CHAPTER II: POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONAL FRACTIONS

I. POLYNOMES :
1. Definitions:
A polynomial with complex or real coefficients is the function defined on
ℂ orℝ by:
P( x=) a x +a x +⋯+a x + a x+a
∑ Yesa not equal to 0, the integer n is the degree of the polynomial
∑ A non-zero constant is a polynomial of degree 0.
∑ The sum and the product of two polynomials are still polynomials.
d° ( P + Q )≤ d°P,
( d°Q ) d° ( )PQ =d°P + d°Q

2. Euclidean division:
Given two polynomials A andB (B ≠ 0), there exists a pair of polynomials
(Q, R) verifying:
A = BQ + R with d°R < ° , is the quotient of the Euclidean division of A
by B and R remains the rest.
If R = 0, then A is divisible by B.

Example 1:
Perform the Euclidean division of
A=X +X -X + X - 1 by B = X +X + 2

Indication:Q = X - 1 and R = -X + X + 1

3. Division according to increasing powers:

For a given integer n, the writingA = BQ + X Rwithd°Q ≤ nis called the
division according to the increasing powers of A by B to the order n. In this
Q is the quotient of order n and R is the remainder of order n.

Example 2:
Perform the division ofA = 1 + X byB=1-X+X according to the powers
increasing of X to the second order.

Indication :Q = 1 + 2X + X and R = -1 - X

4. Root of a polynomial - Multiplicity order

∑ The complex number or real number is called the root (or zero) of the polynomial P.
whenP ( =)0.
∑ A polynomial P is divisible byx − ȯ if and only ifP = 0. ( )
 ∑ A complex or real number root of ordern, (n ∈ ℕ)of a polynomial
P if and only if P is divisible byx - , but( not) divisible by
(x - r )
∑ A single root is a root of order 1 and a double root is a root.
of order 2.

5. Taylor's Formula
Let P be a polynomial of degree n and a complex or real number.
P is written according to the powers of(x - )in the form:
( )( ) ( ) ( ) (( )
P( x=
) ( x - +) ⋯ + (x - +) (x - +) P( )WhereP )
! ! !
is derivedk è of the polynomial P

Consequence:
A complex or real number a is a root of orderα of the polynomial P if and only
ifP a( =) Pa = (P ) a= ⋯ (= )P ( ) ( )
( a) =0 and P (a) ≠0
Example 3:

∑ Write according to the powers ofx - 1the polynomial:

P( x=
) x + x+ x + 1
∑ Find the roots of the polynomialP x (= )x- 7x - 12x+ 176x - 320.
Knowing that it has a triple root.

6. D'Alembert's Theorem:
Any polynomial inℂof degreen > 0, admits exactly n roots, each
being counted with its order of multiplicity.
Example:
Perform the Euclidean division of + 3*Y - 2*Xby − , with -1.
Deduce all the roots of + 3x - 2ythen factor the polynomial
+ 3 radians-2i

7. Factorization of polynomials with real coefficients:

If a polynomial with real coefficients has the complex number for root,
so the conjugated form of is also a root of the polynomial.
Consequence
Every polynomial with real coefficients of degree strictly greater than two is
factorable onℝFactors are polynomials with real coefficients of the first degree.
degree or second degree with negative discriminant.
Example
We consider in C the equation: (E ) :P(z)= z 5- z 4+ z 3+ z 2+ 2= 0

1) Calculate P(-1).
2) Show that if z The solution zis also it.
 3) Find all the solutions of (E) knowing that 1+i is a solution.
4) Give the decomposition of P(x) into irreducible factor products
in ¬ [x ]

II. RATIONAL FRACTIONS

1. Definitions
( )
∑ A rational fraction is any function F of the form:F x = ( )
( )
where P and Q are two polynomials with complex or real coefficients with
Q(x)not equal to 0.
∑ The function F is said to be irreducible if P and Q have no common factors.
that is to say, no common roots.

2. Pole of a rational fraction

The poles of a rational fraction are the roots of the denominator.
The order of a pole is the order of multiplicity of that root.

3. Integer part of a rational fraction

Let it beF = an irreducible rational fraction

∑ Yesd°( P) < °( ), The integer part of F is zero.
∑ Yesd°( P)(≥ )d°Q , the division of P by Q gives:P = EQ + Rwithd° R < ( )
Q (. )
F is written: = E + The polynomial E is the integer part of the fraction F.

4. Decomposition into simple elements inℝ[ ]

The prime polynomials ofℝ[ ] of two types:
∑ the polynomials of1 degree x + .
∑ the second degree polynomials x + x + with - 4rV < 0
Inℝ[ ]there are two types of simple elements:
∑ a simple element said of1è species is the form:( , a and ∈ ℝ and n ∈
)
ℕ∗
∑ a simple element of2è species which is the form:
rx + b
, with - 4 < 0; , , , ∈ ℝ and n ∈ ℕ∗
( x +ax + d )
Any rational fraction with real coefficients whose integer part is zero
is decomposed in a unique way onℝ in a sum of simple elements of
1eraspecies and/or of 2andspecies.
5. APPLICATIONS
 a. In the case of a simple role
( )
Let it be the fractionF( x) = a simple zero of Q(x). the coefficientλ of the term
( )
the decomposition into simple elements of F isx (- F(x)
) |

Example 5:
∑ Decompose inℝ (x)in simple elements the rational fractions
following:
3x - 1 2x + 9x + 5x + 8
B( x=
) ( )=
, Cx
(x − 3)(x + 1) x(x + 4)

b. Case of a multiple pole

ÿ Case of pole 0
( )
F( x=
) ( )
, 0( )≠0According to the decomposition theorem in
simple elements, there areA , A , … , A ∈ ℝ, B(x)a polynomial such that:
( )
F( x=
) + + ⋯ + + ( ) so then
P( x=
)( A + A x + ⋯ +A x You
) are trained on data up to October 2023. (x) + xB(x).according to the theorem
from the division according to increasing powersA + A x + ... + A x
is the quotient of the division of P(x) by Q(x) in ascending powers.
up to the ordern - 1 and B xis
( )the remainder.

:
Decompose the following rational fractions into simple elements:
F( x=
) .
( )

Case of a pole other than 0

∑ is a zero multiple of Q (that is to sayQ x = x− ( )( Q (x)), for
)
obtain the coefficients relating to the pole in the decompositions into
simple elements (DES) of
( )
F( x=
) ( )we will perform a change of variableY = x - , and we
will bring back to the previous case (in relation to variable Y).
( )
∑ If a zero is a multiple of Q, then the fraction =
( ) .
( ) ( )
( )
Let ( )=( − ) ( )= . The Taylor formula of at the point
( )
the order − 1is written:
P(x) (x- a) (x- a)a-1
= j(a)+ j(a)+ ... + j (a-1)
(a)+ (x- a)a-1e(x) Where from
Q(x)
1 1! (a-1)!
 A1 A Aa e (x)
F(x)= + a 2 -1
+ ... + + with
(x- a) (x- a)
a
(x- a)x- a
j(a- j ) (a)
A j= ;jΠ{1, 2,... a }
(a - j)!

EXAMPLE 7 :
Decompose inℝ x in( simple
) elements the following rational fraction:
A( x=
) ( ) ( )

c. Decomposition into simple elements of second species

( )
Let F be a rational fraction of the formF x =( ) Q(x) is a trinomial
( ) ( )
irreducible
∗ The DES of F is of the form:F x ( ) ( ) ( )
∈ℕ ( =) Ex (+ ) ( )
+ ( )
+ ⋯+ ( )
where E is the integer part of F andA ,A , A , … , A polynomials of degrees<= 1.
One will be able to calculateA , A A , … , A by successive Euclidean divisions.
Indeed, there are polynomialsQ ,Q ,Q ,…,Q as follows:
P( xQ
) (x)Q x+ R
( )( ), Q ( ) = Q (x)Q x+R ( ) ), … , Q ( ) = Q (x)Q x+R ( ( ))
For all j{∈1, 2, … ,} , deg(R ) < 2
We then have:
R (x ) Q (x)
F( x=
) +
Q ( x) Q (x )
R (x ) R (x ) R (x ) R ( )
= Q times+ + +⋯+ + Q x( )
( ) Q (x ) Q (x ) Q( x)

EXAMPLE 10:
Decompose into simple elements inℝ x the
( )following rational function:
x -x + 2
E( x=
)
( x +x + 1 )

Parity remark:
The parity properties of F can allow for the determination of the coefficients.
from the decomposition into simple elements of F

Example: Break down into simple elements inℝ [ ] the rational fraction
next:
1
C( x=
)
( x −1 )(x + 1 )
 d. decomposition into simple elements inℂ[ ]
We call a simple element of1è any rational fraction of the form:
where A∈ ℂ, a∈ℂ, n ∈ ℕ∗
( )
In the set of complex numbers, any rational fraction
irreducible whose integer part is zero decomposes in a unique way
in sum of simple elements of 1eraspecies.
∑ The properties applied for finding the integer part and the
simple elements of 1eraspecies of decomposition into simple elements
inℝ[x]are applicable for the decomposition into simple elements in
ℂ[x].
∑ To obtain the decomposition into simple elements inReal numbers in polynomial formwe use the
decomposition into simple elements inC[x], by grouping the parts
polars related to conjugate poles.

EXAMPLE 11 :
Decompose into simple elements inC[x], then inℝ[x]the rational fraction
next :
1
G( x=
)
x( x + 1 )
 DIRECTED WORKS

EXERCISE NO. 1

Let ²
= ( -) 5θ + 13°-19y + 10Calculate P(1) then P(2).
To deduce the factorization of the polynomial P in [ then
] in [ ]
[ ]
2. Determine the multiplicity order of the root 2 of the polynomial P of .
P(x)= x - 5x + 7x - 2x + 4x- 8
5 4 3 2

3. Factor in ℝ [ and in ℂ the polynomial =− +2 -1.

4. Perform the division according to the increasing powers up to order 3 of
( ) = 2 + 3y - 2y² by = 1(+)x² - 2x.
5. Perform the division according to the increasing powers up to order 4 of
( ) equals 4by ( ) (x - 2)².

EXERCISE No. 2

Let it be =( + 1) − -1. We note =

a. Show that 1+ =− ²
b. Show that is at least a double root of .
c. Find two obvious real roots of .
d. Factorize in irreducible factors in ℂ[ ] and then in ℝ[ ].

EXERCISE No. 3
We are given the following rational fractions:
( )
F( )= , P =( ) andRð( =) .
( ) ( )

1. Determine the roots and the poles ofF ( ,)(P ) and R inℝ.
( )
2. Determine the roots and the poles ofF ( ,)(P ) and R inℂ.
( )

EXERCISE 2
Determine the integer part of the following rational fractions:

F( )= , Q ( =) , R Q( =) and
( )( )

P( Q=
) .
( ) ( )

EXERCISE 3
Decompose into simple elements the following rational fractions:
A( )= , B ( )= , C ( =) and
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
D( )= .
( )( )( )

EXERCISE 4
Decompose into simple elements the following rational fractions:
a)P ( )= , Q ( )= ,
( )

b)R (J =
) , S ( =) andT( ) = .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

EXERCISE 5
Decompose the following rational fractions into simple elements:
F( )= , P ( )= andK ( )= .
( )( ) ( )

EXERCISE 6
Decompose the following rational fraction into simple elements.
Inℂ , then inℝ.
H( )= ( )( )