Introduction to the information system

[Link]

Information system
Introduction

1 Notion of organization:
An organization is a set of people, techniques, processes,
methods, materials, etc., implemented in a coordinated manner for an economic purpose,
social, administratif,…etc.
Economic organization: company
Social Organization: insurance fund
Administrative Organization: APC, rectorate, Daïra, etc.

What is a company?
There is no universal definition of a business. It depends on the approach one takes.
choose. There are three types of approach:

The economic approach

The sociological approach
The systemic approach

According to the economic approach, the company is a unit of production of goods and services.
intended for consumer goods markets (general public) and goods markets
of productions (other companies).

According to the sociological approach of the company, the company is composed of 3 actors.
main:

Capital contributors
Leaders
Employees

These 3 actors have different individual goals and strategies. Indeed, regarding
concerning the capital contributors, their logic is purely financial, they are looking for
above all the profitability of their investments. Their goal is to secure their gains and, if possible,
to increase them. Capital providers are attracted by increasingly appealing investments.
profitable. Their source of power is capital. They thus develop a strategy
of investment or withdrawal (in case of loss).

Regarding the leaders, their logic is the maximization of performance.

the company, assessed by the economic profitability of capital. Their goal is to guarantee
their place and to expand their power (capital and organization).

For employees, their logic is personal development and job security.

They aim to secure their employment, if possible doing an interesting job in
good material and psychological conditions. The source of their power is know-how.
Their strategy is one of adhesion, that is to say the appeal of the career.

1 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

For the company to function, given the individual strategies developed.

by the 3 identified stakeholders, a consensus or organizational compromise is therefore necessary.

The systemic approach (the company as a system)

What is a system?

A system can be defined as a set composed of interacting elements.

permanent, organized and open to its environment to which it must constantly adapt
for its survival. Considering a business as a system means viewing it as
an organized set, composed of different functions, services, individuals in a permanent
interaction, having all objectives that may be contradictory.

The company as a system is open to its external environment, a source of

threats to be understood but also opportunities to seize. The company must adapt to it by
permanence for its survival and development. The components of the environment are
very diversified: technology, social, cultural, legal, economic, political, ecological
competition, clients, suppliers.

2.1. Organizational structures

the structure groups the different organs and the relationships between them (hierarchical or
functional). In fact, it is about the distribution of tasks, responsibilities, powers
and communications within the company.

2.1.1 The different types of structures

There are six types of structures, and none of them is transferable from one company to another.
other. It is said that in the end, "we will know the structure we deserve".

The hierarchical structure (Fayol)

Principle: A subordinate receives orders only from one man, to whom he must account.

Example: Hierarchical structure of an army regiment.

Advantages:

Simplicity (everything is written).

Clear distribution of responsibilities.
Facilitates the maintenance of discipline.

Disadvantages:

Rigidity.
Slowness of information.
Difficult to implement (especially in a complex environment).
Does not favor taking initiative.

2 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

The functional structure (Taylor)

The functional structure resides in the principle of specialization.

According to Taylor, it is impossible for a foreman to have all the knowledge all the time.
necessary for the proper functioning of operations. Therefore, a subordinate should not have a
only one chef, but several.

Advantages:

Advice to different specialists.

Quality of execution.
Higher yield.

Disadvantages:

Risk of conflict.
Rigidity.
The organization is losing clarity.
Diluted power.
In case of error, difficulty in finding the cause.
Structure that respects human nature little (the executor has no responsibility for the
knowledge

The divisional structure

The division is based on business sectors.

Example: Products, technique, distribution, type of clients...

Each division has its own resources and is managed as a semi-autonomous system.
In each division, one can find a functional structure.

Advantages:

Proximity to markets leading to flexibility and adaptability.

But suppose:

A versatility of division heads.

A summit ensuring its responsibilities.
A management control and evaluation system.

The Staff & Line structure

This structure is the fusion of the two models (the hierarchical model of FAYOL and the
functional model of TAYLOR) to eliminate its disadvantages.

3 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Advantages:

The unity of command is always maintained

The staff will help the hierarchical superior make decisions, especially strategic ones.

Limits:

Sometimes the team of advisors (Staff) comes into conflict with the operational staff (line)

The matrix or multidivisional structure

The matrix structure brings together a temporary structure by projects and a stable structure by
functions.

Advantages:

Very effective in developing new activities and coordinating activities

multiples and complex.
Coordination ensured by the project managers.
The expertise is ensured by the functional services.

Disadvantages:

Source of conflicts.
Issues of oversight and communication
Does not correspond to the large groups that decentralize production, the
commercialization and advertising, etc...

The decentralized structure

Objective-based management (OBM): Mode of operation of work and responsibilities.

Breakdown of the firm into specific and quantified short-term objectives. The achievement of its
objectives are entrusted by delegation to managers who are to report periodically, and to
correct the observed discrepancies.

Participative direction by objective (PDPO): negotiation by the interested parties themselves of

goals to take.

Advantages:

Respect for the unity of command and the specialization of tasks.

Mobilization of all staff to achieve the set objectives

4 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Disadvantages:

Sometimes, neglect by the company of the social aspect of staff under the pretext of
achievement of goals.
Risk of conflict between managers who share the same resources and who
are looking for distinct objectives.

2.1.2 The determinants of structure

The age of the company

The size of the company
The technical system
The environment
Culture
The power

2.2 The major functions of the company

General management and strategy.

Recherche et développement technologique.
Purchasing and Logistics
Production and Engineering.
Marketing.
Sales.
Human resources.
Financial management.
Control and accounting.
Administrative, legal, tax.
Infrastructure and security.
Information systems.
Quality / environment.

2.3/ the enterprise system

The company is a system...

One can then define the company as a system having the characteristics
following:

concrete: made up of a set of concrete elements (machines, land...) but also

abstract (a story, a culture)

organized: that is to say equipped with a functioning structure allowing to ensure the
coordination of the system elements.

open: therefore in relationship (incoming and outgoing flows) with its environment.

finalized: that is to say having a goal that requires the implementation of a strategy.

5 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

dynamic: constantly evolving, due in part to changes in its

environment.

regulated: in a way to constantly try to achieve its objectives through taking

decision.

the company is organized into subsystems:

Although the company has total freedom of internal structuring, it is observed in the
the reality of the permanence of subsystems in the majority of those that revolve around
two criteria:
according to the functional criterion: supply, production subsystems,
commercialization.

according to the exchanged flows: physical subsystem (manages the actual flow of materials...) financial
(capital flows) or communication (information flows).

This leads us to distinguish three essential subsystems:

A company is a system composed of three independent subsystems.

The operating system:

It ensures the operation of the global system by carrying out the physical production of the B &
S.
It is connected to the environment by external flows and to other subsystems by flows.
internal information.
His activity is controlled by the control system.

The control (or decision) system:

He assigns objectives to the company.

He analyzes the environment and the internal functioning of the company.
He monitors the execution of tasks performed by the operating system.
It ensures the regulation of the global system.
It is connected to other subsystems through internal information flows.

The information system:

He provides the company with various sources of information, both internal and external.
He is the essential point of passage for all the information of the company.
It memorizes the information, processes it, and communicates it to the other subsystems.
to which it is connected.

6 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

3. Formal definition of a system:

A system is an organized set of elements participating in the achievement of one or more

objectives through the execution of a number of operations where entities are received as input
to produce other entities as outputs.

3.1 Schematic representation:

It is essential that the output S is the result of a certain operation on the input E.

 E
S The

The operation
E S
O

Example:

Manufacturing company: E: raw material (RM)

finished product (FP)
O: transformation of MP into PF
Engine: E: fuel
Energy
O : combustion

3.2 Notion of subsystem:

A subsystem is a subset that itself constitutes a subset.

system
he has his own inputs E', his own outputs S', and his own operations O' such
that S' = O'(E').

Example:

A faculty is a subsystem of the university.

The computer is a subsystem of the computing center.

3.3 Systemic decomposition of an organization:

Any organization can be broken down into three subsystems:

A subsystem that is concerned with transforming system inputs properly into
output: the operating system (OS)

A subsystem that focuses on guiding the operation of the system by

information and decision: the management system (MS)

7 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

A subsystem that is concerned with receiving information from inside or outside.

of the organization to process them and then retransmit them to the interior or exterior: the
Information system (IS)

Diagram:

SO YES SP

Organization

Decisions
Information
Actions

Department of Computer Science

SO: The teachers and everything they use

The Director of Studies
SI: The non-teaching staff responsible for receiving information and the
handle (letters, phone calls...)

This diagram highlights the role of the IS in an organization:

Allow the operators within the system to obtain the necessary information to
the completion of their tasks.

Provide the management system with information on the state of the organization to allow
to guide decision-makers in directing this operation towards a better realization of the objects.

Ensure the transmission of information and decisions to the various relevant stakeholders.

In particular, an automated information system (AIS) is an information system that

involves automatic processing means, notably computers.

Computers being unable to process information in its natural form, it is

It is necessary to subject this to a structuring process in order to extract the data.
assimilable by the computer.

8 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Methodology for analysis and design of SI

I. Generality
I.1 Reminder: An information system is a system that allows the execution of a
a certain number of processes on files received as input to produce results
out.
I.2 Analysis and design:
Analysis: Study, examination of an object, a situation to understand it
the operation with the aim of improvement, examination of an existing object.
Conception: Creation of an object, a system: action that gives
birth to something that does not exist.
The analysis and design of automated information systems (AIS,
ACSI, ACSIA, CSIA consists of a set of techniques and methods intended to
improve the effectiveness of the IS based on the objectives of the corresponding organizations.

II. Different approaches

II.1 Cartesian approach
Cartesian Descartes: "Divide to resolve better"
This approach involves breaking down all management procedures of the company
an independent application that can be studied separately without taking into account the
other applications.
Example: 1-Division of the university into faculties
2- In a commercial company: -Personnel management.
Client management.
Supplier management.
Inventory management.
A-Advantage:
1. Ease of implementation.
2. Possibility of processing applications in parallel.
3. No deep structural changes to the company.
4. Ease of maintenance.
5. Ease of estimating operating costs.

B-Disadvantages:

Difficulty in practicing independent entities

Can increase development costs
3. Stopping problem of decomposition
4. No modification of the structure as it can be a source of
malfunction.

II.2 Systemic Approach

Observation: An organization cannot always be broken down into applications.

independent.
The resolution of the various independent sub-problems does not necessarily involve the
resolution of the global problem.

9 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

The systemic approach therefore consists of considering the subsystems as well.

as independent as possible and to treat them considering their interaction.
Example: In a faculty, one can consider:
The library, personnel management, the departments, etc.
a- Like independent sources (Cartesian approach)
b- Like sources in interaction (systemic approach).

A-Advantage
[Link] consideration of reality
2. possibility of questioning the existing organization
3. integrated and cooperative solution

Disadvantages: More complex to implement

1. questioning of the existing organization
[Link] to process in parallel.

III. General methods of analysis and design of an IS

III.1 Definition of a method
According to the Petit Robert, a method is a set of steps.
reasoned approaches followed to achieve a goal.
The objective of system design and development methods is to represent a
approach and a set of models to implement a new system.
Example: Merise, Axial, E/R Chen, …etc.
Whatever method is chosen, it revolves around the following steps:
[Link] study
[Link] study
[Link]
4. Implementation and execution
[Link] and test games
6. Maintenance

10 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Progression of the MERISE method to design and implement an Information System (SIA)

Study of the existing

1. Objectives
.2. Collection of existing
2.1. The Management Interviews
2.2. The workstation interviews
3. Study of workstations
4. Study of the documents
5. Study of files
6. Information flow
7. Description of work procedures
.8. Information grid
.9. Expression of objectives and constraints
10. Syntheses of the existing
11. Diagnostic
.12. Validation
Conceptual study
1. Objectives
2. Conceptual Data Model (CDM)
.1. Objectives
Formalism and definitions
.3. Concepts
.4. Other concepts
Conceptual Model of Treatments (CMT)
.3.1. Objectives
V.3.2. Concepts
V.3.3. Formalism and Definitions
V.4. Organizational Model of Treatments (MOT)
V.4.1. Objectives
V.4.2. Concepts
V.4.3. Formalism

11 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

V.5. External Models (EM)

V.5.1. Objectives
V.5.2. Construction rules
V.6. Validation
V.6.1. Objectives
V.6.2. Validation Rules
V.7. Logical Data Model (LDM)
V.7.1. Objectives
V.7.2. Concepts of the relational model
V.7.3. Rules for converting from MCD to MLD
Chapter 6: Realization
VI.1. Physical Data Model (PDM)
VI.1.1. Objectives
VI.1.2. Case of a DBMS
VI.2. Operational Model of Treatment (MOpT)
VI.2.1. Objectives
VI.2.2. Hierarchical diagram

12 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

The company's information system

The systemic approach of the company has highlighted the importance of the notion of flow and
the existence of three subsystems (decision system, information system and system
operating).
Among all the flows passing through the company, the information flows play a major role. They
ensuring the economic and social cohesion of the company by conveying a resource
essential: information.

The information flows through the information system for well-defined purposes and functions.
precise.

If these functions can be fulfilled in very different ways depending on the type of system
the information that the company possesses, there is a clear trend today towards
automated information systems.

I. Information in the company

Information is everything that significantly forms a visual representation of the

reality.

A. The forms of information

Information can be written, pictorial, oral...

In the case where the information results from processing, we speak of structured information (or
formalized or documented).

Structured information is essential for the business because it is more concise, more
quickly communicable, often more reliable, and can be processed algorithmically in order
to obtain new information.

B. The characteristics of information

Information has characteristics of content, cost, and quality.

The semantic content of the information

A piece of information is more or less selective (amount of new knowledge provided

by the information), synthetic and precise. Moreover, it is positioned in time.

2. The cost and value of information

a) The cost of information

The cost of information corresponds to the total amount incurred by the company for
its search, its processing, its storage, and even its destruction.

13 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Example:

The establishment of a technological monitoring policy to keep informed about the products that
can launch competitors, the exploitation of customer information from the
representatives, the safeguarding of accounting data, the destruction of technical data
of a prototype that will never be marketed, generate expenses in resources
humans, logistics, technological, etc.

These costs are only justified if they are lower than the value of the information.

b) The value of information

Information has value if it helps to reduce uncertainty, improve decision-making and

to avoid making mistakes.

This value is assessed based on three quality criteria: relevance, reliability, and
the availability of information.

Information is relevant if it provides answers to the

questions that the company asks itself. It reduces uncertainty.

Example:

Our products sold poorly because large retailers offered them little support.
place in their shelves.

Information is reliable if it is accurate, precise, complete, and up to date.

reduces uncertainty and helps avoid errors.

Example:

Last month, a survey by our representatives in all the supermarkets has

permission to appreciate the number of linear meters granted to our products. It is less than
the one granted to competing products. A survey of customers showed that the
the handling of our product packaging was appreciated while we thought it would be
had to see her again.

Information is available if it arrives at the right time, in the right place

and in a directly usable form. It reduces uncertainty, allows
to avoid mistakes and allows for making appropriate decisions.

Example:

The survey report from the representatives provided detailed statistics by region.
and by store as well as global data by region for all our products. This report
has arrived on the desk of the merchandising manager before the scheduled meeting with the
Sales director. The decision has been made to strengthen our communication policy and
image with large retail chains rather than revising our product policy and
production of packaging.

14 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Cost and value allow for the assessment of the profitability of an investment in terms
Information. But first, it is necessary to be able to measure the value of information!

C. The roles of information

What use does the company make of information?

1. Information, tool for external communication

The company uses information to communicate with its environment. Information

is an external communication tool responding to legal obligations (the declarations of
salaries, VAT declarations, the income statement, the balance sheet, etc) and to the necessities of
business management (the company must remain constantly attentive to requests for
his environment and should appreciate the importance of the risks and opportunities it generates.
To do this, the company disseminates and gathers information.

2. Information, internal communication tool

Information enables the communication of the internal components of the company.

Information is an internal communication tool that meets legal obligations.

work: the social plan and the economic plan in the event of a dismissal procedure) and to
management necessities (link between the decision-making system and the operating system).

Information thus enables the functional coordination of the different

internal components of the company.

II. The company's information system (IS)

A. The concept of information system

The information system (IS) is the collection of information circulating within the company and
the means put in place to manage them.

Note:

The term 'Management Information System' (MIS) is also used to refer to the system.
company information.

The information

All information, regardless of its form, is part of the IS. However, in the
In the field of management, only structured information is truly operational.

2. The means

We distinguish human resources (All the people in a company: the users,

decision-makers, etc.), the material means (the set of machines receiving, manipulating and
issuing information) and the methods (the set of working tools and rules
allowing to solve management issues).

15 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

We can mention methods such as:

the models (mathematical, operational research, accounting,

economic, etc.)
algorithms, heuristics,
the plans, the standards,
instruction sheets, operating procedures,
- administrative procedures, regulations,
computer programs, computer software,
- etc.

B. The three main objectives of the information system

The IS helps in decision making

The information system provides decision-makers with the necessary information for decision-making.
allows for studying the foreseeable consequences of decisions and automating some
decisions.

To achieve this objective, the information system provides decision-makers with information about the future.

Example:

Sales and revenue forecasts for the next six months allow for an assessment of the
expected results from the business decisions made.

2. The IS allows for controlling the evolution of the organization

The SI allows for the detection of internal malfunctions and abnormal situations.

To achieve this objective, the IS must be the organization's 'collective memory' by keeping
a record of information about the past.

Example:

The documents produced by general accounting (Balance sheet, income statement, etc.)
describes the company's situation in relation to its past activities.

3. The IS allows for the coordination of the activities of the different components of the company and
notably those of the operating system

To achieve this goal, the IS provides information about the present.

Example:

When processing an order, the information system allows for the coordination of the service's activity.
accountant, from the sales department, from the delivery service, etc. through the flows
internal information (order received, order recorded, order delivered, etc.)

To achieve these three objectives, the information system must perform several functions.

16 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

C. The four functions of the information system

First function: gather information

The IS has two main sources of information: external sources

(the information produced by the OECD, INSEE, the chambers of commerce and industry,
etc.) and internal sources (accounting documents, commercial documents, etc.).

In the face of these sources of information, the IS carries out tasks of listening, analysis, and input.

Information has value for the company but it also has a cost, especially when it is
external origin. The listening task is usually accompanied by an analysis task.
critique of the mass of accessible information in order to eliminate any source of information and
any information that is irrelevant or of insufficient quality.

The listening phase identifies the information deemed relevant for the company. It is then necessary to
enter this information. The goal is to structure information from origins and forms
various. Human and technical resources (notably data entry equipment and
recording supports) are used but also methods, including methods of
control and coding of information in order to have reliable information
easily exploitable.

2. Second function: to remember the information

Once entered, the information must be stored in a durable and stable manner. The information system puts in
means of technical and organizational resources (archiving methods, protection against
hacking or destruction, etc.).

Today, memorization of information is done using two techniques.

main files and databases.

3. Third function: to exploit information

Once memorized, a whole series of operations can be applied to the information. These
processing operations consist of:

consult the information: search for it, select it,

organize the information: sort them, merge them, partition them,
update the information: modify them (in form and content), delete them,
etc.
produce new information: calculated information (following calculations
arithmetic or logical calculations, totals, etc.

4. Fourth function: disseminate information

The distribution consists of making available to those who need it, at the moment they need it.
need and in a directly usable form, all the information that they
will allow them to ensure their activities.

17 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

In this sense, the information system ensures the circulation of information intended for
decision system and the operating system.

The mediums for this dissemination are multiple: oral, paper, electronic, or magnetic.

Even if all information systems must perform the same functions, there is a
a wide variety of real situations. To appreciate this variety, several criteria of
classifications are used.

D. The evolution trends of the information system

Information systems tend to automate themselves through the use of computer means,
office automation and teleinformatics. The dissemination of these means is of varying importance
from a limited broadcast (centralized system) to a much broader broadcast
systematic voice (distributed system).

1. Computing

Computer science is the set of scientific and technical methods specifically

applicables au traitement de l'information effectué notamment par des moyens automatiques.
Computer systems are composed of hardware components (mainly)
computers) and software elements (registered programs, application software,
specific software, etc.).

Computing is used in all areas of the company's activities:

accounting and administrative work

decision aid (SIAD: interactive decision aid systems, expert systems)
industrial domain, production: control of industrial processes, MRP

Interactive decision support systems (IDSS)

The DIAs are computer tools for decision support whose implementation involves
a dialogue between human beings and machines. They allow decision-makers to have access to a
large volume of information, to conduct simulations, tests, to evaluate different solutions
possible, etc. They can be used for both strategic and tactical decisions or
operational.

Example:

Spreadsheet software (such as MICROSOFT EXCEL) allows for

forecasts based on past data, to provide calculated data on choices
investment, conducting multi-criteria information research, etc.

Database management systems (MICROSOFT ACCESS, for example)

allowing, through creation and querying languages, to work on large
databases, to extract synthetic data, to archive statistical series, etc.

Expert systems:

18 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Expert systems are computer software that simulates human reasoning in

producing solutions from a knowledge base manipulated by a set of
rules. They provide users with knowledge, diagnostics of
situation, allowing them to analyze and interpret situations like specialists.

Example:

Dans le domaine de la gestion, les systèmes experts permettent de réaliser des diagnostics
financiers, accounting diagnostics, strategic management diagnostics, etc.

2. Office automation

Office automation is the set of tools (means, methods, procedures, etc.) aimed at
automate office activities and mainly the processing of communication from
words, of writing and of the image.

Office automation uses techniques from computing, communications and

the administrative organization.

Among the main developments, we can mention those related to the development of machines and
word processing software, the development of electronic mail and calendar.

3. Telecomputing

Teleinformatics is the set of techniques that simultaneously use computing,

telecommunications and audiovisual to transmit and process data, images and
sounds.

Among the major developments related to the advancement of teleinformatics, we can mention,
the emergence of services provided through telecommunications networks (telematics),
corporate local networks, public networks, etc.

The new information and communication technologies that focus on the use of
multimedia (sound and image processing) and all technologies related to the Internet
(hyperlinks, videoconferencing, email) are experiencing very strong development.

19 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

Information System Design Methods

1. Notion of method:

The method is designed, on the one hand, to address the intuitive approach, and on the other hand, to
master the complexity of the problems to be solved. Furthermore, one must succeed in stepping out of

individual empiricism for project management. For this, we have the following means:
Facilitate communication between the different stakeholders of the project through a
common language
Build a relevant, reliable, and homogeneous information system.

Be able to evaluate the IS at any time.

2. Families of methods:

In the field of information systems, the methods concern:

. The master plan;

. The design of information systems, detailed analysis, and implementation (often,
the emphasis placed on one of these three aspects;
. La conduite de projet et l'amélioration de la qualité.

The design methods are themselves presented in the following order:

. The old analytical or Cartesian methods (Corig, RSA, ...): they allow
more to describe an existing system than to criticize it or to design a new one
system. Some of these methods specify a development process, but
neglect the meaning of information. In the field of management, most of the
analytical methods are no longer used;
. Systemic methods (MERISE, Rémora, ...): they consider the company as
a complete system. As in any system, three subsystems are distinguished:
control system, information system, and operating system. Moreover, these methods...
characterized by the description of relationships between information, a modeling of
concerned area of the company, a circulation of information corresponding to the
decision pyramid and a cycle of abstraction going from the most general to the most specific.
. Object methods (OMT, Grady Booch, UML, ...): the object approach is less
intuitive than the functional approach. Unlike traditional techniques that
are interested in breaking down a computer problem in the form of a hierarchy of

20 Study Level L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

atomic and data functions, the object-oriented approach mainly focuses on

the identification of the objects in the field of application and their interactions. The term
"object-oriented" means that the system is organized as a collection of objects
associates that include both a data structure and behavior.

It is worth noting that all these families of methods, having the same objective, differ in the
way of approaching the computerization project of an information system. These differences lie at the level of

following elements:

. General framework for reflection (fundamental principles)

. Approach
Implementation steps
. Reasoning
Languages
Models
. Means of implementation
Organization
Partners and final roles
Software tools...

3. Challenges of software development

Better and faster respond to the needs of end users by ensuring control of
costs, while ensuring the sustainability of investments, these are the major imperatives
to which decision-makers in all fields must respond.

Computer science is also characterized by a strong scalability of needs and techniques.

which leads to limited visibility on the future. It is therefore essential to take into account
the following key points:

User demands are renewing and increasing, both in quantity and in

quality.
The hardware and basic software are in constant and rapid evolution.
Resources to meet demands are diminishing more than they are increasing.

21 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Introduction to the information system

The establishment of a computerized system, that is to say, the computerization of the system
The company's information system (IS) can only be effective if it is managed from the beginning to the end.
ends with a rational method that is understandable by the various stakeholders involved
throughout the life of the project.

By defining a certain number of strict rules, the modeling of the system using
the MERISE methodology, which takes advantage of the principles of systemic thinking, guarantees on one hand

the consistency of data and processes and therefore the validity of an application and on the other hand the
sustainability of the developments achieved thanks to increased 'maintainability'.

The use of such a method is therefore essential for any software development.
current in order to ensure consistency between the initial specifications, arising from the will of the
leaders and the application delivered to the end user.

22 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Definition of analysis.

Computer science is the science of the rational processing of information, particularly through
automatic machine.

Computers are capable of processing information very quickly and in large quantities.
However, this processing capacity, the speed at which they will be done, and the reliability of
The results obtained can only be optimized if one goes through a preparation beforehand.
meticulous planning of the various tasks to be completed. This preparation is evident well in advance of
the development of programs by studying the information required for these processes.
The objective of computer analysis is therefore to highlight the information.
necessary for the various processes to achieve the desired results. It is estimated
that this analysis consists of 5 steps:
preliminary analysis
conceptual analysis (or functional analysis)
organic analysis
programming
tests and fine-tuning
1.2. MERISE ?

MERISE was born in 1978 and has firmly established itself in companies. MERISE is
characterized by:
A systemic approach.

MERISE defines a vision of the company in terms of systems. One can consider that a
the company is made up of 3 systems:
The governance system that directs the company and sets the objectives.
The operating system that ensures production.
The information system that ensures the connection between others. We will address
especially this one.

Control system

Decisions Processed information

External information
Information system
Info towards
the outside

Decisions Information collected

Incoming flux Operating system Outgoing flow

23 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

The separation of data and processes.

In MERISE, the information to be processed (data) and the processing of this data constitute
the subject of separate study approaches that can even be conducted simultaneously by some
distinct teams.
The tiered design.

MERISE distinguishes 3 levels of description of the information system:

Conceptual level: its role is to precisely define the qualities of

the company. It describes all the stable or variable data of the system
of information and the set of management rules to be applied without taking into account
of any computer hardware capable of supporting this information.
Organizational or logical level: its role is to define the organization
that it is desirable to implement in order to achieve the desired objectives. One can...
will specify the workstations, the timeline of operations, and the use of databases
of data.
Physical or operational level: it defines the physical organizations of
data and the description of the treatments performed by each processing unit.

As in each level, the separation of data from processing must be respected, this
can be summarized:

Levels Data Treatments

Conceptual Conceptual data model or Conceptual model of treatments
MCD ouMCT
Organizational Logical data model or Organizational model of
or logic MLD treatments or WORD
Operational or Physical data model or Operational model of
physical MPD Treatments or MOpT

In theory, one can estimate the time spent for each step:

Analysis of the existing : 30%

MCD + MCT + MOT : 40% (in parallel)
MLD : 15%
MPD and MopT : 15 %.

2. COMPUTERIZATION APPROACH.

The automation of a company's tasks should not be done in a disorderly manner but should result from a
succession of phases.

2.1. Detection of an automation need.

The detection of a need for automation usually comes from:
of a business plan when it exists
de la demande émanant d’un service
from the observation of dysfunctions

Sometimes, automation exists but does not provide all the expected services.

24 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analyze: principles and methods.

2.2. Opportunity study.

The opportunity or feasibility study will allow for the examination of the automation project and to decide on its
technical, human or financial feasibility. This study can be broken down into steps which are:

Formation of a study group: it must consist of computer scientists but also

organizers and future users. One of the managers will monitor the progress of
the automation until its implementation.
Establishment of a preliminary schedule: it is established by the study group and will focus on the three
next steps.
Analysis of the existing: it involves identifying the information flows and the stations crossed by them.
flow by highlighting the documents, the supports, the treatments and the avatars experienced. How?
+ It is necessary to interview all individuals directly or indirectly involved with the...
information. We ask the traditional questions: who, what, where, when, how, why,
how much. We do not hesitate to ask the same questions multiple times to the same people because
they can contradict each other.
+ The study of all documents (invoices, forms, notes, verbal information) must
collate the information obtained during the interviews.
+ All this information will be summarized in diagrams: Here is first the

Flow diagram:

Written order
Service
commercial
Reception
command Purchase order (1)

Phone call invoices

Good of
Order (2) Notice Copy
invoice
Shipping
(3)

Store Service
invoicing

Purchase order (4)

Creation of the purchase order (PO)
T2: Order registration and purchase order approval
T3: Preparation and sending of order and creation of shipping notice (AE)
T4: Sending the purchase order to prepare the invoice
T5: Creation of the invoice (F) and its copy (CF)

Critique of the existing: provides an overview of the current situation and tries to reveal (
objectively) the flaws and qualities of what already exists. This criticism can lead to the
challenging the structures, the positions, the people, the documents...
Draft solutions: it involves establishing one or more global solution proposals,
allowing to address the shortcomings identified during the critique of the existing situation. It must be made clear
the fundamental axes of the proposed solutions and the means to be implemented to achieve
achieve the set objectives while respecting the detected constraints.

25 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

Document circulation diagram

Order Reception Commercial service Store

Service billing

Written order or
Phone call

T1

BC BC

T2

BC
BC

T3 T4

AE AE BC BC

T5

CF CF F

26 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

2.3. The specifications.

The specifications document is a document that mentions the deadlines, costs, duties and the
obligations of each party to the contract. This document therefore commits the designer and the
promoter of automation.

2.4. Study of the information system.

This is the conceptual part of the analysis. We will develop in particular

this part in the continuation of the course. This study will take into account all the elements of
system

+ the inputs and outputs of information

+ automatable processes and manual processes
+ the data
+ the structure of the data

2.5. Study of the computer system.

This is the organic part of the analysis. It will define the architecture of the elements of
computer system to be implemented (files, databases, inputs, outputs,
treatments, ...) while respecting the specifications highlighted by the system study
information and specified by the specifications.

2.6. Programming and testing.

design of programs (algorithms, program trees, ...)

writing programs using an appropriate language
fine-tuning programs using test games

2.7. Setting up the application.

by directly making the application available to the client

en remplacement des anciennes procédures
in parallel with the old procedures

27 Level of Study L2 Computer Science

 Analyze: principles and methods.

3. THE INFORMATION.

3.1. Definition.

Information is an element that allows us to enhance our knowledge about an object, a

event, a concept,...

This information can take various forms:

the written form
the symbolic form (of special signs,...)
the oral form

The information system of a company can then be considered as being made up of

of a set of information flows that transit between various stations.

Good of Service Invoices

order accounting

Incoming flow Station Outgoing flux

Stations are the places where information is processed. Sometimes, we can subdivide this
station in
substations.

The flow can be translated into written documents or through exchanged oral information.
between 2 stations.

For successful automation, the information must be defined and classified very distinctly.
precise and must also be representable in the computer system. We
will distinguish thus:
the classification of information
the mode of representation of information

3.2. Classification of information.

The categories of information.

basic information: one cannot invent its value. In order to

to use it, one must know its value (example: the name of an employee)
the information parameters: a parameter is a section whose value is
constant and predictable. We can estimate that its value is known and the same for
everything and for everyone (for example: a known and identical VAT rate for all)
articles

28 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

the resulting information: it is obtained by arithmetic processing

or logic
Order information: this pertains to the processing (calculations, comparisons)
) to be done

Other classifications of data.

internal or external
quantitative or qualitative
permanent or temporary

3.3. The data representation mode.

This is about determining what type the data will be used by the program.

pure alphabetical, alphanumeric, numeric, date, Boolean logic, etc.

3.3. The data dictionary.

The inventory of information is an absolute prerequisite for any automation process.

there are 2 methods:

the ascending method: very practical for a new computerization; it

consists of studying all the outputs to be obtained and to trace back to the data
necessary for obtaining the results shown in these outputs.
The downward method: to be used on an existing system; it consists of
catalog all the system information encountered in various documents
in service and to add the necessary new data for the new ones
treatments.

The inventory of information and its categories allows for the creation of the Dictionary.
of Data or sometimes Data Glossary. It is a table listing all
information encountered during the preliminary analysis or allowing to respond to the
objectives of the information system and sometimes mentioning the classification of information,
its mode of representation as well as its length.

In order to identify the data (the headings of the dictionary), it will be necessary to assign a name.
to each. It will be necessary to eliminate synonyms and polysemy (a word that designates several)
different things: like a key that designates a tool and is used to open a door.

We will thus obtain a dictionary of data filtered of polysemes and synonyms for
that everyone speaks the same language. We will also include the integrity constraints.
(for example, the minimum and maximum limits of a data point). Only the ...
elementary sections (we will remove the composite sections like ADDRESS which is
composed of NUMBER, STREET, POSTAL CODE, LOCALITY). This will thus result in a
Dictionaries of elementary data. Certain parameters are also stored there,
calculated items of type situation or historical.

29 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

Here is an example:

Name Format Type Constraint Document Rule

data E C P SIG SIT of integrity
calculation
client name Alpha X X Invoice
postal code Alpha X X Invoice
Villeclient Alpha X X Invoice
…………
totalHT Num X X Sum Invoice
TauxTVA Num X 21 %

The data collected will then allow for the realization of a certain number of
treatments:

input of information (keyboard,...)

recording on a medium (floppy disk, CD, DVD, tape, ...)
temporary ranking (file, database, …)
final ranking (archiving)
consultation (screen,...)
content modification (enhancement)
diffusion (impression, …)
remote transmission ...

4. THE CONCEPTUAL DATA MODEL.

4.1. Theoretical concepts.

We will study the Conceptual Data Model (CDM) according to the ENTITY model.
ASSOCIATION.

The vocabulary.

ENTITY 1 ASSOCIATION ENTITY 2

Property 1 Property 1 Property 1

Property 2 Property 2 ... Property 2
….. 0,n 0,n …

Cardinalities

30 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

Property: elementary data perceived on the information system. Properties can

concerning entities such as associations.
Entity: object of the information system, endowed with its own existence, in accordance with the choice of
business management and property holder.
Example: in a classic invoicing application, we find the following entities:
CLIENT, FACTURE, PRODUIT, COMMANDE, … .
Occurrence of an entity: number of times this entity is valued.
One can translate by a thickness view:

CLIENT

C0001 CLIENT
Dupont
Pierre C0002
Flame CLIENT
Simone
C0003
Picard
Emile

The client's name is one of the properties of the CLIENT entity. A property must be valued.
in a unique way for an occurrence. It is possible that a property may not be valued.
Among the properties of the entity, there is a very important one: the one that allows to identify
a unique way of the entity occurrence: we call it the identifier.
Identifier: particular property, such that each value of the property corresponds to one and
a single occurrence of the entity. (here, the customer number)
Association: relationship between two or more entities. It lacks an independent existence.
but it can carry properties.
An association can also have multiple occurrences. An identifier can also be placed there.

Cardinality: represents the number of occurrences, minimum and maximum, of an entity per
report to an association.

CLIENT Passecomm ORDER

Numcomm
Numcli 1,n 1,1
Date comm
ent

1 : cardinalité minimale n : cardinalité maximale

each customer places at least one order and at most n orders

each order is placed by one and only one client

31 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

The relationship between the starting entity and the association is usually considered. Thus, one
could say:

Each client has placed an order at least once and at most n times.
each order has only been placed once and only once

Functional integrity constraint: When determining, between an association and a

entity, a cardinality presenting the values 0,1 or 1,1, will be called Integrity constraint
functional ( CIF ).

They are represented as follows:

CLIENT ORDER

CIF Numcomm
Numclient 1,n 1,1 Amount comm
Nom client …

Knowing a specific order, one knows a specific client.

CLASS SUBJECT

Class number Code

Number of students matter

CIF

PROFESSOR

Code teacher
Professor's name

Knowing an occurrence of the entity matter and an occurrence of the entity class, one knows
automatically a single value of the occurrence professor.

32 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

4.2. Summary of validation rules.

Each entity has an identifier.

Each property of an entity occurrence has at most one value.
All properties must be elementary.
All properties other than the identifier must fully depend on
directly from the identifier
Each occurrence of an association corresponds to one and only one occurrence of
each entity participating in the association
For an occurrence of an association, there must exist at most one value for
each property of this association.
Each property of an association must fully and directly depend on everything.
the identifier and not a part of this identifier.

5. THE TREATMENT.

5.1. Conceptual model of treatments (CMT)

Less used and harder to putput into action that theMCD, theMCT allows for formalizing the
treatments based on external events without focusing on the organization that will govern
these treatments

The elements used for the formalization of a MCT are as follows:

Internal or External to the Information System it is about

of a trigger for launching an operation or
Event
the result of an operation for the world
outside.
Rule indicating the events and the sequence of
the latter necessary for the launch of an operation.
Synchronization
This is a composed logical expression.
essentially from OR and AND
List of actions to take if the synchronization
the associate is carried out. All of the actions of
Operation
the operation runs without interruption or waiting
of the event.
Logical expression indicating according to the result of
Emission the operation what internal events in the System
Information is created.

Representation

33 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

Example

Let's take the example of the paragliding club and focus on defining the treatments that
regarding the paragliding rental:

34 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Analysis: principles and methods.

35 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 Computer Science Course Conceptual Model of Treatments MCT, LMD2
.

The process:

It is a set of operations in the same field of activity that contributes to the development of one or more.
results in response to the request of one or more external events.

Example:

Invoicing process, customer order management process, recruitment process, calculation process
la paie, Processus d’approvisionnement.

Note:

In practice, we will sometimes need to define several processes for a given theme. Indeed, if the
the area of activity is vast, a global MCT risks becoming unreadable, thus a MCT of any specific area
will be composed of several processes (partial MCT).

Example of the MCT:

In a large administration, promotion requests are processed according to the following management rules:

All promotion requests must undergo a preliminary review to determine if they are admissible.
or not.

RG2: After review of the file by the competent authority, the promotion will be granted or denied.

Solution :
request Evénement externe
fromthe
promo

Pas d’attente

Operation Operationname

Not receivable receivable

Issuance rules
Report
File File what'sup
rejected open

Evénement externe
Internal result event ET
Synchronization
marking the wait Exam
(attente du rapport)
OK notOK

Promo
Promo no
granted granted

Event result

36 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI course, Conceptual Model of MCT Treatments LMD2
.

Verification rules of an MCT:

Rule 1:

An operation is an uninterrupted sequence of actions. Any interruption of an actor

external provokes the breakdown of the operation.

Example: let the following process be:

File submission

File submission
File registration

File registration
Recording of the signed contract
Correction

Always File registered Contract

ET

File Contract signed

registered recorded Registration of the signed contract

Contract signed
recorded
Verification rules for an MCT:

Rule1:

The two actions of the operation of this process are not always executed without
interruption, indeed the execution of the second action is conditioned by waiting for a
external event to the IS causing an interruption.

37 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 IT course, Conceptual Model of Treatments MCT, LMD2
.

Rule 2:

Within an operation, there should be no results that can

condition the continuation of the actions of the operation, if that is the case it would be necessary to
cut the operation.

Example: let the following process be "Registration":

File submission

Study of the file

Submission of file

According Non Compliant

Study of the file

File registration File accepted Rejected file signed

Toujours
File registration

Always
File
registered

File
registered
Rule 3:

We must not introduce an OR synchronization between internal event to

process with an external event.
E1 Solution 1 Solution 2
E2 E3
OP1 E1 E1 E3

OU
E2 E3
OU
OP1 OP2

OP1
OU

OP2 R1 R2
Process1 Processus2

R1 R2

R Level of study L2 Computer Science

38
SI course, Conceptual Model of Treatments MCT, LMD2
.

Rule 4:

An operation must not appear more than once in a process.

Example:
Arrival of a
Arrival receipt
Payment Payment
of a
invoice

et et

Receipt Receipt

Always Always

Invoice paid Receipt settled

Correction:
Payment
Arrival of a Arrival of a
invoice receipt
a b c

(a b) (b c)
Receipt

Payment completed

39 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI Course, Conceptual Model of Treatments MCT, LMD2
.

Rule 5:

When the field of activity includes a large number of operations, it is advisable

to break down the global MCT into smaller processes. When two operations do not follow each other
No, it is divided into two different processes.

Example:

Let the following management rules be:

Upon receipt of an application file, it is reviewed.

If the file is compliant, we proceed with its registration.

If the application is not compliant, we will issue a letter of regret that will be sent to the candidate.
with his file

If the candidate presents their old card, they are registered.

Arrival of the file

File Ancient
recorded map
Study of the file

As agreed

or
File accepted Rejected file signed

Registration

Record of the file Establishment of letter

regret
Transmission of the letter and the
file

Registered candidate
File
registered

Letter and file

transmit

40 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI course, Conceptual Model of Treatments MCT, LMD2
.

Exercise No. 1:

Based on the supply requests established by the sales department, the procurement department
purchases send price requests to possible suppliers for new items or
of exceptional supply (we will limit ourselves to these items, leaving aside the items
known and with regular supply.

Suppliers send offers, studied in detail and compared by the buyers; these
Lastly, they make a choice. The choice is made no later than 10 days after the sending of
offers.

The purchasing department issues a purchase order to the selected supplier. A

Copy is submitted to the store for reception.

When the delivery arrives, the storekeeper quantitatively checks the merchandise. A
Quality control is carried out. Delivery usually arrives 2 days after the selection.
definitive from the supplier.

The delivery is returned in bulk if one of the checks is negative. The satisfactory checks
result in the entry of items into stock. The store issues the payment voucher to the services
financiers. When the financial services receive the supplier's invoice (usually 3
days after delivery), they check that the payment voucher corresponds to it and issue the check
of payment.

Note: it will be considered that the store and the purchasing department form only one single service.

1°) Establish the flow diagram

2°) Establish the conceptual model of the treatments

41 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI course, Organizational model of MOT Treatments, LMD2
.

The Organizational Model of Treatments

What is the organizational model of processing?

It is a schematic representation of the processes that translates the choices of organization of
the company.
He must be able to answer the questions:
WHERE?
WHO?
WHEN?
The question HOW will not be addressed at this level of abstraction as it corresponds to
Physical level: we are not yet concerned with algorithms and programs.
It is based on the Validated Treatment Conceptual Model. The concepts remain the same as
those of the MCT but they are more refined.

Where are you?

This question allows to know the location of the treatment. It is about knowing the workstations.
concerned by the treatments.
A workstation refers to an elementary activity center of the company that includes everything.
who is necessary to execute the defined processes.
A workstation is characterized by:
A place
Resources (human, machines)
The workplace must be a generic name. Thus we will speak of the workplace 'secretariat'.
even if there are many secretaries.

Question WHO ?
Which resource is it? Manual or automatic.
This question will help define the nature of the treatment.
A treatment can be of three types:
Batch: batch processing
Conversational: real time
Manual: non-computerized

When?
Will allow defining the chronological sequence between each treatment. For a treatment
Given, we must be able to determine when it will take place (every night, on demand,
every two weeks...)
Organizational choices can be imposed by the company or proposed by the designer of the.
project. In any case, they must remain realistic and take into account the budgets, the people, and
the company policy.

The basic concepts of MOT

Organization rule
Expression of the organization set up in terms of workplace (where?), nature of the
treatment (who?) and chronology (when?) .
They are independent of the management rules.
Example: for the process 'order management'
"Customers can order directly or through representatives" is a rule.
of organization. Indeed, regardless of the chosen ordering mode, its management will be the same by
From an organizational point of view, the workstations will be different.

42 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI course, Organizational model of the MOT treatments, LMD2
.

Tasks: Each MCT operation was described by actions.

These actions will now be analyzed from an organizational perspective.
Each action can thus be grouped or broken down into tasks.
A task is therefore a set or subset of elementary actions equipped with a
organization defined by rules of organization.

Phase or functional procedures: Creating a phase involves grouping together in a

uninterrupted ensemble, tasks respecting the rule of the three unities:
1) Unit of place (same position) - where?
2) Unit of action (same operation, same type of treatment) - who? -
3) Unit of time (same period of occurrence) - when?
A name will be assigned to each phase in order to identify it.
As with the operations defined on the MCT, a supporting document will accompany each phase.
describing for each task the management rules, organization, and the data handled.
For conversational tasks, a drawing describing the sequence of screens can
to be also annexed.

Procedure: The procedure is in organizational terms the equivalent of the MCT process. It
represents the sequence of phases whose original operations belong to the same
process.
Procedures represent the subsets of a process. These subsets are a
cutting according to the defined organization rules.
They therefore translate, for each process, organizational choices.
Thus, if we consider the process 'order management,' we can break it down into two parts.
procedures :
1) Management of direct orders
2) Management of representative orders

Events, synchronization rules, and issuing rules

The concepts are the same as those presented at the conceptual level.
The establishment of the organization simply brings about new events or rules.
The formalism used is richer than that of the MCT because it allows for indicating the type of support.
["phone","man","paper","screen","state","disc"]

Formality
Formalism and Concept (MCT) Formalism and concept of (WORD)

Process procedure
Event Event
trigger trigger

Condition Condition
execution execution

Nom de l’opération Name of the phase

List of actions Operations become phases or Task list

functional procedures
Issuance rule Emission rule
Actions become tasks

43 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI course, Organizational Model of MOT Treatments LMD2
.

Each procedure will result in a sequence diagram of the phases.

There are two modes of representation:
1) Linear representation or flow diagram
2) Circuit or flow graph representation
There are no precise rules regarding the choice of the mode of representation. It will depend on the
number of workstations, number of documents in circulation ...

The flowchart
It is composed of 5 columns:
1) Timeline column: allows indicating the duration of the phase.
2) Chain columns: allows indicating the phase, events, and associated results.
3) External column: allows indicating the origin of external events or the recipient of the results
4) Nature column: allows you to indicate the nature of the processing (manual, batch, conversational)
5) Workstation column: allows you to indicate the concerned workstation

PROCESS MOT
PROCEDURE
Procedure Outdoor Chain Linking Nature Post of
t work

The traffic graph

It consists of a "progress" column and as many "workstation" columns as there are
defined posts.
Each workstation column is followed by an exterior column if applicable.

PROCESS MOT
PROCEDURE
Progression Mail of Exterior Mail of Post of...
work work work

Necessary documentation: description of the phases

As with the MCT (where each operation was accompanied by a descriptive document), a
An annex document must be drafted for each phase.
This document must contain:
1) A description of the event supports and the outcomes
Definition of exit states
Definition of input documents
Definition of manual documents
Definition of screen grids
A description of the actions on the information system
Screen transition diagram
Extraction and sorting criteria in the case of batch processing

44 Level of study L2 Computer Science

IT course, Organizational model of MOT Treatments, LMD2
.

Synthesis and conclusion

At this stage of the project, we are in the detailed study. That is to say, we have been able to
define an organizational scenario (workstations, task distribution according to positions and the
automatic resources, manual resources ...).

We were able to describe in detail each functional procedure (phase):

Through its inputs/outputs via input screens, slips...
Through its calculations, rules for obtaining results, checks to be carried out ...
We were able to describe the sequence of screens.
The file containing all these descriptions is called the specifications file.
functional.
The next step will allow us to verify that the data describing our system
The information (MCD) is consistent with its activity (treatments).
We will validate that:
The necessary data for processing is properly found in the MCD.
The MCD data is indeed all utilized by the functional procedures.

45 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI course, Logical Data Model LDM LMD2
.

Logical Data Model LDM

The conceptual description has allowed for the most accurate representation of realities of
the universe to be computerized. But this representation cannot be directly manipulated and
accepted by a computer system, as the MCD is a representation of the data in a
formalism understood by the designers and not by the machine. It is therefore necessary to move from
conceptual level to a second level closer to the capabilities of computer systems. This
level, called logical level, consists of choosing one of the following three models:
- hierarchical model (1980s),
network model
or relational model
Each of these models relies on particular data organization techniques that some
software will be able to manage, in this chapter the emphasis will be on the relational model.
The rules for converting the ERD to the relational model
These rules are of an algorithmic type and can therefore be implemented by engineering tools.
software (for example, PowerAMC). The translation of the basic concepts of the conceptual model is
governed by the following three rules:

Every entity becomes a relation. The entity identifier becomes the primary key of the relation.

The transition from the conceptual model to the logical model at the level of relationship classes (association)
is done according to the cardinalities of the entity classes participating in the relationship:
If one of the entity classes has low cardinality: the table will have as attributes, the
attributes of the class with low cardinality, then the (or the) attribute(s) of the relation and finally the
attributes of the second class preceded by the name of the class
if the two classes of entities have a strong cardinality: the table will have as attributes, the
attributes of the two classes of relation preceded by the names of the respective classes, then the (or the)
relationship attribute(s)

Any binary association of type (1-n) or (1-1) is characterized by the existence of a

functional dependence between the identifier of the entity linked by the segment carrying the cardinality
1,1 or 0,1 and the other entity. In the diagram below we have the following functional dependency:
P1--- Such an association leads to the integration of the target entity identifier of the
functional dependency in the relationship associated with the source entity of the functional dependency.
The duplicated property thus becomes a foreign key in the source relationship and is marked by a #.
A foreign key in a relationship is a property that is a primary key in another relationship.

46 Level of study L2 Computer Science

Course of IT, Logical Data Model LDM, LMD2
.

Note: in the relationship named 'Association', P1 and P1' are suffixed with a # (they are keys)
foreign) as they are primary keys respectively in the relations E1 and E2.
The example below illustrates the application of these three rules on the classic conceptual model of
order management following:

Relational data model (MLD):

Client(NoClient, Nom, Prénom)
Commande (NoCde, DateCde, NoClient#)
Produit(RefPdt, Désignation, Prix)
Ligne(NoCde#, RefPdt#, Qté)

Special cases
1. Cardinality case (x,1),(x,1):
Several ways of transformations exist; we retain the following: x can take 0,1
indifferently.

Objects 1 (x,1) (x,1) Object 2

Ident 1 Relation Ident2
P21
P11
P22
P12

In the relational MLD, the identifier ident1 becomes a key in the table associated with the relationship (table).
associated with the object2.
It will be the same for the identifier ident2, which will be a foreign key in the associated relationship (table).
The object 1. Below is the equivalent MLD of the previous MCD:
Object1 (id1, p11, p12, ..., id2*)
Object2 (id2, p21, p22, ..., id1*)

47 Level of study L2 Computer Science

 SI course, Logical Data Model LDM LMD2
.

2. Case of the reflexive relation

Reflexive relations
We apply the general rules with the sole difference that the relation is connected twice to the
same object
Example 1:

0,n
mother

Company SOCIETY DETAIN

Detains
No Society OUR COMPANY THE SOCIETY
Name Percentage_of_capital NAME PARENT COMPANY
Capital CAPITAL POURCENTAGE_DE_CAPITAL

0,n
branch

As it is a (0,n)-(0,n) relationship, an additional table is created. This table contains

as a composite primary key, the key of the "two" related objects. Since the same object is linked twice to
la relation, on ne peut pas utiliser 2 fois le même nom pour la clé. Dans ce cas il convient d'utiliser
roles in the MCD, and to integrate the role into the name of one of the keys migrated to the MLD.
Example 2:

As this is a (0,1)-(0,1) relationship, we generally have the choice regarding which object
will contain the foreign key. Since this relationship is linked twice to the same object, it is clear that we
we must duplicate the primary key, while ensuring that the same key name will not be used for the key
primary and the foreign key. In our example, all married men have the value of the key
foreign the registration of their current spouse. For unmarried men and women, the foreign key
is worthless. One could of course use inverse modeling with a foreign key
NO_MATRICULE_MARI, which indicates for each married woman, the registration number of her husband.

0.1
spouse

PERSON
Person Be married
REGISTRATION NUMBER
NoRegistrationNumber to be married WIFE_REGISTRATION_NUMBER
Name NAME
First name FIRST NAME

0.1
wife

48 Level of study L2 Computer Science

Computer Science course, Logical Data Model LDM LMD2
.

Series of TD (MLD)

Exercise 1 'School Management'

Transform the following ERD, which represents 'the management of a school', into a relational model while respecting
all the rules for the conversion from MCD to MLD.

Student
NoMatricule Class
To frequent
Name 1,n 1,n Class_Name
School year Cycle
First name
Date of birth
1,n

Subject To teach
Subject_Code 0,n
Label Year

0,n

Professor
Code_Prof
Name
first name

Exercise 2: Provide the MCD corresponding to the following MLDR, specify the cardinalities and the
entity identifiers:

CANDIDAT ( n°candidat, nom candidat, prénom candidat, date-naissance)

EPREUVE (n°épreuve,libellé-épreuve,date rédaction,date épreuve,coefficient,Code examen#)
EXAMEN ( Code examen, libellé-examen)
ENSEIGNANT ( n°enseignant, nom-enseignant, prénom enseignant)
PASSER ( n°candidat#, n°épreuve#, note)
EDIT (teacher number#, exam number#)
REGISTER ( Exam code#, candidate number#, assessment)

49 Level of study L2 Computer Science

SI Course Logical Data Model LDM, LMD2
.

Exercise No. 2

The applicant wishing to obtain a credit card must apply through their bank.

The blue card is not granted if the applicant is not a client of the agency.

Each day, the agency sends the requests of its clients to the credit card management center.

As soon as the agency receives the credit card from the center (generally 4 days later)
request), she sends the client a notice of availability and a notice of collection of the
annual subscription. The client then comes to collect their card.

If the card has not been collected after 2 months, it will be destroyed.

1) Establish the flow diagram

2°) Establish the conceptual model of the processes

Exercise No. 3: An insurance company

Let's consider an insurance company, we are interested in examining the process of reimbursement.
insured following a loss.

When an agent (writer) of the company receives a claim declaration, he consults the file.
central from its terminal to control its validity, then transmits this declaration to the headquarters
from the company (secretary). She assigns an expert and opens a claims file.

The insured, when in possession of the repair invoice, sends it to the agent. The agent after
control resends the invoice to the company. The expert, for his part, sends his report directly to
the company that verifies its validity.

When the person in charge at the company of managing the claim file is in possession of the
invoice and the report, it proceeds to issue the refund check. The checks are
sent every weekend to the concerned agents for delivery to the clients.

1°) Establish the flow diagram

2°) Etablir le modèle conceptuel des traitements

50 Level of Study L2 Computer Science