: (according to the profiles used for the grid),
− Fabrication: In the workshop, the frameworks are welded, which significantly increases the
manufacturing time
− Assembly: Pre-assembled profiles, often requiring several assembly teams and
lifting devices.

Figure 1.10: Truss Bridge

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

1.2.4-Framework in tubular elements

The tubular structures are composed of hollow round profiles (Figure 1.11). To have
a good support of the amounts, the poles are equipped with stiffeners. This kind of construction is
chosen for architectural reasons but the additional cost of its realization in supply, manufacturing
and assembly makes it delicate and costly.

Figure 1.11: Tubular Structure

1.3 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A metal frame structure has the following advantages:
− The quality of strength and toughness of steel compared to its weight makes the structure
lighter even if it is bulky,
− Steel has a homogeneous and uniform internal structure, which implies consistency.
mechanical properties throughout the structure,
− The elasticity of steel provides the structure with good resistance to dynamic loads,
− The possibility of standardizing the components of the metallic frame given their
similarities and possible changes,
− A wide range of applications in geometric shape involves several
choices and architectural desires (aesthetic needs)
− Better durability with existing protection means (coating, paint).
− The ease of assembly and disassembly of the structure,
− The speed of implementation,
− The recovery and reuse of the structural elements after dismantling.
However, the major drawback is the poor corrosion resistance of a structure made of
steel including their poor fire resistance. In addition, the high resonance that involves
poor sound insulation.
A steel structure also represents low thermal insulation due to the effects of
significant dilatations and high thermal conductivity.

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CM-Course Generalities on metallic frame structures

1.4 - DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF A METALLIC FRAME

1.4.1- The farms
[Link] - Definition
The farm is the main element of the attic, it has a triangular shape.
prefabricated with profiles, reinforced internally by studs and diagonals (elements
bars), assembled at points called nodes (Figure 1.12). These bars (verticals and
diagonals) are only subjected to tension and/or compression.
In a metal frame, the truss is placed on load-bearing walls, on columns, or
on the sand pit failures through brackets.

Figure 1.12: Left side of a triangular truss

There are two kinds of farms:

− Classic trusses: such as the triangular truss, trapezoidal truss, and the pitched roof truss
broken (Figure 1.13),

Figure 1.13: Farm with broken slopes

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

− Special farms: such as the English farm, the Belgian farm, the American farm,
Polonceau farm and Shed farm ...etc. (Figure 1.14)

Figure 1.14: Special Fermes [15]

[Link] - Criteria for choosing a farm

Given the existence of different types of farms, to select a specific type, we rely on
the following selection criteria:

− Use or not of the attic;

− Scope of the structure;
− Roof overhang;
− Roof slope;
− Weight of the blanket;
− Weight of ceilings.

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

1.4.2- The breakdowns

[Link] Description
In a metal frame construction, the purlin is part of the roofing, it
represents the second main element of the roof after the trusses.
The failure appears as a one-dimensional metallic structure, having the
configuration of a straight beam with a standardized constant section. This beam is supported on some
beams (farms), its main function is to support dead loads and live loads
of the structure's operations.
They are intended to transmit the charges and surcharges that apply to the coverage.
(roof or floor), at the supports (beams or trusses). They are part of the family of
long hot-rolled products are produced in series of IPE, IPN, UAP, and UPN profiles
as shown in figure 1.15.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 1.15: Types of cross-section of the profiles for the purlins[16]

IPE profile

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CM-Course General Information on Metal Frame Structures

[Link] Installation and fixing of a beam

The installation and fixation of purlin elements on the beams (trusses) in the structures in
Metal framework serves to form the connections (joints) of assemblies. These joints
have a dual role, on one side to allow the spatial construction of the structure and on the other, to ensure
the stability of the whole.
The breakdowns are assembled at the farms through fuses (Figure 1.16).
bolting or by welding (non-detachable connection). This connection ensures good transmission
and distribution of efforts at the roof level.

Figure 1.16: Assembly of a breakdown on a farm.

1.4.3- The posts

The posts are structural elements used in metal construction like
supports of frameworks. They therefore primarily work in compression and they are constrained to
buckling for large spans.

[Link]-Types of Poles
− Sections in I and H (hot rolled): it is the most common and the most
economic. Particularly well suited for connecting beams in both
directions. (Figure 1.17).

Figure 1.17: I and H section

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CM-Course General information about steel frame structures

− Hollow sections and solid steel sections: Suitable for columns with
strong charges, section of reduced dimensions Due to the smooth exterior surface,
preference without coating (Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.18: Box section and solid

c - Hollow profiles: The mechanical characteristics of profiles with outer dimensions

identical ones can be graduated by the variation in the thickness of the walls. The filling in
concrete increases mechanical strength and fire resistance. (Figure 1.19).

Figure 1.19: Section in hollow profiles

Composite poles: Composite poles are made up of several profiles.

are assembled; either by corner brackets in truss (in V or N), or by flat bars. One can
to reach up to 30m in range with this type of pole. They come in different shapes in plan,
according to the arrangement of the frames. (Figure 1.20).

Figure 1.20: Composite columns

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

[Link]-Post Feet
The footings of poles form the lower part of the pole connected to the foundation. They can
be articulated, embedded or simply supported (Figure 1.21). Their role is to distribute the
charges supported on the foundation surface. The connection of the posts to the foundations must be
rigid in order to withstand the different applied forces and consequently ensure the anchoring and the
stability of the structure.

NK0 NK0
NK0
T K0 T=0
T K0
Mf= 0 Mf = 0
Mf K 0
Mf = 0 Mt= 0
Mt= 0

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.21: types of connections between columns and foundation[11]

fixed connection with 4 to 6 bolts

[Link]-Types and means of anchoring poles
The poles are anchored to the foundation (ground) by bolting and through rods.
of anchors that are arranged in the anchorage cell in different ways (Figure 1.22)

Figure 1.22: Arrangements of anchoring rods[11]

The anchor rods are high-strength steel bars, working under tension. They
are straight or curved at their ends (Figure 1.23) to hook onto a bar
horizontal called the anchor bolt which is embedded in the foundation concrete.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.23: Types of anchoring rod
Hammer-headed rod

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CM-Course Generalities on metal frame structures

The end plate (Figure 1.24); It is a rectangular steel plate welded at the end.
the profile of the pole and whose thickness must not exceed by much the thickness of the web
post.

Post Passage hole

of the anchor rod
Welding

Figure 1.24: The end plate[11]

1.4.4- The elements of stability or bracing
[Link]. Definition
The term bracing refers to any device that ensures the stability of a framework.
horizontal efforts (wind, cranes, earth thrust, ...) and by extension those
ensuring the lateral stability (buckling, overturning) of certain parts of the structure.
[Link] Notion of stability
A structure will be stable if, regardless of the forces it will be subjected to, direct or
derivatives, normal or exceptional temporary ones, will neither collapse nor tip over but
also if the deformations and displacements are sufficiently small not to cause harm
in pursuit of its exploitation.
Ensure the stability of a spatial structure like the framework of a metal frame
It consists of making it stable both statically and dynamically, which amounts to trying to make it transit.
the efforts by the rigid elements of the construction and the routed to the
supports.(foundation).
Elements of bracing can include crosses, frames, and systems of
lattices that can be placed in the roof and on the longitudinal face and
transversal.(Figure1.25)

Longitudinal 5- of Poinçon 4- d'Entrait

2- Transversal
3- of the Rampant
Figure 1.25: Bracing in a metal frame structure

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CM-Course General information about metal frame structures

1.4.5- Cladding
The cladding in a metal framework constitutes the outer superficial layer of the
building, generally composed ofboysofmetalor composite materials. They ensure that
the mechanical resistance, the watertightness, the thermal insulation, the acoustic insulation and
Finally, aesthetics. In metallic materials, two types of cladding are distinguished:
− Simple skin cladding: It is a simple wall made of sheet metal, composed of panels.
profiled or curved, made of steel or aluminum, whose ribs can be arranged
vertically, obliquely or horizontally.
− Double-skin cladding: Such a facade is composed of two metal panels.
profiled, generally of long length, arranged on either side of a material
insulator. (Figure 1.26)

The elements of a double-skin cladding.

1.4.6- Roofs (Coverings)

Steel is very frequently used as roofing. It can serve as a waterproofing support.
to flat roofs or low slopes, allowing a significant weight gain compared to a slab in
reinforced concrete. The coverings equipped on the vast majority of metal buildings are of two
types
− Simple cover in corrugated sheets. (Figure 1.27 a)
− Roofing with corrugated steel sheets. (Figure 1.27 b)

(a) (b)
Figure 1.27: The elements of the roof
simple cover

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CM-Course General information on metal frame structures

1.5 - MATERIALS USED IN METAL FRAMEWORK

1.5.1-Nuances of Steels used in metal frames
The nuances of steels used in metal and mechanical construction are recorded on the
table 1.2
Table 1.2:Steels according to NF EN 10025 and NF EN 10027 standards [18]
Nuance Rmin Remin Jobs
S 185 290 185
S 235 340 235
General purpose steel
S 275 410 275
S 335 490 355
E 295 470 295
E 335 570 335 Mechanical construction steel
E 360 670 360
RminMinimum breaking strength in [Mpa]
ReminApparent minimum elastic resistance in [Mpa].

1.5.2-Correspondence between the steels used in metal structures

Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 represent the comparison of steels used in framing.
metallic according to certain standards.

Hot laminated
Designation according to Designation according to
Limit
EN 10025-2:2004 EN 10025:1990 +A1:1993
of elasticity Symbolic Digital Symbolic Digital France Germany
[Mpa] NF EN 10025 NF EN 10025 NF EN 10025 NF EN 10025 NF A DIN
NF En 10027-1 NF En 10027-2 NF EN 10027-1 NF En 10027-2 35-501 17100
185 S 185 1.0035 S185 1.0035 A 33 St 33
235 - - S235JR 1.0037 E24-2 St.37-2
- - S235JRG1 1.0036 - UST 37-2
S235JR 1.0038 S235JRG2 1.0038 - RSt 37-2
S235JO 1.0114 S235 JO 1.0114 E 24-3 St 37-3U
S235J2 +N 1.0117 +N S235J2G3 1.0116 E 24-4 St 37-3N
S235J2 1.0117 S235J2G4 1.0117 -
275 S275JR 1.0044 S275JR 1.0044 E 28-2 St 44-2
S275JO 1.0143 S275JO 1.0143 E 28-3 St 44-3U
S275J2 +N 1.0145 +N S275J2G3 1.0144 E 28-4 St 44-3N
S275J2 1.0145 S275J2G4 1.0145 -
355 S355JR 1.0045 S355JR 1.0045 E 36-2 -
S355JO 1.0553 S355JO 1.0553 E 36-3 St 52-3U
S355J2 +N 1.0577 +N S355J2G3 1.0570 - St 52-3N
S355J2 1.0577 S355J2G4 1.0577 - -
S355K2 +N 1.0596 +N S355K2G3 1.0595 E 36-4 -
S355K2 1.0596 S355K2G4 1.0596 - -
295 E295 1.0050 E295 1.0050 A 50-2 St 50-2
335 E335 1.0060 E335 1.0060 A 60-2 St 60-2
360 E360 1.0070 E360 1.0070 A.70-2 St 70-2

Table 1.3 Correspondence of hot-rolled steel standards

used in metal frame.

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CM-Course General information about metal frame structures

Hot laminated skateable (low-alloy steel with Copper-Nickel-Phosphorus, with resistance

improved against atmospheric corrosion by the formation of a protective patina
Designation according to Designation according to
Limit
EN 10025-2:2004 EN 10025:1990 +A1:1993
of elasticity Symbolic Digital Symbolic Digital France Germany
[Mpa] NF EN 10025 NF EN 10025 NF EN 10025 NF EN 10025 NF A DIN
NF En 10027-1 NF En 10027-2 NF In 10027-1 NF En 10027-2 35-501 17100
235 S235JOW 1.8958 S235JOW 1.8958 E24-W3WTST 37-2
- - 1.8961 S235J2W 1.8961 E24-W4WTST 37-3
355 S355JOW 1.8945 S355JOWP 1.8945 E36WA3WTST 36-3
S355J2WP 1.8946 S355J2WP 1.8946 E36WA4WTST 36-3
S355JOW 1.8959 S355JOW 1.8959 E36WB3
S355J2W +N 1.8965 +N S355J2G1W 1.8963 - WTST 52-3
S355J2W 1.8965 S355J2G2W 1.8965 E36WB4
S355K2W+N 1.8967 +N S355K2G1W 1.8966
S355K2W 1.8967 S355K2G2W 1.8967

Table 1.4 Correspondence of standards for weathering steel rolled at hot

used in metal frame construction.

1.5.3-Example of designation of nuances of construction steel [15]

Steel Group Treatment Conditions

Mechanical characteristics +M thermomechanical milling

Elastic limit Re [Mpa] +N Normalizing Rolling
AR raw rolling

Mechanical characteristics group 1 Special conditions

Resilience Z15 15% restriction

min 27 J......min 40 J Temperature °C
Z25 25% restriction
JR / + 20
JO / 0 Z35 35% stricture
J2 / 20

Mechanical characteristics group2

L for low temperatures

Thermomechanical rolling
N normalizing rolling
Wpatinable

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CM-Course General information on steel frame structures

1.6 - IMPLEMENTATION OF A METAL FRAME PROJECT

1.6.1. Introduction
Generally, at the origin of a project, there is a problem to solve that will require the
project management concept whose main steps are:
1. Initialization / Framing
2. Preliminary project / Define the objectives,

3. Conception / Search for solutions,

4. Planning
5. Implementation / Execution / Performance,
6. Closure / Closing / Termination.
In addition, these steps are in constant interaction throughout the duration of the
project.
The initial step of the project in question involves defining the purpose of the project in terms of:
− Clarification of the need,
− Project identification,
− Project Formulation.

1.6.2-Specifications
The specifications document (or technical specifications of the need) is the master document for
provide before the start of a project. It must define the objectives and the needs to be met as well as
the constraints and requirements with social, urban, architectural, and functional characteristics,
technique and economic, of integration into the landscape...etc, related to the realization of the work.
The specifications consist of several programs:
− The architectural and urban planning program determines the requirements based on
regulatory, technical and functional constraints but also political ones such as the
symbols and images of representations. For example, a college façade must
must necessarily have 'The name of the college' as well as the emblems of the nation.
− The functional program must address several points:
− Needs assessment,
− Definition of the organization of the structure (Organizational chart),
− Definition of the minimum and maximum size of the different elements of the structure,
− Definition of common services,
− Definition of equipment,
− Definition of usage rhythms, flows of different spaces,

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CM-Course General Information on Steel Frame Structures

1.6.3 - Stages of implementing a metal frame project

In the case of constructing a metal frame structure, the project is a
complex process that requires collaboration from several actors and stakeholders, namely
the project owner, project manager, controller, technical study office, and the company of
realization). This process relies on written documentation (specifications and estimates)
and another graphic (site plan, mass plan, overall drawing and drawing
execution). The main stages of a project in metal structure are classified according to the
figure 1.28.

01 Design of the metal framework

1- Computer-Aided Design [CAD].
2- Manufacturing processes waste reduction
3D drawing according to architectural plans

STEP: 02 Sizing & Calculations

1- Study of the stability of the structure [RDM]
2- Calculation of assemblies
3- Verification of resistance and deformation conditions.

STEP: 03 Production of steel profiles

1- Cold Sheet Profiling/Forming

2- Cutting/Machining (drilling) of profiled elements
Welding of components forming standard unique pieces.

STEP: 04 Assembly of the metal frame

1- Verification / assembly of elements into 2D panels in factory

2- Preparation of assembly plans on site
3- Choice of assembly methods on site.

05 Transport of the structure

1- Choice of means of transport and routes of delivery

2- make transportation easier by disassembling the removable elements.
3- well thought of the elements. Heavy bulky structure.

06 Assembly on site

1- Risk prevention and safety on construction sites

2- Site management / organizations and logistics.
3- Means used for handling and lifting fixed/mobile cranes.

Figure 1.28: Organigram showing the stages of a metal framing project

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