A.

WORKS OF
PASSING
Specific objectives related to the chapter
Know the works;
Sizing the works, particularly the culverts and slabs;
Exploit and maintain the works.

Learning activities related to the chapter

Reading the course, processing the application exercises

Introduction
Roads play an important role in the transportation of people and goods.
They are led to cross various waterways (rivers, canals, thalwegs and
depressions) which constitute obstacles to overcome. Any flooding of a road can
to have negative consequences following:
the disruption or even the suspension of traffic;
the degradation of the road itself (decrease in importance);
Crossing structures are structures that allow crossing a watercourse.
water, a trough, a canal or a depression. The hydraulic sizing of
the main ones are presented in the following paragraphs.

I. Dalots

Generalities
The culvert is a crossing structure placed beneath the roadway. It is generally made of
reinforced concrete and has a rectangular or square section.
The drain is made up of the following main elements (see figure 3.8 below):
a slab or a reinforced concrete footing;
door jambs;
a slab or small tiles are made of concrete;
two head walls;
four walls in wing upstream and downstream;
the upstream and downstream protective rockfill
the access embankments;
 Sense of flow
Headboard

route

tag

Wing wall
Downstream protection

Figure 3.8 top view of a culvert

Three types of ditches are used:

the ordinary culverts made up of vertical uprights, based on a base or a
general slab, on which rests a slab or reinforced concrete slabs;
the frame culverts in which the slab, the piers, and the slab form a
rigid structure in reinforced concrete;
the portal drains similar to the frame drains but without a slab (the uprights are
based on soles.
We adopt the drains for high flow rates, greater than 10 m.3/s.
 – realization-functioning
The flow rate of the design flood is determined by the hydrological study.

Operating conditions
We distinguish two types of operation:
the drowned outlet: the water level at the outfall exceeds the upper edge of the culvert;
The flow is under pressure.
the free outlet: the water level at the outlet is below the upper edge of the
dalot
 a) Outlet of the culvert: case of the drowned outlet - calculation of the elevation

Upstream bank ∆H
Downstream bank

Figure 3.9 trench with submerged outlet

The general formula applicable in the case of a culvert operating with a submerged outlet is
the following (obtained by applying Bernoulli's theorem between the upstream and downstream sides
of the work):

∆H = Q2/2gS 2( Ke + 4/3
h ) + 1) with
(2gL/K2 R
∆H = elevation or difference between the upstream and downstream levels;
3
Q = flow rate in m /s
Sm = wet section in m2
L = length of the work in m;
K = the roughness coefficient
Rh = hydraulic radius;
Ke = inlet coefficient of the culvert:
Ke = 0.4 for ditches with inclined wing walls from 30 to 75° on the axis with a roof
on board frank
Ke = 0.2 for culverts with wing walls inclined at 30 to 75° on the axis with a roof.
rounded edges;

For a rectangular culvert of width B, height D, and length L, we have Sm = BD, Pm =

2(B+D) and the hydraulic radius is Rh = BD / 2(B+D);

In practice, knowing the flow rate Q and the limit speed (maximum 3 m/s in the culverts), we
determine by iteration B and D so that the elevation is compatible with the project.
To facilitate implementation, the D/B report is limited to 'round' values between
0.5 and 2.

b) Revenge

For a culvert that can operate under load, the backup is intended to provide security.
against water overflows over the embankments due to waves formed by the
vent.

The revenge is calculated using the following formula:

R = h + V2/2g with
wave height in m; h = 0.5 + (√L)/3; L = length of the upstream water body in
km (Mallet and Pacquant formula) ;
V = wave propagation speed in m/s; (V = 1.5 + 2/3h)
 c) Project flood level

The project flood level is determined according to the MANNING-SRTICKLER formula:

Q = K. Sm . Rh2/3I1/2

oQ flood project flow in m3/s ;

oRh = hydraulic radius (in m) defined as the ratio of the wetted area Sm to
the wet perimeter Pm;
oI = longitudinal slope of the ground;
oK = roughness coefficient;
wet section

d) Minimum embankment slope

The minimum slope of the embankments is given by:

Minimum level of embankments = level of the design flood + elevation due to the structure +
revenge.

e) Free output

When the output is free, two cases arise (figure 3.10):

if H1 is ≤ 1.25D, the flow occurs under pressure and the flow rate is given by:
Q = CS √(2g*(H1-y)) with c : discharge coefficient
C= 0.9 for very small culverts with rounded sidewalls;
C = 0.8 for very small rectangular-sided culverts;
C = 0.7 for works whose length exceeds 20 to 30 m

if H1 is ≥1.25D, the flow can occur at free surface or at full charge (in
function of H1/D and the length of the work.

H1

D
y

Figure 3.10 channel with free outlet

d) Constructive dispositions
3
The slab or the footing is made of reinforced concrete with a dosage of 350 kg/m. placed on a clean concrete
5 cm minimum thickness dosed at 150 kg/m3;
3
The pilasters are made of reinforced concrete (dosage 350 kg/m or in rubble masonry;
 3
);
The slab or the small slabs are made of reinforced concrete (dosage 350 kg/m
The two end walls can be made of concrete or 40 cm thick masonry;
in relation to the finished backfill, they must be visible at a height of at least 40 cm.
The four upstream and downstream wing walls are in the form of concrete or diffuser.
masonry to protect the track and direct the flow under the culvert;
Upstream and downstream protection serves to protect against erosion and/or scour; it
perhaps in dry stone or in gabions (more durable solution) and it must measure at least
2 m.
The signaling markers are placed at the entrance and exit of the culvert.

The backfill of the culvert and its accesses is done with suitable materials compacted in layers.
successive of 0.15m.
The embankment extends 10 m on either side of the structure in a gentle slope to allow.
to allow vehicles to engage with ease and safety. The slopes of this embankment will be protected
by a masonry parapet if the drainage of waters risks causing erosion.

d) Maintenance of the drainage ditch

The inspection of the work is organized after each rainy season and after each flood.
important in order to detect potential anomalies or degradations. The maintenance consists of
the repair of various damages that may occur on the base, its protections
(upstream or downstream) and the access embankment. It is especially important to regularly remove all debris.
(soil, branches, ...) that accumulate at the entrance of the culvert and may gradually decrease
the flow section and render the work ineffective.

II. Road Raiders

Generalities
A causeway is a structure that allows crossing rivers in low water and is
submerged in case of flooding. The base is established on the riverbed and the water flows
exclusively on top. It is therefore built on a watercourse that remains dry for a good
part of the year and having low slope banks. This type of structure is particularly suitable in
Sahelian or desert zone.

The slab consists of the following main elements:

a concrete slab or reinforced concrete;
the connecting embankments with the track;
upstream protection
the downstream protection;
the signaling tags.
 Upstream protection
rafter

route

circulation

tag Guaranteed Protection

Figure 3.1 top view of a slab

– realization - operation
a) Typology

Crossing a river with a slab is less expensive than a culvert or a bridge, but it
a major drawback: traffic is interrupted during floods.
In the choice of a slab, the consequences of the interruption of road traffic will be examined and
We will particularly focus on the case of trucks that can transport goods.
perishable.
The interruption is often due to the water level which can also correspond to speeds.
excessive. A water height of 0.40 m is generally accepted for cars and 0.60 m
for trucks; for these levels, the speed must not exceed 1.5 m/s.

The foundations on the important axes are designed in reinforced concrete. The foundation itself is anchored.
in the soil and is protected upstream and especially downstream against regressive erosion by a mat
of gabions or a rockfill.

Depending on the profile of the watercourse to be crossed, there are generally three types of
radiers :

Horizontal scratcher (figure 3.2)

It is designed for crossing wide watercourses with water blades.

weak.
The flow over the slab is similar to a flow over a weir with a thick threshold and the
flow rate is determined by the following formula (Bazin's formula):

Q = 1.9 . (0.70 + 0.185 . H)am/B) . L . H3/2where

Q = peak flow rate of the flood in m3/s;

Hamwater height on the threshold in m;
B = width of the slab (distance in the direction of flow) in m;
L = length of the slab in m.

founder
Downstream protection
Ham
Upstream Protection

Sense of flow

Figure 3.2 Horizontal raft

Eraser for curved parts

The morphology of the site (narrow and deep) may require the construction of a foundation with
curved parties as indicated in the figure below.

alpha 1
α2

R1 R2

underpinning

Ham

Figure 3.3 Raft with curved parts

The flow rate on the slab is given by the following formula:
2
Q = 1,136 . (√R1 + √R2) . (0.70 + 0.185 . Ham/B ) . H where

Q = peak flood flow in m3/s;

R1 and R2 = radii of curvature in m;
Hamupstream water height in m;
width of the slab (distance in the direction of flow) in m;

Horizontal scraper with curved parts

There is a third type of foundation that is a combination of the two previously represented.
by figure 3.4
In this case, the flow is the sum of the flows:
on the horizontal beam of length L;
in the two curved parts.

alpha 1 α2

Ham
R1 R2

Figure 3.4 Slab with horizontal bearing and curved parts

b) Protection of the slab against erosion

The risks of erosion downstream of a slab are high and to ensure the longevity of
the work it is necessary to implement adequate protection. As indicated in figure 3.5,
for an elevated slab, the scour occurs theoretically over a length
maximum, downstream of the footing of:

Xmin = H+p with:

X = the length of the scouring area;

p = thickness of the slab or height of the threshold;
H = water height upstream of the weir.
 h
H

Figure 3.5 Determination of the scouring zone

To effectively protect the structure, protection is carried out over a length of

X = 2X(H+p).
The downstream protection is generally made of gabions measuring 2m x 1m x 0.5m. In the case
from a raised slab, the gabions are arranged in steps to reach the bottom of the river at
the end of the protection (see figure 3.6). The protection can end with a gabion
cage 2mX1mX1m serving as an energy dissipator.

In the case of a foundation with curved parts, the load and the overflow height decrease.
from the axis of the river to the banks. In determining the length of the zone
of erosion, we will take into account the variation of p and H.

screed
Aval protection

Upstream protection

Sense of flow
Gabion base [Link] Gabion cage 2.1.1

l = 2(H+p)

Figure 3.6 Section of a slab with stepped downstream protection

If the risks of erosion are low, the downstream protection can be reduced as
the diagram below indicates:
 rock filling
rock filling gabions
rafter

Figure 3.7 Cross-section of a foundation slab in a low scour area

c) Signaling

Signaling markers are placed at the entrance and exit of the slab as well as on the
sides. They allow to signal the presence of the work and to delimit for the users. It
they are generally reinforced concrete pillars painted in red and white about 1.50 m high
height.

d) Maintenance of the foundation

The control of the work is organized after each rainy season and after each flood.
important in order to detect potential anomalies or degradations. Maintenance consists of
the repair of various damage that may occur on the slab, its protections
(upstream or downstream) and the access embankments.

III BRIDGE

III.1 Generalities
The bridge is a structure that allows one to cross a depression or an obstacle (watercourse,
communication routes) by going over. It is built over watercourses when:
the flow is important;
the depression is very deep;
The traffic is heavy.
It consists of three main parts:
the foundations that allow the loads to be transmitted to the ground;
the supports including:
buttresses that serve as supports at the ends of the deck and support the
pushes of embankments;
piles that support the deck between the abutments;

a apron that supports traffic lanes (cars, pedestrians, animals); it

it may be in one or more spans depending on the width of the valley to be crossed;
 According to their function, we encounter the following bridges:
bridge - route that carries a road or a highway;
rail bridge that carries a railway track;
footbridge that carries a pedestrian path;
An aqueduct is a bridge that carries a water pipeline;
bridge-canal that carries a canal.

Span or bay
beam

abutment
Air draft

pile
Open access

Total opening

Figure 3.11 cross-section of a beam bridge

Study - realization - operation

The study of a bridge generally focuses on the following essential aspects:

hydrology and hydraulics for the determination of floods and conditions
of flow;
geology for determining the type and depth of foundations;
traffic for dimensions (bridge width, operating loads...);
dimensions of the bridge structures (abutments and deck);
In this paragraph of the course, it is the hydraulic aspects of sizing that
are addressed.
The hydraulic study consists of determining the following characteristics of the bridge:
the natural height of the water;
the elevation of the level caused by the structure;
the air draught.
The height under the bridge (clearance height) is the sum of: natural height of
water + elevation of the level due to the bridge + draft.
a) natural height of the water
The natural water level is determined based on the design flood, which itself is
estimated by hydrological methods. The height is calculated from the usual formulas
of flow rate (Manning-Strickler) and the geometric characteristics of the flow section.
The project flood to be considered depends on the importance of the road.

b) Elevation of the level caused by the structure;

The project flood discharge corresponds to the peak of the project flood hydrograph; it
it is a flow that is observed over a relatively short time and it is not
economically feasible to create a structure that allows it to pass without hindrance.
It is common practice to size the bridge with a clearance lower than that required by the flow.
project flood peak; when it arrives, there is a constriction of the section
flow, which leads to a rise in the water level upstream of the bridge. The
The presence of the piles also contributes to the elevation of the water level.

c) Air gap

A watercourse often carries debris and floating bodies that can block the
flow section under the bridge and endanger the structure provided that the deck
the bridge is not designed to support significant horizontal loads. Additionally
any submersion of the bridge leads to the interruption of traffic and risks of destruction of
access embankment.
The air draught is designed to reduce the risk of partial or total obstruction of the bridge. It
depends on the risks of sediment transport and the importance of the work.
For bridges with a length of less than 50 m, a water depth is generally adopted at
less than or equal to:

1 m in desert and Sahelian zone;

1.50 m in savanna zone;
2 m in an area with dense shrub vegetation;
2.50 m in forest area.

d) Interview

The control of the structure is organized regularly and especially after each flood.
important in order to detect potential anomalies or degradations.
From the perspective of hydraulic sizing, in addition to the risk of obstruction of the passage,
the bridge is faced with the risk of scour around the piers, which constitute one of
most common causes of accidents on these structures. Scour is related to the
reduction of the flow section at the location of the structure, which increases the speed
of flow.
There are different methods of protecting the bridge piers against scour that
are taken into account in the design of the work: rock fill mats, boxes of
foundation, ...

Ongoing maintenance involves the repair of various damages that may occur.
on the access embankments and the regular removal of all debris (branches, ...)
deposit at the entrance of the bridge and can gradually decrease the flow section and
render the work ineffective.
There is also specialized monitoring concerning the bridge structures (condition of the concrete,
capacity of the batteries, beams, and deck.

Conclusion
The crossing structures presented above are often structures that pass over.
unnoticed as long as they play their role. Their dysfunction can have many
unfortunate consequences (loss of time, inaccessibility, damage to means of transport,
extension of the routes ...). Their proper functioning depends greatly on the flow of the
chosen crew for their sizing. It is therefore essential to give the utmost
care in the preliminary hydrological study. Like all other civil engineering works the
Crossing structures need regular maintenance!
 III. REGULATION AND WORKS OF
PROTECTION

Introduction
Regulation and protection structures include several categories of works:
transport structures: canals, pipelines,
water distribution works: distributors, modules, sluices;
protection works: settling basin, side spillways, siphons.
Their roles are the transport of water, its distribution according to the needs of the network and the
protection of this network.
Most of these works are presented below:

channels, thresholds, and distributors

Channels
a) Generalities

Channels are linear hydraulic structures that allow the transport of water to
open surface. We encounter several types of channels:
conduits of supply,
irrigation canals,
drainage channels for wastewater and/or rainwater
navigation channels.
…

In a channel, the flow of water occurs in an open air (free surface) and follows laws
hydraulics involving flow rate, slope, and section characteristics
transversal (surface, roughness, geometric shape).

Generally, empirical formulas (CHEZY, MANNING-STRICKLER) are used to

dimension the channels.
The use of that of MANNING-STRICKLER is presented below:
V = K. R2/3I1/2where
oV is the flow velocity in m/s
R is the hydraulic radius (in m) defined as the ratio of the wet section Sm
on the wet perimeter
The longitudinal slope of the channel varies from 1/10,000 (10 cm/km) to 1/100 (10 m/km)
OK is a roughness coefficient;

EtQ = V . Sm with
Q: flow in the channel m3/s
wet section m2
oV: flow velocity in m/s

h
Pm

Sm

waterline
L: width at the mirror or width at the mouth

Figure 4.3 Geometric elements of a straight section

State of the channels

Perfect good Enough bad
Artificial channels - nature of surfaces good
Polished concrete 100 91 83 77
Concrete-coated channels 83 71 72 56
Dry stones 40 33 30 29
Dry stone walling 77 71 67 58
Channels and earth ditches, rights and uniform. 58 50 44 40
Earth channels, with wide meanders 44 40 36 36
Channels with earthen bottoms, side with stones 36 33 30 29

Table 5 Some values of the roughness coefficient K used in the formula of

MANNING-STRICKLER (Source bibliographic annex 1)
Note: The roughness coefficient is often denoted by n with K = 1/n
For a given flow rate (determined by the needs to be met downstream and the losses), we seek
most economical section. But generally it is practical considerations.
of execution and exploitation that guide the choice of the channel form. The standard sections
The most commonly encountered are rectangular and trapezoidal sections.

b) Characteristics of channels

Slopes of embankments and allowable speed

The slope of the channel and that of the banks must be such that the speed of the water ensures a flow rate.
sufficient without causing erosion of the bottom and the walls.
The longitudinal slope of a canal varies from 1/10,000 (10 cm/km) to 1/100 (10 m/km).
A channel must not have a reverse slope and its ceiling must constantly lower and
regularly from upstream to downstream. When the slope is too steep, we introduce falls
in the course of the canal.

The flow speeds are between 0.5 and 1 m/s for earth channels and between
0.75 m/s and 1.5 m/s for the lined channels.

The slopes of the trapezoidal channel embankments vary from 2/3 for earth channels to 1/1.
for coated channels. Rectangular channels always have vertical walls and are
always dressed.

Trapezoidal section channel

cavalier

Counter canal TN
R

H h α

Figure 4.4: Trapezoidal channel

The different elements are:

B: ceiling width (from 0.20 m to 1.00 m);
H: total height of the channel;
h: waterline;
R: revenge (R = 3/10 H) as H = h + R, R = 3/7*h
α: angle of the slope with the horizontal (for the usual slope of 2V/3H, α = 34°.
Rectangular section canal

embankment

H
h

raider

wall

Cleaning concrete B

Figure 4.5: Rectangular channel (Pm = B + 2.h; Sm = B.h)

The different elements of the rectangular channel are:

B: ceiling width (from 0.20 m to 1.50 m with B = about 2h);
H: total height of the channel;
h: waterline;
R : revenge (R = h/3)

Coating of channels

The lining of a canal serves three purposes:

reduce the roughness of the banks to facilitate the flow of water;
ensure the watertightness of the canal banks;
increase the slope's resistance to erosion
Trapezoidal channels may not be lined while rectangular channels are.
always dressed.
Coatings can be of different types:

Masonry coating

This type of coating is less expensive (if labor costs are low) but
slow execution; moreover, it leads to high friction and therefore low speeds.

Concrete coating

It is applied in the form of concrete directly onto the channel with or without reinforcements.
or from a prefabricated coating. The thickness varies from 5 cm to 15 cm. These coatings
resistant to erosion and allow for high flow velocities, which leads to the
reduction of the channel section. They are however expensive and sensitive to under-pressure and
to temperature variations; it is made with joints whose spacing is about
50 times the thickness.

c) Efficiency
Water losses in canals are often significant while water is sometimes scarce and
costly; these losses are as follows:
Evaporation losses: they are minimal and are often overlooked;
Losses by percolation: they depend on the nature of the terrain, on the height.
of water, of the flow rate, of the channel profile, of the presence of vegetation.
In total, losses in a channel range from 5 to 40%; the most commonly used values are
comprises between 10 and 20%.

The efficiency of a channel expresses its effectiveness or yield; an efficiency of 0.8

means that the losses in the channel are around 20% of the flow rate. The flow rate of
The sizing of a channel is therefore the ratio of the theoretical flow rate (calculated) to the efficiency.
 Glossary
The definitions of the words encountered in the
document

Erosion: digging caused by the erosive action of water;

Cofferdam: a temporary structure insulating the river from all or part of the construction site in order to
that the work is done dry;
Sedimentation basin: basin allowing the settling of water;
Bouli: a reservoir dug into the ground to collect runoff water during the season.
of rains;
Cavalier of a canal: embankment part of the profile of a trapezoidal canal;
Drop: downward movement of water in a watercourse or canal due to a
abrupt elevation of the bed;
Counter canal: small canal at the foot of the rider to collect infiltration water
the embankment and the rainwater flowing over it;
Crest: upper part of all types of dams;
Flood: flow of a watercourse with a discharge significantly higher than the average;
Dalot: small bridge intended for crossing small depressions and thalwegs.
Spillway: opening at its upper part;
Drain: a sand or geotextile element that is used to collect the water that seeps in
and under the dyke;
Sealing screen: trench dug under the dike and filled with materials
waterproofing to ensure the sealing of the foundation;
Efficiency: yield of a channel; it is the ratio between the flow at the end and the flow at the
start of the channel;
Outlet: area where water is discharged (lake, canal);
Drainage ditch: ditch located at the end of the filter used to drain water.
infiltrated and the runoff on the downstream slope;
Fruit: inclination from the vertical; its measurement expresses the tangent of the angle on the
vertical
Gabion: Rectangular parallelepiped cage made of galvanized wire mesh and filled with
rocky material of appropriate grain size;
Base gabion: a gabion whose thickness is equal to half of its width;
Gabion cage: gabion whose height is equal to double the width;
Geotextile: synthetic fabric used as a filter in earthworks;
Landslides: downward movement of a mass of land on a slope;
Gutter: a small channel fixed at the base of a roof, intended to collect rainwater;
Height of the dam: vertical distance between the crest of the dam and the lowest point
base of the foundation (height on foundation) or natural ground (height on NG);
Fall height: difference between the water level upstream and downstream of a
elevation difference
Critical height: for a given channel, it is the height of water that corresponds to the flow rate.
maximum for a given specific energy. It is governed by the formula
Q2.L/gS3= 1(Q = flow rate, S = wetted section, L = width of the surface);
Infiltration: penetration of water into the body of the structure;
Overflow weir: side wall of the weir;
Spillway width: part of the spillway over which the water flows, equivalent to the
threshold length;
Crest length: developed length of the dam crest;
Lake: stagnant body of water;
Upstream mask: thin and waterproof zone placed on the upstream facing of a
earthfill dam
Wall of a wall, guide wall, or wing wall: side wall of a spillway or of a
ditch designed to support the pressure of the fill and to direct the flow under
the work
Head wall: wall that overlooks the support of a culvert, which bears the embankment and which
allows to signal the presence of this one;
Minimum operating level: the level below which the use of water
is not possible;
Level of the highest waters: level reached during exceptional floods;
Normal retention level (R.N): maximum level of the water body in operation
normal
Core: area of an embankment dam made of a relatively
impermeable, generally clay;
Seal: waterproof screen;
Parapet: a wall built on the crest of a facing for the protection of the structure.
against the bickering;
Facade: slope or outer face upstream or downstream of the dam*; slope of the banks of a
channel; see embankment
Percolation: infiltration;
Wet perimeter: length of the contact line between the bottom and the section
wet
Perré: stones arranged regularly on the slope of a structure to protect it
against erosion;
End walls: vertical walls of a structure (culvert or bridge);
Bridge: structures that allow crossing dry over significant watercourses;
Water intake: structure allowing to draw water from a reservoir or from a
river
Hydraulic fox: infiltration of water into the embankment or foundation followed by
transport of materials that can create an opening between upstream and downstream;
Revenge: vertical distance between the highest water level or the level of
normal retention and the crest of the dam; distance between the maximum water level in
a channel and the top of the wall;
Reservoir: artificial lake created by a dam;
Hydraulic jump: rise in the free surface of a flow when a regime
torrential becomes fluvial over a short distance; it is accompanied by a loss of
charge ;
Risberme: horizontal bench on the upstream or downstream face of the dam;
Wet section: portion of the cross-section occupied by the liquid;
Sedimentation or alluviation: deposition of earthy particles containing in
the water when its flow rate decreases;
Threshold: horizontal wall of a spillway;
Surlargeur: additional width of embankments at the time of compaction; it is
removed at the end of compaction
Talus: paving;
Settlements: subsidence;
Thalweg: low area of a valley;
Bernoulli's theorem: at any point in a liquid stream, taken within a liquid mass
of perfect fluidity in perpetual motion and subjected to the sole action of the
gravity, side, the representative height of pressure and the representative height of
the speed forms a constant sum ( z + P/m + V )2/2g = Constant);
water depth above the bottom
allowing to empty the dam for maintenance or to remove sediments
accumulated in the retention;
Dead volume: volume intended to cover solid inputs;
Volume of the retention: amount of water retained due to the construction of the dam;
Volume of the dam: quantity of materials used for the construction of the dam;