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ROAD COURSE

Hervé BRUNEL

UNIVERSITY OF ORLEANS
I.U.T. OF BOURGES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Road course

History

The original version of this course was published by Hervé BRUNEL in 2005. It is
available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License version 1.2 or
subsequently published by the Free Software Foundation.

The PDF or Open Document Format versions are available on the site.
[Link]

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Table of contents
...........................................................................................................................................................6
Preamble...........................................................................................................................................7
Generalities
1.1 History of road infrastructure....................................................8
1.2 Economic function of the road
1.3 The road, a tool for land planning.................................................................................10
1.4 Contemporary Issues of Road Networks...............12
1.4.1 Road safety
1.4.2 The road in transport policies..............................................................................................13
1.4.3 The road managers...................................................................................................................16
Chapter 2 – The organization of the studies for road infrastructure projects.....................................18
2.1 Specificities of road infrastructure projects....................................................................18
2.2 The project's stakeholders and their collaboration...................................................................................19
2.3 The steps to complete the project..............................................................................................20
2.3.1 Preliminary studies in road infrastructure...................................................................................20
2.3.2 The preliminary studies
2.3.3 Public consultation..............................................................................................................21
2.3.4 The public inquiry and the declaration of public utility...........................................................................21
2.3.5 Project studies.............................................................................................................................23
2.3.6 The tenders...............................................................................................................................24
[Link] The execution of contracts...................................................................................................................25
2.4 Project Management....................................................................................................................25
2.4.1 The project team
2.4.2 The project partners......................................................................................................................26
Chapter 3 – The technical reference systems and the fields of investigation necessary for the development
of a road project..............................................................................................................................27
3.1 The different types of road.......................................................................................................27
3.1.1 The structuring network............................................................................................................................27
3.1.2 Other main routes........................................................................................................................27
3.1.3 Secondary routes
3.1.4 Urban Roads......................................................................................................................................28
3.1.5 Summary Table........................................................................................................................28
3.2 The technical instructions
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 The security requirement..................................................................................................................29
3.2.3 The adequacy of the infrastructure to dynamic constraints................................................................30
3.2.4 Sizing of connections with gradual introduction of lateral acceleration...37
3.3 The themes of the road layout study..................................................................................40
3.3.1 Traffic studies..............................................................................................................................40
[Link] Vocabulary
[Link] The capacities of the different types of routes.................................................................................42
[Link] The relationship between speed and flow
[Link] The traffic study....................................................................................................................43
3.3.2 Environmental studies .................................................................................................................48
[Link] Water
[Link] Fauna, flora..................................................................................................................................50

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[Link] Impact on health

[Link] The noise.........................................................................................................................................51
3.3.3 Urban planning studies.....................................................................................................................53
3.3.4 Geotechnical studies....................................................................................................................53
3.3.5 Hydraulic studies.......................................................................................................................54
3.3.6 Economic Studies
3.4 The tracing studies.....................................................................................................................57
3.5 The comparison of possible solutions.....................................................................58
3.5.1 Value analysis......................................................................................................................................59
3.5.2 Multicriteria analysis
Chapter 4 – The dimensional parameters of the roadway............................................................61
4.1 Basic elements of geotechnics applicable to earthworks.........................................61
4.1.1 Reminders
4.1.2 Soil behaviors
4.1.3 Characteristic physical parameters of soils...............................................................62
4.1.4 Identification tests of reworked soils..............................................................................................63
4.1.5 Soil behaviors and use in filling and subgrade layer......................................................64
4.2 Roles, characteristics, and use of the shape layer.......................................................65
4.2.1 Definition..............................................................................................................................................65
4.2.2 Roles of the shape layer................................................................................................................66
4.2.3 Conditions for the implementation of a form layer
4.3 Water and Frost in Road Surfaces..............................................................................................67
4.3.1 Water and clay
4.3.2 The movements of water in the soil.......................................................................................................68
4.3.3 The effects of frost in the soil.................................................................................................................69
4.3.4 Permeability and water movement.......................................................................................................69
4.3.5 Applications to pavements.................................................................................................................70
4.4.4 The technical guide for road earthworks........................................................................71
Chapter 5 – The execution of earthworks..................................................................................75
5.1 Road Earthworks Organization......................................................................................75
5.1.1 Strongly present hazards..................................................................................................................75
5.1.2 A fundamental rule the balance between excavation and filling...........................................................................75
5.2 Compaction
5.2.1 Effects of compaction on coarse soils and fine soils...............................................................76
[Link] Effects on sandy soils.............................................................................................................76
[Link] Effects on fine soils...................................................................................................................77
5.2.2 The compaction parameters...........................................................................................................77
5.2.3 The compaction equipment...................................................................................................................78
5.3 The execution of earthworks............................................................................................................80
5.3.1 The extraction
5.3.2 Preparation of the embankment site ......................................................................................................80
5.3.3 Transport of materials.....................................................................................................................80
5.3.4 Water flow...........................................................................................................................82
5.3.5 The embankments .........................................................................................................83
5.4 The construction of embankments..............................................................................................83
5.4.1 The preparation of the embankment area.................................................................................................83
5.4.2 Soil treatments..........................................................................................................................84
[Link] Usable binders......................................................................................................................84
[Link] Formulation Study....................................................................................................................85
[Link] Implementation of treatments with binder.......................................................................................85
5.5 The controls...............................................................................................................................87
Chapter 6 - The roadways

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6.1 The components of a roadway..............................................................................................88

6.2 Modes of pavement damage.................................................................................88
6.3 The families of pavement structure and their functioning.............................89
6.4 – Sizing - some principles....................................................................................90
6.4.1 The steps for sizing a roadway...............................................................................90
6.4.2 The limitations of the model...........................................................................................................................91
6.4.3 The road pavement design tools....................................................................................92
Chapter 7 – Sustainable development and road infrastructure......................................................93
7.1 - Some notions of sustainable development
7.2 – Sustainable development and transport infrastructure............................................................93
7.3 Sustainable development and management of transport infrastructure............................................95
7.4 Sustainable development and road construction techniques..................................................96

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Preamble

This course aims to achieve a few simple objectives, which are to provide answers and tools.
for:
– understand why we build roads
● Infrastructures have always had a prominent place in development.
of civilizations, to put the technical dimension into perspective
In history, it is to appropriate the approach of project management and
understand the social and economic issues that revolve around this
domain
– how we study the projects
● The study of a road project requires the implementation of skills.
multiple; it is clearly about the road layout, but upstream of the area
preliminary studies: environmental studies, geological,
hydraulic studies as well as traffic, urban planning, and economic studies. In the end
to be able to study a project, taking into account the constraints of the environment in which it
will be implemented and measure its impact.
– how do they build them
● The implementation of the project requires knowledge of certain principles.
fundamentals of geotechnics, earthmoving techniques,
controls to be implemented
– measuring the stakes and challenges that road infrastructures will have to integrate tomorrow
● an increased consideration of the environment, constraints regarding
limitation of greenhouse gas emissions, development
durable. These are keys that allow a technician to position themselves
in a rapidly changing field, where mere technical knowledge
is not enough.

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Course of the road

Chapter 1 - Generalities

1.1 History of road infrastructure

The history of the road is undeniably linked to the development of

humanity and civilizations. Of course, this course is technical and not
historical, but how can one not talk about the Roman roads.

Roman civilization truly left its mark on a part

from Europe through the development of infrastructures, whether they are road or
of drinking water supply. Their design has allowed them to leave a trace
up to the present day.

It is important to note that the history of roads is also linked to will.

of the expansion of nations and thus the needs of their armies. It is then
necessary to be able to move troops and weapons quickly to
through new countries.

These paths are then quickly marked by their ability to support

the traffic of carts pulled by oxen teams. It is necessary in these
conditions that they have the necessary mechanical resistance. The notion
pavement is invented. The Romans then use mineral materials
hard in the form of blocks. The techniques used come from the
masonry, then the road is given a curved shape, which allows for
report the efforts on the curbs that simply need to be propped up. This
the technique will be used for nearly 20 centuries.

It is important to note that history then brings us confirmation.

that many civilizations with expansionist aims have supported their
development on a mastery of communication in general and of
road infrastructures in particular.

Closer to us, the first trace of the organization's emergence appears in France.
national road infrastructures, with the appointment of Sully as Grand
Voyeur from France (late 16th century). The financing of infrastructures has
has always been the driving force behind their development. The Middle Ages despite the
tax collection by local potentates has hardly witnessed their
reinvestment in this area.

It wasn't until the 17th century, with the appointment of Colbert and the creation
of what can be called a national institution, I mean the administration
of Bridges and Roads. A national road network is then developed in
France, the state is centralized, power is located in Paris, the royal roads.
will therefore head towards the province.

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Thus, before 1789, 30,000 km of roads were constructed. With a roadway

of 13 m, the royal roads have geometric characteristics
important. It is not the same for internal service, the roads
Traverses have more modest dimensions: 10 m for the paths.
vicomtiers, 5 m for the country paths allowing the connection of a 'region'
to the other, 2.50 m for so-called quarry paths and trails of a width
with a pavement of 1.20 m. Faced with the difficulty of modernizing this network, the
Departments created during the revolution have, for some, restored tolls.

The construction and maintenance of roads also pose the problem of the mode of
financing: private funds or public funds and users or taxpayers. The
France made the choice, until the reconstruction that followed the second war.
global, public funding of its road network.

The difficulty arose with the significant growth of the car fleet.
The rapid development of a structured road network of capacity has proven
necessary, the State has chosen to use the principle of concession to implement it
in operation. Thus, if the characteristics of the highway are determined by
the technical administration of the Ministry of Equipment, its construction and its
exploitation is taken care of by a company (public or private)
of the highway, in exchange for the collection of toll fees. The application
of the European directive on the coordination of
procedures for awarding public works contracts, interpreted directive
in French law by the Sapin law in 1993. This law led to the disappearance of
system of backing from 19981.

The French road network was composed, before January 1, 2006, in addition to the
motorways (10,400 km), national roads (approximately 29,000 km), roads
departmental (360,000 km) and municipal roads (610,000 km)2.

The decentralization law, voted in 2004, and translated at the end of 2005 by a
decree specifying the constitution of the national road network has modified these
distributions, by transferring approximately 17,000 km of the national road network to
departmental road network3.

1.2 Economic function of the road

We saw earlier the development of road infrastructure

is linked to the expansion policies of nations, primarily in support of the necessities
of military movements, they then allowed the development
commercial.

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The economic and industrial development that followed the Second World War
global has seen a transformation of the industrial landscape, technology has allowed
to rationalize production methods, this movement had emerged in
beginning of the century in the early days of automobile construction.

This same modernization movement has affected agriculture. At that time,

attended a migration of the campaigns to the cities. The regions have
specialized in complementary productions, the rationalization of
costs have gradually led to the reduction of stocks, and to the necessity of
to be able to quickly supply remote manufacturing units.

This modernization of production, by reducing production costs, has

permission to create mass markets. Commercial distribution of more
more oriented towards large retail surfaces required, and the
the phenomenon continues to grow, rapid movement capabilities within
Western countries. In France, transport policy has favored the
route in relation to the railway.

The economists4characterize the performances of an activity by the

marginal productivity of private capital. The quality of infrastructure
transport would impact this productivity. By reducing transport costs,
road networks facilitate the mobility of production factors,
reduce distances (in time factor) and their impact between places of
production and consumption.

Studies conducted on the impact of public investments in infrastructure

road networks lead to very high profitability rates. These rates reach
according to their authors, 60%. Even if this value seems very optimistic, it
illustrates well the ambiguity of infrastructure financing: it is the
taxpayer who finances them, but the user does not pay for them! This ambiguity has
It has been partially lifted in the case of toll highways. It remains to be taken into account
counts another external cost: that of pollution. The latter is purely
external.

There is another economic function performed by the road: the activity it

generates for its construction and maintenance.

1.3 The road, a land planning tool

We measured it in the previous theme, the road has a function

economic. It is possible to measure, retrospectively, the impact of a
infrastructure in a territory in terms of economy. Models allow

4Crihfield: Impacts of concentration in Hog production on economic growth in rural Illinois – 1989
C. Mamatzakis: Public Infrastructure, Private Input Demand, and Economic Performance of the
Greek Industry

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to determine the profitability of these investments.

In a very concrete way, the road modifies the organization of the territory. It
modify the distances between activity areas and housing.

At the local level, the presence of a quality road network will develop
the distance of residential areas from activity zones. This
distance modifies the balance of cost and transport time, compared to the
cost of real estate. The impact of individual transportation is all the more
important, that the habitat is of low density and that the agglomeration that plays
the role of a center of attraction is small. In the big ones
urban agglomerations or megacities, the weight of public transport is
dominant, even if the distance between the habitat place and the activity place does not cease
to extend (see: eligibility area of transport tickets in Ile de France).

In rural areas, the quality of the road network has a second

incidentally, it helps slow down rural exodus by maintaining access to
socio-cultural facilities for the inhabitants of the villages.

At the regional and inter-regional level, the existence of a quality road network
is a facilitating factor for the establishment of economic activities.

In a liberal economy, it is the market that dictates the organization of the

production. When road transport is dominant, two data are
important, the establishment on a route of transregional importance or
international and the distance to consumption sectors. The notion of
distance is appreciated according to several criteria, length obviously,
but also the reliability of travel time. The latter criterion is very
favorable to the use of the highway.

The Delegation for Spatial Planning and Regional Affairs has

developed the concept of city networks, in a reflection initiated in the
1990s. This concept was reinforced by transport policies.
the European scale.

When the size of the habitat and activity basins is insufficient, the space
is organized on a multicity scale. The logic of equipment, of
services, economic cooperation is then complementary. It requires
to operate transportation infrastructures which include
in a good place the roads.

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1.4 Contemporary Issues of Road Networks

1.4.1 Road safety

Road traffic has continued to increase since the reconstruction period which
followed the 2nd world war, and with it the risk and the reality of accidents.
Thus, in 1972, the number of accidents reached 260,000 and the number of fatalities was 16.
545 people.

In nearly 30 years, social demands have significantly evolved.

The 1970s corresponded, in the Western world, to a social transformation.
It translated into an emancipation from the old dogmas and the
traditional precepts. It continued from the 1990s onwards by a
growing need for security. Today, about 29 are circulating in France
millions of passenger cars and 6 million commercial vehicles, the level
the constraints to apply are all the more significant as the number of vehicles increases
the circulation is high. One must be aware that in the absence of measures,
the number of fatalities would have continued to rise with traffic to exceed more than
45,000 killed per year.

Thus, society has gradually rejected road insecurity. This subject has taken a
political dimension, and today the social acceptability of this theme has allowed
the implementation of a repressive policy.

The awareness of the evolution of accidentology weight existed, the

the first measures had then been taken, with the speed limit set at 60 km/h
urban area in 1954 and the possibility of controlling blood alcohol levels in case
of the accident, the speed limit on part of the network in 1961. The year
1970 saw the introduction of the first maximum blood alcohol concentration, its value was
0.8 g/l of blood and resulted in a penalty, the value of 1.2 g/l of
The limit for the offense was blood. These values are respectively 0.5g/l and 0.8g.
blood.

The implementation of the points-based license in 1992 marks a turning point in

the repressive measures. After several years of stagnation at values
includes between 7500 and 8500 deaths per year, the year 2003 witnessed a
spectacular drop of more than 20% with 5700 deaths, after the year 2003
where the number of fatal accidents had already decreased. The repressive measures
mainly affected the field of speed with the multiplication of
controls and the implementation of the first automatic radars.

The automotive technology has, of course, evolved over the same period. Vehicles
integrated deformation zones, seat belts with
pyrotechnic pretenders, airbags. These devices aim to

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to absorb the significant kinetic energy involved during deceleration

brutal associated with the shocks often accompanying a car accident. The
wheel anti-lock system, complemented by the E.P.S. devices, aims to
but to maintain control of the trajectory for as long as possible, in
extraordinary conditions.

The road is less often responsible for the causes than for the consequences of
certain accidents.

It is known that the aggravating factor of leaving the road is the 'encounter' with a
obstacle. If the main road network has seen the shoulders widen, the
trees lining the roads cut down, the drainage systems to be secured, it is not the case
still the same on the smallest roads, where it is materially impossible
to widen the road footprint. However, the power poles or
Telephone lines are gradually disappearing, under the concerted action undertaken by the
local authorities and public network operators (EDF and France-
Telecom5.

The technique has evolved considerably. The materials used for the
the fabrication of wear layers incorporates research results in
material of hydrocarbon binders, of granulometric composition and of
intrinsic characteristics of aggregates. Thus the hazards related to weather conditions
take less importance.

1.4.2 The road in transport policies

We previously measured the weight that the road represented in

land use planning and the economic importance it represented.
We also measured the weight of public authorities in the implementation of
infrastructure work.

The road is not the only transport infrastructure. The 19th century saw the
development of an important network of canals in France. The 19th and the
The beginning of the 20th century saw the construction of a railway network.

The period following the Second World War saw the emergence of a
economic organization where the role of road transport holds a place
determinant. Indeed, this period is marked by mass production.
equipment goods produced with a constant effort for mastery of
costs of production. It is the beginning of 'Just in time'. The automotive industry
illustrate this statement: manufacturers produce accessories on demand
of car manufacturers. This trend has continued to strengthen after the
different economic crises that have affected the West. It is transport
a driver who brings flexibility and responsiveness to this mode of operation.

Decree No. 2006-1133 of September 8, 2006 concerning the relocation of facilities and works
in the interest of road safety and amending the road code

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In terms of economic constraint, this solution is chosen because the use of the
Route, outside of highways, is not charged in France. It is the
taxpayer who finances the construction and maintenance of roads not the user.
This is not the case in all European countries.

Investments made in transport infrastructure between 1950 and

1990 in France:

26 million euros
- national routes: 22 M€
local routes: 62 million euros
TGV lines: €5.5 million
classic railway lines: 18 M€
Paris Metro infrastructures: €5.5 million
infrastructures of the subways of Lyon and Marseille: €1.2M
infrastructures for river and maritime navigation: €5.5 million
Navigable waterways: 4.5 million euros

Billion euros in 1990 value.

Several reflections have been made on transportation policy in France.

The orientation law on internal transport voted in 19826had defined some
grand principles on the complementarity of transport means,
justification of the new investments in terms of their economic utility
and social issues and consideration of the environment. One must admit that the
diversification of means of transport has remained merely a wish and has not
found a true operational translation.

The last validated road plan in France dates back to 1992.7He has been replaced.
through the service schemes. These documents reflected thoughts on a
real consideration of intermodality for the definition of investments
to be achieved in terms of infrastructure. They were to establish the
new State-Region planning contract for the period 2000-2006.

The State-Region planning contracts defined the projects carried out by the State.
in each French region in the fields of training, of
research, education, new technologies, transportation, of
the environment ... and the terms of financial participation of
signatories of the Contract. Thus, in the field of road infrastructure, the
selection of investments on the national road network was decided with the
Regions but also the Departments and the communities that surround them
co-financing. For example, in the urban field, the State financed its
road infrastructure projects at 27.5% and 50% inter-
urban. The law of August 13, 2004 put an end to this type of financial arrangement

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Driving lesson

national routes.

The growing role of Europe in public decisions has required to

redefine transport policies at the level of policies of
European development. The enlargement of the community with the arrival
in 2004, ten new entrants (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic,
Lithuania, Estonia, Slovenia, Latvia, Slovakia, Cyprus, and Malta) and in 2007
from Bulgaria and Romania, led Europe, and in particular the
France, to consider means of transportation and development of
infrastructures.

As an example, Romania currently has just over

100 km of a highway whose condition requires heavy rehabilitation.
the economic development of these two new European countries requires
a development of their motorway network.

DATAR published a study in 2000 "France in Europe: what ambition

for transport policy?" on which several CIAT8are
supported to define the axes of development of a transport policy
in France by 20059.

This study concludes the importance of logistic transport and its impact
the establishment of new logistics platforms, to the necessity of
develop the opening of maritime facades, to develop the corridors
north-south railways and crossing the Pyrenees and the Alps,
contribute to the interconnection of major airports with other networks of
8 CIAT: Interministerial Committee for Land Planning
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transportation. This study concludes, like the LOTI, on the necessity to justify the
new arrangements in terms of their social and economic utility in
integrating the increasingly strong concerns for protection
the environment.

These conclusions differ from the political axes of the LOTI, in the sense that the
European funding will only apply to projects that address issues at
the scale of Europe.

This study also echoes the observations of the Court of Auditors on

the inadequacy of maintenance of the French road network. The scarcity of funds
The public gives a particular dimension to these observations. The heritage
Transport requires mass financial mobilization to be maintained.
important. The United States had opted for a policy of curative maintenance.
The road network quickly deteriorated, with a particular difficulty
for the structures, gradually reconsider this direction for
new consider all the interest that preventive maintenance represents.

1.4.3 The road managers

As we mentioned earlier, the road network is managed by different

interveners. Until the creation of the highways, these interveners were
public law. It was about the State for national roads and motorways
not granted, the departments for the departmental road network: the
departmental routes that until decentralization were referred to as
departmental roads.

The road manager is responsible for all measures

designed to ensure the safety and convenience of passage on the way
public. This results in a number of obligations being established. Under the title of the
mainly, that of maintenance: the road manager must implement
the set of means at his disposal to ensure a state allowing a
circulation under safety conditions suited to the characteristics of the
questionable way. We are particularly talking about normal maintenance shortcomings.
However, no one is required to do the impossible, the judge speaks of normal diligence.
service: the optimal use of the resources available to the manager to
maintain safety on the road.

Legal risks come in several forms:

- administrative (administrative law applies to the legal entity, it is the
administrative tribunal that invokes this right
civil (civil code, it can apply to natural and legal persons)
- criminal (penal code, since its reform in the early 1990s, it allows the
involvement of individuals.

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Regarding the national roads, it is the organization of the ministry of

ecology, development, and sustainable planning that defines the
responsibilities. It is largely supported by the management
interdepartmental roads (11 in France)10.

Regarding municipalities and departments, the responsibility is

exercised by the authority designated within the established organization.

Regarding the highways, two scenarios are possible: either it

this is a non-conceded highway (examples: A20 for part, A75 for
in this case the interview is conducted by a specialized service of the
interdepartmental road authority concerned, either it is about a
toll highway, and it is the concessionaire company that ensures maintenance
during the entire duration of the concession granted to him.

In addition to maintenance obligations, the road manager regulates the use

of the public works and its dependencies. Thus it conditions the non-uses
ordinary in the implementation of security measures (examples: detour for
a bike race, for work, speed limits...), it defines the
conditions under which a network manager can implement
posts, pipelines in the shoulders or under the roadway. These
conditions may apply to technology, but also to security, the
authorizations may be conditioned upon the payment of a fee. They have
also a precarious and revocable character.

After the implementation of the new decentralization law of August 13, 2004, the State
reclassed in the departmental road networks significantly the two
thirds of the national road network, about 20,000 km on the
30,000 km that make it up today.

The main challenge for local authorities will be defining policies.

of maintenance and investment relevant in relation to the other policies of
development, particularly economic and social.

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Chapter 2 – The organization of infrastructure project studies

road

Every project, in whatever field it intervenes, requires

successive studies whose scopes and objectives will be different and adapted
to the issues specific to each level of definition. This chapter deals with
studies necessary for a road infrastructure project.

In the first part, we will address the specificity of the field.

road infrastructures. We will focus secondly on detailing
the content of the preliminary studies. We will address the main principles of the
project management, as it is entirely related to the content of these studies.

We will then discuss the different levels of study: pre-project

summary, and detailed preliminary project.

2.1 Specificities of road infrastructure projects

These projects are primarily marked by their impact on

the environment. This involves new roads, highways, but also
modernization of routes, creation of new exchange points
(roundabouts, interchanges, ...). If a majority of citizens is
road user, the same majority finds it more difficult to
the passage of a bypass at the back of his garden. It is the NIMBY phenomenon.
(Not in my back yard).

The social requirement has also evolved, pressure groups have emerged.
developed in all areas: the environment first, but also some
neighborhood defense associations, or more specific themes such as
the defense of certain birds, reptiles, bats ...

The determination of the solutions will also depend on taking into account the
environmental constraints of all kinds.

At the genesis of a project, there exists a need, a problem, a change

the situation. It is essential to know the initial situation, it is
the project environment. This is the context, its dimensions are
economic, environmental, political, social. The first of the steps
of a project, which will be responsible for project management, is the knowledge of
this context.

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2.2 The stakeholders of the project and their collaboration

A project involves a set of actors directly or indirectly.

concerned, they can be drivers, decision-makers, but also opponents. We
can use terminology specific to road operations some terms
which characterize the groups of actors:

The project owner: they are the initiator of the project and the one who orders it.
will not study the project, but on the other hand he must know its functions, the
objectives. It will therefore define the program. The project owner defines in the
set the objectives of the operation and the needs it must meet,
as well as the constraints and requirements of social and urban quality,
architectural, functional, technical and economic, of insertion into the
landscape and environmental protection, related to the implementation and
the use of the work. (excerpt from the Public Project Management law)
Unable to access content from the provided URL.

The project management: it is the entity that will study the project based on the
program and will be responsible for its implementation. When it comes to work,
project management is responsible for overseeing the execution of the work. The
The mission of mastery consists of providing an architectural and technical response.
and economic on the agenda (reminder: the agenda is a prerogative of
the project ownership; the project managers do not have to develop or
modify the program, which does not fall within their area of intervention.

The partners: they can be co-financers, but also individuals

public entities concerned by the project (administrations, local authorities...)

The users: they are the beneficiaries of the project when it concerns a work.
public.

The public: it is the group of people that make up the environment.

human of the project.

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2.3 The steps in the project implementation

2.3.1 Preliminary studies in road infrastructure

The peculiarity of the road is its linear nature and its impact on
environments of totally different natures. We can inventory them with a
minimum common sense. Thus we have mentioned the land domain so
sens large the road interacts with urban areas, which it crosses, where
that it serves.

It impacts the environment, in the etymological sense, therefore of

ecosystems defined by their components: water, air, fauna, flora, soil and under-
the social demands gradually forged legislative tools and
regulations that govern these areas. The road also impacts the areas
urban.

A new infrastructure will change urban development, but

also the economic development of a territory.

First, it is necessary to define the relevant study area for the

road project imagined. The perimeter of this area will need to be adapted to
issues studied. It is quite easy to imagine that geological study
will cover a different area from that of the noise study.

2.3.2 The preliminary project studies

At this level of study, the main objectives are:

– specify the local functions of the planning
– define different plotting possibilities
– compare these different possibilities, which we will qualify as variants,
in view of the goals of planning but also in view of
constraints to take into account
– choose a variant
– define its target cost.

The precision scale still allows you to move the drawing inside.
from a zone, for important projects we talk about a band of 300 m.
It will then be possible at this stage to prepare the public inquiry.

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2.3.3 Consultation with the public

The LOTI had mentioned it, the emancipation of our Western societies through
the report to the authorities confirmed it: a project must demonstrate a
social acceptability.

The Urban Planning Code and the SRU law have established the use of the
consultation with the public. even when it is not mandatory, there is everything
interest in implementing it11This exercise is not yet natural for the
public project managers, it is more so for public project owners.

This consultation can be implemented at several levels. From the

preliminary studies, it will allow to bring out parameters of
the environment that might not have been detected. At the pre-stage
project, the consultation will allow us to gather the opinions of the population on
each variant, but also the remarks and also the avenues for improvement.
The outcome of the consultation will guide the project owner in the choice of the
solution that will be retained.

This consultation can take several forms: exhibition,

brochures, meetings. Its purpose is to reduce the distance that exists between the
designers and the local residents to whom this project will be imposed. It allows for
eliminate the gray areas, the inaccuracies for the public. It allows
also to the project owners and contractors to integrate concerns that
had not been considered.

The exercise of consultation clearly highlights the evolution of

technician profession in a broad sense. The latter should not be only
able to design a project, like a simple technical object, but it must
know how to justify it in relation to its environment and a problem
spatial planning. It must thus integrate economic skills,
sociological, environmental, as much as a true capacity of
communication.

2.3.4 The public inquiry and the declaration of public utility

The public inquiry file, whether prior or not to the

public utility declaration is established based on pre-project studies
summary.

It includes an essential component: the impact study. The latter is

conducted based on environmental studies.

...jurisprudence, which has determined that consultation can take the form of public meetings,
exhibitions of plans and models, displays, the maintenance of a register available to
public, etc. The judge, however, requires a certain proportionality between the terms of the
consultation and the importance of projects submitted for consultation...

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For projects of great importance, the file also includes,

a socio-economic study. It is the orientation law on transport
interiors that defined this obligation.

The project owner informs the prefect who then takes the order for implementation.
the public inquiry of the project. The administrative court completes the process
by appointing an investigating commissioner or a commission of inquiry if the
the project justifies it in the context of prior public inquiries into a
declaration of public utility or projects having an impact on
the environment (application of the Bouchardeau law12).

As soon as the principle of the investigation is established, the project owner has
in charge of the publicity measures for this survey. Articles must be
published in the legal notice sections of daily newspapers
regional, signs must indicate, on the outskirts of the site of the
project, the dates, times, and places where the inquiry file will be available for consultation, as well
what the hours of availability of the investigating commissioner.

The public inquiry will last at least 1 month. During this period,
the public can make any remark, question, or contradiction they deem necessary
relevant to the project. The investigating commissioner can receive the
public and bring his own remarks from the public.

At the end of this investigation, where he may be led to question the master
the investigator will prepare his report, within which,
he will be able to express his comments, his questions. In conclusion, he
will give her opinion on the project.

This report and this opinion will be forwarded to the prefect. The latter will decide.
whether the project has public utility status or not13.

The entire procedure is the most legally delicate part of the project.
Indeed, it concludes with an administrative act, which as such, is
challengeable before an administrative jurisdiction: court or Council of State.

The aspects on which an appeal can be based also concern both

in depth as in form.

At its core, it is also about the response that the project provides to the
developed issue, only taking into account the constraints as well as

Law No. 83-630 of July 12, 1983 relating to the democratization of public inquiries and to the
environmental protection

13This is the declaration of public utility that allows expropriation. Indeed, this is the only possibility.
of questioning property protected by the declaration of human rights and of
citizen inArticle 17 - [Link]

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compensatory measures. The essential element is the impact study.14She

is made mandatory for arrangements whose list is defined by
decree. In general, any development with an amount exceeding
1.9 million euros is necessarily subject to public inquiry.

In terms of form, it concerns the adherence to procedures, deadlines,

advertising measures....

The judge can then annul the declaration of public utility and the
the procedure must then be restarted, after any possible supplements
land acquisitions are then blocked with regard to
expropriation procedures. If work had begun on some
plots that the project owner had acquired amicably it can be
condemned to restore the land to its original condition.

On the contrary, appeals before a European court are not

suspension of work if the reason is not related to environmental degradation
natural, but to the deprivation of the enjoyment of the property.

This type of appeal is becoming increasingly common. Individuals and

associations surround themselves with legal advisors who analyze in detail the
respect for the procedures. The only constraint for applicants is that they have an interest
to act.

2.3.5 Project studies

As soon as the project is declared of public utility, the detailed studies

can then be started. The route will then be precisely defined, as well as
the detailed construction set.

At the same time, all other surveys will be launched:

– the parcel survey: it will allow to know precisely the
owners of each plot affected by the project. It is on its
based on the acquisitions or, where applicable, the expropriations will
place. This survey can also be conducted simultaneously with
the public inquiry.
– the water law investigation, if the project must be subject to authorization
under the water law.
– the possible public inquiries related to the compatibility adjustment of the

14[Link]
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LEGISCTA000006176669
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urban planning documents (SCOT)15or PLU16Indeed, the infrastructure

may be contrary or even prohibited by urban planning documents.
In this case, it is the urban planning document that adapts.

2.3.6 The tenders

Once the project is perfectly defined, it is time to move on to its

execution. The project owner being public for the subject that interests us, it
is bound by the public procurement code. The project manager then prepares a
tender offer folder. This document will contain all the technical elements.
who will define the project to be carried out, the standards and technical norms to
take into account. It will define the economic and regulatory conditions
of realization with particular emphasis on the modes of remuneration. The DCE will define
the conditions for competition, the criteria for evaluating the bids.

At this stage, the usable procedures are numerous. They meet

different issues. Here are a few:
– the most well-known: the open tender. In this case, all the
companies can submit a bid to the contracting authority.
– the call for applications: the project owner announces the development
to be carried out with these general characteristics. It then retains the
candidates who based on references of equivalent operations and in
function of predefined qualitative criteria, which seem to him
most capable of carrying out the development. Files of
consultations are then addressed to the selected candidates. Their offers
are then analyzed as for an open tender.

In both cases, the tender can be launched with or without variations.

Thus, in the context of the variants, the technical characteristics are not
frozen, the candidates can propose solutions. There are forms
tendering process more encouraging of creativity in businesses:
– The performance-based tender is a form of an extended variant.
The candidate provides an answer to a problem defined by the master.
of work
– the design and construction market: the selected candidate will study the
project and will carry it out for a fixed price at the bidding stage.

At the end of the competitive bidding procedures, a candidate is selected; their

the offer will become the contract that will bind him to the project owner.

15SCOT: territorial coherence scheme, it is the planning document at the scale of

several municipalities define the major planning options. The other documents
Urban planning must take into account the established development plan.
16PLU: local urban planning plan, it is the document that replaced the POS, land occupation plan.
It is a regulatory urban planning document. It determines land use, the nature of
constructions, their density ....

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2. 2.3.7 The execution of contracts

We have just indicated that the public market is a contract that binds the
project owner with the selected company. Both parties will, starting from
from that moment, the charge, each taking care of what concerns her, to execute the
contract: the company to carry out the work and the project owner for
compensate the company by ensuring that the contract is respected.

The evolution of the economic context has changed the conditions of

completion of the work. The established trend for several years is
a strict execution of the contract, in the Anglo-Saxon manner.

It often happens for major work contracts that the

candidates studied the DCE very thoroughly to determine its weaknesses
or the errors. Their offer is then based on the valuation of the DCE as it stands.

In progress any modification of the project and thus of

services to be performed must then translate into a modification of the contract.
The public procurement code allows it through amendments in particular.

The contractor is responsible, on behalf of the project owner, for

ensure the proper execution of the market. He has a legal arsenal
binding for the company through the CCAG17work.

The disputes that may arise between the project owner and companies
can be settled amicably18or before an administrative tribunal.

2.4 Project Management

The project, at each stage of its implementation, may evolve and undergo
modifications. In any case, it will require steps of
validation, decision making. A steering committee created at the origin of
the project must be the guarantor of the commitments validated by the program
example. It will be composed of representatives from the project owner, the manager
of the project, possibly of project partners.

2.4.1 The project team

It is the human resource that, with its skills, will be able to carry out the study.
It can be made up of people from different backgrounds and structures. The
operation in project mode is characterized as a matrix structure in the
17CCAG: General Administrative Clauses Book.
18- We are talking about a transactional procedure related to the development of the use of transaction.
to settle conflicts amicably - [Link]
[Link]

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work organization models.

2.4.2 The project partners

It can be financial partners in the case of infrastructure projects.

road users, they are local authorities. Their participation gives them a
form of power in terms of choice, of drafting for example.

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Chapter 3 – Technical reference frameworks and fields

necessary investigations for the development of a road project

In France, the standardization and design of technical references in

road material comes from the administration responsible for transport: the ministry
of Equipment and more specifically of the Directorate of Roads. Thus
public engineering has been dominant in France concerning the field of
the road, up to our days. This supremacy has actually crossed our borders,
she is a nearly global reference in the field.

This field benefits from a number of rules facilitating design.

the works. They have been completed gradually to take into account
the evolution of techniques and the functioning of society.

3.1 The different types of road

They are defined in the catalog of road types.

3.1.1 The structuring network

– L-typelink motorway, with two roadways separated by a

non-crossable central land, at uneven intersections, isolated
from its environment, without waterfront access, in high traffic and to
speed limit set at 130 km/h (110 km/h) in difficult conditions.
– express route: type T transit route with one or two lanes
roadways, at elevated intersections, isolated from its environment, at
average traffic and speed limited to 110 km/h for the roads
separate lanes and at 90 km/h for roadway highways
unique .

3.1.2 Other main routes

– interurban artery: multifunctional type R road with two lanes

separate roadways divided by an impassable central median
roundabouts or plans without crossing the central median,
at a speed limit of 110 km/h if there are no adjoining accesses or 90
km/h if access for residents.
– other main route: multifunctional route of type R to a
roadway, at ordinary or roundabout intersections, with access
riverside, with moderate traffic and a speed limit of 90 km/h.

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3.1.3 Secondary routes

These are type S roads with the same characteristics.

than the other main roads, but with low traffic.

3.1.4 Urban Roads

They break down into:

– main urban roads, which can be single or double
roadways
– access roads for local activities to a roadway.

3.1.5 Summary table

Type of R (routes T (transit) L (Liaison)

route multifunctional)
Routes Arteries Express routes Highways
intercity
Name of 1 or 2
pavements 1 2 2
Crossroads plans or roundabouts plans or elevations elevations
roundabouts, but
without crossing of
TPC
Access without or with if access, without Without access without access
crossing of the TPC riverside residents riverside residents
Limitation of 90 km/h 90 or 110 km/h 90 or 110 km/h 130 or 110 km/h
speed
Crossings yes, possibly no no
urban area
Categories R 60 or R 80 T80 or T100 L100 or L120 or
possibilities L80

Domains short or binding function link function link function

of employment average distance at average or at average or
long distance long distance
privileged privileged
Term traffic average traffic strong traffic average traffic strong traffic
(1 roadway) (2 roadways)

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3.2 The technical instructions

The technical conditions under which must be arranged the

different routes are subject to three ministerial instructions. They
apply according to the type of road considered:

– theinstruction on the technical conditions for the development of highways

of liaison (I.C.T.A.A.L.). It dates from March 22, 1971, it was modified on
December 22, 2000. This instruction applies to L type roads.

– the technical guide for the development of main roads (A.R.P.).

This guide applies to T or R type routes. Its application is
mandatory for national roads and becoming increasingly systematic
for the departmental roads.
the instruction on the technical conditions for the development of pathways
urban rapid transit (I.C.T.A.V.R.U.)

3.2.1 Introduction

It is imperative to understand the approach that has prevailed in order to use them,
the development of these technical instructions. They should be considered as
tools designed to facilitate the work of the designer and not as a constraint
nature to limit its imagination.

Defining the characteristics of a road means designing the three elements.

simple geometric shapes that compose it:
– the plan layout, projection of the road on a horizontal plane.
– the long profile, development of the intersection of the road surface
with the cylinder having a vertical generator passing through its axis.
– the profile in cross-section, cut along a vertical plane perpendicular to the axis.

The standards set the rules regarding the construction of these three elements.
The requirements that prevailed in the development of the standards are of two types:
safety of users and capacity of infrastructures to manage the traffic they
supporting.

3.2.2 The security requirement

The movement of a vehicle on a road is, today, the interaction of

three components:
– the man, who based on the perception he has of the information he receives
come from its environment, analyzes and decides.
– the automobile, mechanical structure, in connection with the roadway by
tires, directly implements the decisions made by the
chauffeur. More than 10 years ago, the automobile did not have

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of intelligence assisting the driver, this situation has evolved

today.
– the environment that provides a very large amount of information to
driver, and who interacts with the automobile.

The accident is then conceived as a rare dysfunction of the relationship.

between these three types of components. The interaction between the person and the vehicle
mainly concerns the field of ergonomics. The interactions between
the man and the environment and between the vehicle and the environment are concerned,
for what interests us, the design of roads.

The study of the dynamic constraints that apply to a vehicle, and of

the operating mode of the vehicle-infrastructure couple allows to set the
limits of the main characteristics of the road network.

Furthermore, in order for the driver to be able to adapt their behavior, it is

essential that he has the necessary information in time: this constraint
is the visibility.

3.2.3 The suitability of the infrastructure to dynamic constraints

The automobile is a structure subjected to a set of distinct forces:

the natural forces

p = Mg gravitational attraction which gives to the ground-pneumatic contact its
guidance and grip capacity.
F = MV²/R the centrifugal force that tends to push the vehicle off the lane
of rolling in circular paths.

the internal forces within the vehicle

I=MG the effort of traction or braking to induce movement or
the stop of the vehicle. Thus, at time t, the vehicle is characterized by its force
of inertia MG.

the reaction forces at the soil-pneumatic interface. The components

tangential components of these forces ensure and control the movement of
vehicle.

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The design of the road geometry must be such that it does not result in
given the performance of the vehicles (speed, grip of
tires, etc...) and the quality of adhesion of the coatings, to a
transverse equilibrium disruption in a curve, with residual accelerations
or to sudden harsh acceleration variations harmful to safety and
comfort of users.

The consideration of the vehicle's transverse balance in the standards of

The layout in plan is defined based on the camber of the roadways, of the
deformation, elasticity, and drift of the tire, conditions
of balance in the curves, of the radius of the curve, of the gradualness of
the transverse acceleration.

- 1 - Spill of the roads in the curves: taking into account the

the slope of the roadway is different depending on whether the vehicle is moving in
straight trajectory, sloping to the left or to the right.
With cross slope valuessignificantly equal to or less than
7% (about 0.07 radians) the value of the tangent and sine are
sensibly equal to the angle when expressed in radians.
In right alignment, the tangential stress is equal to: Tr = Mg
. in a left turn, the tangential constraint becomes Tr=Mg+ MV²/R
in a right turn, the tangential constraint becomes Tr = -Mg+ MV²/R

The road camber towards the inside of the curve has the effect of
to play an active role in gravity, the component of the vehicle's weight
parallel to the roadway compensates partially for the centrifugal force.

The resultant of the forces applied at the center of gravity of the vehicle.
is expressed in terms of the mass and speed of the vehicle, the radius and
the runoff from the road in this way:
Tr = -Mg+ MV²/R
thus Tr = M ( V²/R – g) or t = V²/R is the transverse acceleration
and t = ( V²/R - gis the lateral acceleration not accounted for by the camber
from the road.

One could thus consider completely cancelling the effect of the force
centrifuge by increasing the road slope. Thus at 140 km/h with
a radius of 1000m,should be equal to 16%, this value is not
admissible for vehicles moving slowly or during periods of
black ice.

By limiting the value of the transverse slope, it is the property of the contact.
pneumatic-solar that allows for mobilizing complementary reactions. It
It is therefore about the quality of the tires as well as the grip of the
surfacing (it will be addressed in the chapter on pavement).

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- 2 - Elasticity, deformation, and drift of the tire

When it is subjected to a tangential force to its plane of rotation, the

pneumatic drift
during the rotation motion, under the action of the transverse force F,
the median generator of the torus that forms the envelope deforms at
passage in the contact area, this deformation, slight at the entrance in
the contact area amplifies towards the rear as the elastic material yields
progressively under the pressure it receives. The deformations being more
large at the back of the contact area, the transverse reactions
elementary ones are therefore stronger; the total reaction no longer goes below the
center of the wheel, but to the back.
The tire, in drift, is subject, in addition to the resultant of the forces
"static", to a twist that modifies the obliquity of the contact surface. The
pneumatic reacts to this twist, the couple (F,T), called self-couple
alignment tends to rotate the equatorial plane of the torus in the plane
F's vertical.
if we want to maintain the trajectory of the center of the contact area as it is
exists in the absence of transverse force, a moment about an axis must be applied
vertical equal to the self-alignment couple and tilt the equatorial plane of the
wheel of an angle in relation to the vertical plane that passes through the trajectory
fixed: just as a pilot puts his plane in a drift to maintain his heading.
One can write: T = K N
where is the tire slip angle, K the cornering coefficient, N is the load
instantaneous of the wheel, and T the transverse load.

We can then write five equilibrium equations of an axle:

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vertical equilibrium N1 + N2 = P + F
transversal equilibrium T1 + T2 = F P
non-slip of the left wheel T1 = K N1
non-slip of the right wheel T2 = K N2
- rotational equilibrium of the axle (N2-N1)Lde = ( F - P)h
with Lde = length of the half axle and h height of the center of gravity

From these equations, we can establish the relationship linking the

infrastructure characteristics
T1/N1 = T2/N2 = (T1+T2)/(N1+N2) = (F - δP)/ (P + δP) = K
By replacing P with Mg and F with MV²/R, we obtain
(V²/R - gδ)/(g+δV²/R)=K
let (V²/gR-δ/(1+δV²/gR = K
We can neglectδV²/gR compared to 1
we obtain V²/gR-= K
To obtain the value of the radius of curvature

R = V² / g (+K )

3 - Value of the minimum radius associated with the maximum superelevation

We previously saw that the relationship T = K N expresses the recovery
transverse efforts through the deformation of tires. It is not about
not to conceive roads by assuming equilibrium at
limits of the tire.
We have established in the above paragraph that V²/gR-δ=K
let gK = V²/R - gthat is to say the transverse acceleration not taken into account
by the slope of the road.

In road standards, K corresponds to the centrifugal acceleration, right?

recovery by the slope of the roadway, expressed as a fraction of g.

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When this coefficient denotes the share of it is accepted by the users
means, it is called f(V) because it depends on speed.

The radius-slope-speed relationship from the previous paragraph becomes:

R = V² / g (+ f(V)) with V in m.s-1

with V expressed in km/h, the formula becomes:

R = V² / 127 (+ f(V))

It then becomes possible to calculate, for a given speed, the value of
corresponding radius. This radius, calculated for values of the parameters
acceptable physico-psychological is the minimum radius for the speed
considered.

Speed in km/h 40 60 80 100 120 140

f(V) in fraction 0.25 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.1 0.09
of g
spill 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
Rayon 40 120 240 425 665 1000
minimum Rm

The standards provide for three minimum radii in plan:

1 - the minimum radius

It is calculated for the maximum camber. The maximum cambers depend on the
type of route, and its category within the type.

For type L roads (motorways):

Categories L80 L100 L120
Maximum discharge 7.00% 7.00% 7.00%
Rayon mini 240 m 425 m 665 m

For other types of R or T roads:

Categories R60 R80 or T80 T100
Maximum discharge 7.00% 7.00% 7.00%
Rayon mini 120 m 240 m 425 m

2 - the minimum camber radius

It is calculated in the same way as the minimum radius, for a slope.
of 2.5%, and for speeds higher than the reference speeds.

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For L-type roads (highways):

Categories L80 L100 L120

Mini sloped rayon 650 m 900 m 400 m

For other types of R or T roads:

Categories R60 R80 or T80 T100
Mini sloping yarn 450 m 650 m 900 m

The curves where the radius is less than the minimum camber radius are
poured inward of the curve with a transverse slope of which the
value is set by linear interpolation based on 1/R between 2.5%
for the minimum slope radius and 7% for the minimum radius.

–3 – the non-sloped beam

It is the radius above which the roadway does not need to be cambered.
the meaning corresponding to the curvature of the road: the roadway then presents
one or more transverse slopes as in standard section (the most
often 2.5% towards the outside of the roadway.

For type L roads (motorways):

Categories L80 L100 L120
Non-spillable rayon 900 m 1300 m 1800 m

For other road types R or T:

Categories R60 R80 or T80 T100
Non-spilled rayon 600 m 900 m 1300 m

The curves whose radius is between the non-tilted radius and the
mini slats are tilted inward of the curve with a
transverse slope of 2.5%.

The following tables summarize the values to be given to the slopes of the
main routes.

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Category R60 road

Value of the radius Sense of slope value of the cant
%
R = 120 m interior 7.00%
120 m < R < 450 m interior 0.86 + 736.4 / R
R = 450 m interior 2.50%
450 m < R < 600 m interior 2.50%
R> 600 m in the roof 2.50%

Route of category R80 or T80

Value of the radius Sense of slope value of the slope in
%
R = 240 m interior 7.00%
240 m < R < 650 m interior - 0.13 + 1712.2 / R
R = 650 m interior 2.50%
650 m < R < 900 m interior 2.50%
R> 900 m in roof 2.50%

Category T100 road

Value of the radius Sense of slope value of the camber in
%
R = 425 m interior 7.00%
425 m < R < 900 m interior - 1.53 + 3623.7 / R
R = 900 m interior 2.50%
900 m < R < 1300 m interior 2.50%
R> 1300 m in the roof 2.50%

Difficult relief route

(having radii smaller than those of R60)
Value of the radius Sense of slope value of the slope in
%
R > 40 m interior 6.00%
40 m < R < 250 m interior 1.83 + 166.7 / R
R = 250 m interior 2.50%

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Value of the radius Sense of slope value of the slope in

%
250 m < R < 400 m interior 2.50%
R> 400 m on the roof 2.50%

3.2.4 Sizing of connections with gradual introduction of

the transverse acceleration

A very simplified model would submit the departing vehicle

a straight alignment to enter a circular curve adjacent to a
instantaneous variation of transverse acceleration:
 t = (V²/R - g )

In fact, the driver uses the width of their lane.

to negotiate the turns. It defines a trajectory with curvature
progressive which distributes the variation over a certain length
of transverse acceleration.

The standards provide for connections with a gradual curvature that

are interspersed between straight lines and circular curves. Thus
curvature and camber are introduced gradually.

The calculation of the characteristics of these curved connections

progressive allows for compliance with the vehicle's stability conditions, and
dynamic comfort of users. These conditions tend to limit the
variation in the lateral solicitation of vehicles. In practice, this
it returns to setting a limit on the variation of acceleration tolerated per second.

1 - Choice of the transition curve

Among the curves likely to meet this condition of

variation continues of the radius of curvature, it is the clothoid that has been
retention in road alignment matters.

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This curve is a spiral whose product, at each point of

radius of curvature by the length of the axis (the developed), has a value
constant equal to A².
The parametric equation of this curve is therefore A² = RxL
A is called the parameter of this clothoid.


c = L / 2R radius of the circle towards the center
= L² / 24 R

2- Length of these connections

The length of gradual connections is a combination of

several conditions of different natures: among these conditions are the three
the main ones are:

the condition of dynamic comfort:

it helps to limit the variation of lateral acceleration:

– for highways at g / 50 per second regardless of speed
– for the other roads at g / 0.20 V per second (with V in km/h)
The length of the progressive connection is calculated as follows.
next:
( 't) /t must be less than or equal to g / 50 (case of a highway by
example) be 't-'t0) ≤ gt / 50
like 't0is zero at the beginning of the connection, by expressing't on
obtains
V² / R – g≤ gt / 50
at the end of the connection: t = L/V so we have;
L≥ 50 V ( V² / gR -)

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the condition of road distortion:

It corresponds to the limitation of the variation of the slope to 2% by

second of travel at the reference speed for calculating the route.
Example: at 130 km/h, the length of the transition curve
in front of allowing to transition from a slope of -2.5% (transverse slope
normal of a road in alignment, necessary for drainage
the water) at 4% (slope in a curve of 1000 m, see table above)
will be a minimum of 117.36 meters, calculated as follows:
– total variation of the slope: 6.5%
– at a rate of 2% per second, the time needed to assimilate
this variation is:
6.5 / 2 = 3.25 seconds
– 3.25 seconds at 130 km/h = 117.36 meters

the condition of optical comfort

It is generally accepted that for a connection to be perceptible,

must correspond to a change in direction in plan, upper or
equal to 30, is 1/20th of a radian. As the progressive connection is
a clothoid, this condition can be written as:
A > R / 3, or L > R / 9

Of these three conditions, it is generally the second (condition of

warping) which is predominant.
Finally, we remember today, for highways, the rule
next:
L = sup [R / 9, 14 |1 - 0 |]
with L and R in meters andin percentage

Moreover, it is important to limit the length of the clothoids.

to allow for a better perception of the actual curvature of the
curves in plan (radius of the circular part). This is why
the document "Main Road Development" provides rules
simpler ones that allow calculating the length of connections
progressive measures to be applied to non-motorway main roads.
The following table shows the connection lengths based on
number of lanes:

Cross profile Length of clothoid

two-lane roads L = 6 R0.4
three-lane road L = 9 R0.4
roads with 2 lanes in each direction L = 12 R0.4

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These values can be clipped without inconvenience at the level of 67 m

(2-lane roads), 100 m (3-lane roads) or 133 m (two-lane roads)
type R pavements.

Rules for chaining plotting elements

For new roads, the plan layout consists of alignments.

rights, of circular curves and transition curves for the
curves whose radius is less than Rnd (clothoid, whose curvature
varies linearly).

Connecting curves can only be used as

what connection between a straight alignment and a circular curve, or
between two circular curves in opposite directions.

Two curves in the same direction must be separated by a

length of straight alignment (excluding gradual transitions)
at least equal to the distance L traveled in 3 seconds at the speed
V85 corresponds to the largest of the radii of the two curves.

This length L is 3 times V85 with V85 expressed in meters by

second. and L expressed in meters. To simplify, we take L = 75m, this
which corresponds to 3 seconds at 80 km/h.

3.3 The themes of the road layout study

3.3.1 Traffic studies

The issue that underlies road infrastructure projects

is often related to the insufficiency of the existing network, either by default or by
insufficiency. It is then necessary, to properly understand this issue, to address it
specify the outlines, then to draw the solutions, to quantify them
precisely the components. It is the field of traffic studies.

In the previous chapter, we measured that the issues

related to transport particularly affected the field of economics. It is
On the contrary, it is difficult to limit oneself to mere financial profitability. The
transport infrastructures, and in particular roads, must present a
economic and social efficiency, through the advantages and costs
social aspects of the arrangements made.

Movements represent a dimension of social organization.

and the relationship between man and his living spaces.

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It is therefore necessary to undertake a systematic approach aimed at

to the knowledge of trafficking. This begins with a census of the state
existing allowing:
– to prioritize the road network according to the functions it serves
– highlighting the difficulties in the flow of flows (with
their consequences on human activities).

The evolution of activities is, in itself, a generator of traffic. Its

forecasting and analyzing its impacts on travel will become a
parameters on the organization of urban planning (PLU and SCOT).

In this logic, traffic study is a necessary data for

reflections on the development of transport infrastructure. She
will directly impact the characteristics of the routes to be created as well as the
characteristics of roadways.

In this regard, we can mention possible choices:

– necessity or not of a bypass around the town
– choice of the route in relation to built-up areas
– position
of the exchangers
– geometry of crossroads
– dimensioning of roadways based on heavy vehicle traffic
cumulative.

[Link] Vocabulary

In the field of traffic study, it is necessary to set the

definitions of commonly used terms:
– transit traffic: origin and destination outside the studied area
(important to decide on the necessity of a detour)
– exchange traffic: origin within the studied area and destination
outside the exchange zone and vice versa (important for
define the exchange points
– local traffic: traffic that moves within the studied area.
– annual average daily traffic (AADT) equals the total traffic of the year
divided by 365.
– unit of private vehicle (U.V.P.) expressed per day or per hour, we
taking into account the greater impact of certain vehicles, in
specifically the heavy vehicles by assigning them a coefficient
multiplier of two.
– traffic during rush hours, with the morning rush hour
HPM, and the evening peak hours HPS.
– the weekend daily traffic
– the average daily summer traffic: important for summer regions

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[Link] The capacities of different types of roads

The practical capacity is the average hourly flow at saturation. It is the

traffic level beyond which the smallest incident is likely to lead to
formation of plugs.

Capacity depends on:

– safety distances (in urban areas this factor is favorable,
it is much less in the countryside, where the density of vehicles
it will be much weaker
– weather conditions
– the geometric characteristics of the road

One can define the average peak hourly flow based on

the annual traffic history. It thus appears that by classifying in order
decreasing the hourly flows over a year, the curve has the shape
of a function of the type 1/x.

It is considered that the flow corresponding to the change in slope

corresponds to the normal peak flow, that is to say the maximum flow that occurs
periodically reproduced outside circumstances particular (departure in
holidays for example).

The change in slope of the curve generally corresponds to a

data range located between the 10th and 50th hour, we choose
conventionally to take into account the 30th hour to characterize
the average peak hourly flow rate and compare it to the capacity of the lane.

The flow rate of the 30th hour is used for sizing the
toll stations for example.

Practical road capabilities

These values are valid for sections in open countryside, outside

carrefour zones and for relatively flat regions.

Type of road Gene threshold Saturation threshold

2 ways 8,500 15,000
3 ways 12,000 20,000
2 x 2 lanes 25,000 45,000
2 x 3 ways 40,000 65,000

unit: UVP / day

If we reason based on hourly flows, the results are as follows for a

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single carriageway road with two lanes of 3.50 m.

Threshold Traffic in UVP / H for both directions

Gene threshold 750
Dense traffic threshold 1 100
Congestion risk threshold 2,000

[Link] The relationship between speed and flow rate

It is only possible to establish a relationship between speed and flow, when

Situation stable. This state only exists on expressways or highways.

Several studies have tried to model the relationship between these two
data. They19 allow defining a function represented by a
ellipse. If we place the flow rate q on the x-axis and the speed on the y-axis
practicable V. It is thus noted that at a low flow rate there correspond two
very different achievable speeds: one high and the other low. The
the corresponding concentration is then inversely proportional to the
speed: the higher the speed, the lower the concentration20. The
concentration at maximum flow rate, close to 2000 U.V.P. / hour is
about 30 vehicles per km and an average speed of around 60 km/h.

[Link] The traffic study

It is therefore necessary to quantify these existing and future movements.

The first step of this type of study is the inventory of what exists. This
census will allow to prioritize the road network in relation to
functions that it performs, and to highlight the difficulties in
the flow of traffic and its consequences on human activity.

In the specific case of the road, the traffic study will be based on
essentially on a traffic study. This study will define the
type of development to be carried out (number of lanes, type of exchanges and also

19Unable to access the content of the URL provided.

eros/N34/[Link]
Other modeling studies have been used for acoustic studies:
Unable to access the provided URL to retrieve and translate the text.

Road traffic: kinematic waves, shock waves, rarefaction waves:[Link]

[Link]/[Link]

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pavement sizing21).

The traffic study will focus on the knowledge of traffic:

– in transit, when it comes to assessing the appropriateness of a detour
urban area
– the nature of the flows, to determine the exchange points
– the level of traffic and its evolution to schedule over time the
investments
– The directional movements allow for defining the characteristics.
exchanges.
– the level of heavy truck traffic directly determines the
design of the pavement structure.

A traffic study is generally conducted in five stages:

– the definition of the network
– the analysis of existing traffic
– the determination of traffic conditions
– the evaluation of traffic evolution
– the allocation of traffic

1 – The definition of the network

The network to be studied consists of all the road segments.

existing or projected for which one or the other of the proposed solutions
as part of the project may exert an influence in terms of
traffic.
We proceed to inventory the concerned traffic flows, directly or
indirectly, and any route that could be taken by one of them,
will be part of the network.

The cutting

We proceed with the geographic division into zones. These zones

corresponding to movement flows. Their determination allows
the establishment of the origin/destination matrix. A geographical area
corresponds to a generator or receiver of homogeneous traffic.

The areas, resulting from the division, are selected in such a way that the
users traveling from one area to another will have the choice between the
same routes.

The further we move away from the project, the more the areas will be expanded. For the
external zones to the study area, they can generally be grouped by
inputs and outputs. The segmentation will take into account the specifics of

Point 21ce will be particularly addressed in the pavement course, in sizing.

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spot traffic generators (schools, industrial zones, centers

commercials ...).

The zones are therefore identified for their main role (habitat,
economic activities, commercial, city center, hypercenter ...

The characteristics of the network

All the elements comprising the network and the study area are recorded:
– the characteristics of the concerned roads
– the visibility on each section
– the characteristics of the profile in long if applicable
– speed limits
– intersections with their priority rules
– the hard points that generate slowdowns

Traffic measurement

This measurement is carried out by various complementary processes:

– manual counts
– automatic counting
These two types allow measuring the traffic on a section, regarding
regarding automatic meters, the devices now have the
ability to discriminate between light vehicles and heavy goods vehicles.
– cordon-type surveys. It allows to distinguish traffics of
transit of local traffic, and the origins and destinations of each
flux.
– qualitative surveys. They allow us to understand the appreciation
of the user in relation to the network, the reasons for their movement ....
– the recordings of license plates.

At the end of these counts, the traffic is modeled. The road network
constitutes a mathematical graph made up of arcs (road segments)
and the peaks (the junctions and the interchanges). Once identified the
Possible routes, the trickiest phase is determining the route.
principle for each exchange between zones. It is estimated for this purpose that
The user makes their choice in order to minimize the cost of the trip.

Each section is evaluated in terms of travel time, whether it is

internal areas within the study perimeter, or between the entry points and
exit this perimeter for transit traffic.

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2 - The analysis of existing traffic

Once the traffic is known, we will study for each section the
consequences of increased traffic on speeds and durations
course.

The consequences of the planning solution are then evaluated,

whether it concerns new infrastructures or the development of areas
urban or activity.

The difficulty lies in projecting traffic on a scale of 5, 10, 15.

or more. Indeed, the expected increase is based on the model of
current development: predominance of individual transport for
medium-sized towns in rural areas, predominance of transport
goods by heavy trucks.

Furthermore, the local evolution of urban development is considered on the

based on prospective reflection hypotheses, translated in the documents
urban planning (SCOT, PLU). This evolution can be disrupted by some
modifications of the economic context related to creations or, on the contrary, to
closures of economic activities.

It is therefore important to appreciate at the stage of traffic analysis.

existing, the influencing factors and the possible margin for development to
the inside of the studied area. It is also important to take into account some
external factors that could impact this evolution (construction of a
motorway, of a high-speed railway line ...).

3 - The determination of traffic conditions

Other factors besides traffic need to be considered when studying.

of traffic, particularly what characterizes traffic conditions.

Indeed, the distribution of traffic on different routes depends on the

traffic conditions. This aspect translates for the user in terms of
comfort (traffic flow, safety...) and in economic terms (time of
pathway, consumption ...). It is also reflected for the community in terms of
economic (cost of accidents, consumption, pollution, lost time ...).

The user takes into account, consciously or unconsciously, three

the duration of the journey, freedom of movement, safety.

The duration of the journey is an essential element for the user, so it must
be measured for each possible circuit. The regularity of these durations must
also be measured (it also has an impact on behavior of
the user).

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Freedom of movement is assessed by evaluating the time spent in

peloton (vehicles lined up one behind the other). It is then distinguished
several thresholds:
– the notable gene threshold (50% of time spent in the pack)
– the threshold of dense traffic (65% of the time spent in a group)
– the congestion risk threshold (80% of time spent in a queue) of
congestion risks arise

It is therefore very important to measure the times for each course.

waiting at each intersection, the lengths of waiting lines and to assess for
each possible scenario the impact of increased traffic.

4 - The assessment of traffic evolution

Traffic on the entire French road network has doubled between the
years 1965 and 1985. It has continued to grow very strongly since then.

The road management of the Ministry of Equipment has launched a study.

on households to determine the traffic conditions by 2015.
This survey took into account the households' car fleet, their income
average, the motorization rate, the expected evolution of fuel prices, the
length of the highway network. This study concluded with the increase
continue the traffic up to this horizon, without saturation of the fleet. An instruction
The ministry specifies the method for evaluating the effects of construction.
22
road infrastructure in open countryside

Commonly Accepted Hypotheses on Main Road Network

– 2.5% linear until 2010

– 1.25% linear beyond 2010

Commonly accepted hypotheses on highway networks

– 3.5% linear from 2000 to 2010

– 1.5% beyond 2010

Thus, in the absence of more precise data, it is accepted on the network.

the main principle is to use the following formula to determine the traffic in year n:

n
traffic in year n = traffic in year 0 x 1.025

10 PMThe provided text is a URL and cannot be translated.

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5 - The allocation of traffic

Routing traffic between two points involves distributing flows of

circulation on parallel (and competing routes between these two
points). In the case of existing routes between 2 cities for example,
The allocation makes it possible to reconstruct the current situation and to set the model.
used assignment.

This method is especially effective for a new tracing doubling one or

several existing routes. It will provide an opportunity to assess the interest of
the layout according to the variations in routing as well as the types and the number
of connections with the existing road network.

In terms of assignment, we are limited to road transport only.

The distribution between the different modes of transport is the subject of other
rules and other models.

The allocation takes into account an economic dimension: each

The itinerary is assessed in terms of cost for the user. A rule defines the link.
between cost and traffic:

10
T1 / T2 = ( C1 / C2 )
Thus, a small gap in circulation costs translates into a strong
repercussions on traffic. In fact, if the traffic gap is significant,
the busiest route is likely to become the least appealing in favor of
the least congested route. It is necessary to monitor the traffic developments of
iterative manner. The model balances out over time.

This modeling is used for economic studies related to the

construction of a road infrastructure.

3.3.2 Environmental studies

The term 'environment' should be taken here in a broad sense. This field
will gather all the themes that describe the habitats of species
animals and plants.

The environmental code established in 2000 gradually defined rules.

which have been imposed on road infrastructure projects. This code has
assembled a set of legislative texts.

Regulatory-wise, the realization or modernization of a

infrastructure whose project cost exceeds €1.8 million must be subject to
of an impact study.

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To conduct this impact study, it is necessary to address all of the

themes directly related to the environment (water, air, fauna, flora), but
also on the environment of the human being. The environmental code has been
recently introduced the requirement to include the evaluation of the project's impact
on man's health.

It will then be necessary for each theme studied to define the scope.
pertinent. The spatial effects differ depending on the affected parameter.
and indirect effects due to the functional relationships between the various
middle compartments.

The perimeter of the influence zones can be defined based on the

boundary conditions (biogeographic unit, or watershed for the environment
terrestrial. It can also depend on the functional relationships between environments.

Thus for each perimeter will be define the characteristics of

the origin and the impacts of the project for each proposed solution.

The execution of these studies is entrusted to design offices.

specialized that brings together in particular proven skills
(university qualifications) in the studied fields.

The project manager, on the other hand, defines the specifications of

these studies. He must therefore have a minimum of skills in the
field. As such, it can impose the investigation methods to be implemented
work. (biological inventories or lists of parameters to be evaluated, stations to
measure, time intervals between measurements, exploitation methods of
data, format of the presentation of results.

[Link] The water

The water law has strengthened the obligations of project owners in

precautionary and protective measures regarding this resource of which we measure
more and more value.

Regarding road infrastructure, the waters of

runoff is charged with contributions from exhaust gases, of
the wear of road surfaces and vehicle parts (brake pads,
tyres for example).

For example, the annual contributions on a two-lane road

supporting a traffic of 10,000 vehicles per day amounts to:

– suspended solids: 200 to 1200 kg / km

– chemical oxygen demand (COD) 230 to 400 kg/km

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– Lead 0.9 to 1.3 kg / km23

– Zinc 1.5 to 2.5 kg / km
– Hydrocarbons 5 kg / km

It is therefore necessary to provide devices to recover

the surface waters coming from a roadway platform. The importance that
the approach to this theme will depend on the sensitivity of the environment
receiver. The equipment to be implemented will be very limited when the
Soils will be waterproof, outside of the outlet location. On the contrary, they will have to
to be sophisticated for highly permeable areas located above a
underground water table. It is thus in certain cases, necessary
to completely waterproof the road area, including the shoulders.
In this last case, it is even necessary to implement measures.
preventing the overturning of vehicles outside the area (earthen embankment by
example).

It is necessary to take into account the operational constraints of

the infrastructure. It is the winter viability that is the most significant to this
stage. Pollutants are generally sodium chloride,
but also calcium chloride and magnesium chloride. The latter
are effective thawing agents at temperatures below -5°.

Another factor to consider is accidental pollution. It is related to

the accidents. The materials mainly implicated in this case are the
hydrocarbons. They are not miscible in water, they have a polluting power
very important. Protection against this type of pollution is achieved by
separator basins that allow for the isolation of hydrocarbons from water, very
often by siphonal walls.

[Link] Fauna, flora

The impact on natural environments must be assessed across the whole of a

biotope or an ecological zone as long as the balance of the flora and the
wildlife is threatened. Sensitive areas are increasingly being delineated and
protected by classifications regulating uses and equipment
achievable at their approach. These are the ZNIEFF.24of the ZICO25and now some
protected areas under the European Habitat Directive
natural species26.

Wetlands, swamps, and banks are biotopes rich in

flora and fauna, of high interest and in regression. These areas are
These figures were assessed during a study conducted by Setra in 1987, these values have fallen.
for lead with the sale of unleaded fuels

ZNIEFF: natural zone of ecological, faunistic, and floristic interest

25 ZICO: Important area for bird conservation
26 Natura 2000

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biologically very rich. Moreover, they contribute to the absorption of gas

carbon dioxide contained in the air, their plant production is the first element
from the food chain of insects and birds.

The study will also focus on animal migration corridors. This

this aspect will be studied both in terms of the devices to be implemented
to maintain these migrations (for example, the A4 highway in the park of
Vosges) only in terms of safety for road users.

[Link] Impact on health

Health protection constraints are now imposed on the

road projects27This theme should be developed in studies.
impact, and compensatory or preventive measures must be put in place
work by the project owner.

The health aspect of the impact assessment must specifically evaluate the initial state
in terms of mortality and morbidity in a relevant study area. It must
then evaluate the impact of the planning on this data.

Thus, passage areas may be completely sealed off if some

protection measures are not achievable. Extreme example, the passage
from national road 1 in Paris (completely covered passage).

[Link] The noise

The noise law of December 31, 199228and the implementing decree of the 5
May 1995 seriously modified the previous regulations. These
the texts particularly took into account nighttime noises and the use that is
make the premises.

Usage and nature of the premises From 1983 to since 1995

1995
Laeq from 8h to Laeq from 6h to Laeq from 22h to
8 PM 10 PM 6h
Health establishment 65 dBA < 60 dBA < 55 dBA
Educational institution 65 dBA < 60 dBA
Housing in an ambient zone of 65 dBA < 60 dBA < 55 dBA
moderate sound
Other accommodations 65 dBA < 65 dBA < 60 dBA

27Ccircular of February 17, 1998 [Link]

The provided text is a URL and does not contain any translatable content.

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The unit of measurement for noise or sound level is the decibel A dBA,
the index A means that the different frequencies present in the signal
Sound is subject to weighting. The sound level at a given moment
is insufficient to account for the noise nuisance to which one can
to be subjected to the residents of a transport infrastructure. More indicators
representative levels have been developed. These are the equivalent sound levels.
over a certain period (Leq(A) or Laeq measured in dB(A).

The evolution of legislation leads to a retreat of about 100 m from the

source of noise to go from the isophone 65 dBA to the isophone 60 dBA. The
noise studies must now take into account a number of
new parameters that have a great influence on the transmission of
noise, especially weather conditions.

The measured noise difference at 200m can vary by 15 dBA depending on whether
the conditions are favorable or not. The most favorable conditions have
place at night with temperature inversion and carrying wind.

Road noise comes from the noise of engines and rolling.

The legislation has also modified the maximum noise levels of a
vehicle.

Maximum allowable noise level at the crossing

of a vehicle measuring 7.50 m (ISO standard R362)

Light vehicles Heavy goods vehicles

1972 82 dBA 91 dBA

from 1989 77 dBA 84 dBA
since 1995 74 dBA 80 dBA

Regulatory and technical developments have made it possible to reduce

considerably the noise from the engines. The noise related to rolling has become
the main source emitted by vehicles in circulation for speeds
above 50 km/h and from 70 km/h for heavy goods vehicles.

Two factors are obviously behind this noise: the

road surface and tire. Advances made in the field
the asphalt has helped to reduce this noise: especially for the asphalt
fine grain size (0/6).

The means to combat noise in a road project can

take several forms:
– speed reduction
– implantation of the route in relation to built-up areas (noise level

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the mean decreases by 3 dB each time the distance is doubled

– construction of earth mounds
– decrease of the long profile in relation to the natural terrain
– soundproof walls
– isolation of buildings

3.3.3 Urban Planning Studies

Urban planning studies are fundamental for the study of a

transport infrastructure in urban or peri-urban areas.
These studies will highlight the allocation of areas within the
study perimeter (economic activity zone, commercial zones, zones
of housing by distinguishing collective housing, individual housing density
population ...). The development projects registered will be taken into account.
in the various planning documents such as the S.C.O.T., the P.L.U.,
the Z.A.C., but also specific development projects.

The information needed to support the reflection is available.

in the town halls, the metropolitan or municipal communities, the
D.D.E., the chambers of commerce ....

It will be necessary to define the exchange needs of these areas.

between them, but also with the municipalities, neighboring regions. This data
will also feed into traffic studies. They will also allow for
position the exchange points and their nature.

As we indicated for the other themes and as soon as the

the project will be defined, it will also be necessary to study the impact of the infrastructure
on the development of the concerned areas.

3.3.4 Geotechnical studies

These studies are necessary to measure from the preliminary project stage,
the impact of long profile choices and generally the layout in
cost term.

We will study it in more detail in the earthworks chapter, the nature

the materials will be decisive for the techniques to be implemented for
to construct roadways as well as structures.

The cost of performing the earthworks will then be evaluated, as well as

possible treatments, the necessity of resorting to materials
of contribution ...

It also includes the consideration of data at this level of study.

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hydrogeological.

The results of these studies will be taken into account for the comparison of
variants.

3.3.5 Hydraulic Studies

Hydraulic studies inventory the existence of waterways and a

Generally, surface water flows.

These studies will then determine the project's impact on these

drainage and the equipment to consider for maintaining these
flows.

The obligations arising from the water law can lead to

modeling of the study area impacted particularly when it comes to
watercourse.

The model will allow to determine when the infrastructure is

built in the major bed of a watercourse or when the infrastructure can
modify the flow of water, the dimension of hydraulic transparency to
to maintain.

As such, these results will determine the scope of the works of

Crossing watercourses.

These studies may be subject to the hydraulic survey project.

title of the water law. They are of course integrated into the impact study.

3.3.6 Economic studies

We discussed it in the chapter on transport policies, there is

place to assess the profitability of projects.

Economic studies on the subject are not easy. Indeed, a

road project, outside of toll highways, is carried out in an open environment.
Moreover, the estimation of earnings can only be carried out on the basis of
of hypotheses. Indeed, it is not possible to measure the gain for each user.

Economic studies can also have another scope. They

allowing to assess the interest of phasing the project. This phasing can be
made in several ways:
– longitudinal phasing (section implementation)
– transversal phasing (implementation in 2 lanes in the first phase and in 2
2 lanes in the second phase for example)

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– layering of the wearing courses (the layers are made of)

rolling with traffic assumptions of 5 or ten years instead of
20 or 30 years, the road is reinforced when the traffic used
as the calculation hypothesis is reached.

Two main difficulties arise in these studies:

the update

If T is the discount rate, 1 euro at year zero is worth (1+T) euros at

year 1 and (1+T)n€euros per year n.

Conversely, an amount S spent in year n, and calculated without taking into account
accounting for monetary erosion, is equivalent to S / (1+T)n in the year zero.

This amount is called the 'present value' of S at year 0 and 1. is the

discount factor.

The quantification and conversion of benefits into monetary terms.

Definitions

Operation:
Set of work leading to the commissioning of a
given arrangement.

- Sequence :
Succession in a given order of different operations
relative coordinates for the same connection in order to achieve a
final development.

Discounted benefit from the operation:

Difference between the total annual benefits provided
the operation updated to the reference year and the economic cost of this
operation updated also to the reference year.

B = Ti=0Ai/ (1+T)iTi=0Ei(1+T)iI

Investment at year 0

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Immediate profitability rate for a given year t

It is the ratio of the benefits provided by the operation in year t
and the economic cost of the operation

rtAt/ (I + Ti=0Ei/ (1+T)i)

This rate is generally calculated at the year of commissioning.

Internal rate of return

It is the discount rate r that would make the discounted profit zero.
the operation
Ti=0Ai/ (1+T)iTi=0Ei(1+T)i- I = 0

– Discounted benefit of a sequence:

It is the sum of the discounted benefits of the operations involved.

this sequence, considering
-that these discounted benefits are calculated in the order of forecast of
implementation of the sequence;
that the previous operations will have all been carried out;
that the operation in question is the last one.

Generalized costs

They understand the average cost felt by the user for a given trip and the
economic cost it represents for the community. These two costs are
in fact a mix of actual expenses and non-monetary elements
fuel
past,...)

The calculation of benefits

The advantages are of two kinds:

the direct advantages, which mainly concern all users of the

route: time saving, comfort, safety, and operating cost savings
of vehicles. They can be measured in physical units (hours, number
of accidents, of deaths of injuries, days of hospitalization, fuels, ...

the indirect advantages, which do not directly concern the users of the
route, but transport policy and more generally, the
national or local economic development and land use planning.

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The basic principle of benefit calculation is to assign to the utility of a

trips a value equal to the maximum perceived cost that the user would be willing to
to take this trip (the usefulness of a trip is generally related to
with the usefulness of the human activity it allows). And thus carry out the activity
correspondent.

3.4 Trace studies

We previously saw that standards and principles

define the rules to be implemented to study the layout of
the infrastructure.

The development of the route will be based on previous studies. The

data collected during environmental studies in the form of
constraints.

Different considerations to take into account

In the past, the route of a road was determined solely based on standards.
of the era and the topography. Then the search for the balance of the lands
Excavation fill has been integrated. Since the 39-45 war, the quality of the soils is
taking into account. Then the traffic, the economy.

Today, it is the environment: fauna, flora, sources, forests,

aesthetics, noise.

All these considerations must be taken into account from the beginning of
the study, which leads to working through successive approaches, refining
the scales as the files progress, from registration to the
detailed project.

From these elements, 5 essential aspects emerge:

The Civil Engineering Aspect: it is the art of Volume;
The Functional Aspect: art of the Surface;
The Economic Aspect: the art of Compromise;
the EnvironmentalAspect: art of Opening ;
The Political Aspect: Art of Realism.

THE CIVIL ENGINEERING ASPECT or ART OF VOLUME

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It's the integration into the NATUREL environment of a Volume

ARTIFICIAL = the road. Art consists of creating balanced works,
The stableset's sustainability cannot be threatened by the elements.
external or internal forces.

The FUNCTIONAL ASPECT or ART OF THE SURFACE

Art consists of creating works whose characteristics
Geometric features and the condition of the surface will ensure the flow of traffic.
in the best conditions of comfort and safety for the
people and lesbians transported.

The ECONOMIC ASPECT or ART OF COMPROMISE

Art consists of seeking the project that has the characteristics
as wide as possible while minimizing costs - and ensuring that
that the technical solution is not sacrificed to the absolute search for
less expensive.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECT or ART OF OPENING

In addition to the user, the neighbor is taken into consideration. The Art
consists of taking into account the impact of infrastructure on
regional planning, respect for the living environment, integration into
landscape.

The POLITICAL ASPECT or ART OF REALISM

Art consists of exposing the advantages and the disadvantages.
the different solutions to assist the decision-maker in his choice. The realism
emphasizes the need to properly signal the most serious disadvantages.

3.5 Comparison of possible solutions

3.5.1 Value analysis29

This analysis method is based on the functional analysis of the project. We

evaluate the financial value of each function of the project for each
studied variants.

This method is based on a participatory approach and

multidisciplinary. The financial estimation of the project functions can then
to be conducted like in a classic profitability calculation and to be compared
at the cost of the project.

29 hoursInvalid input, no translatable text found.

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3.5.2 Multicriteria Analysis

Multicriteria analysis allows to go beyond the scope of profitability.

economic to try to achieve economic and social efficiency.

Ten criteria, different depending on whether the projects are in open countryside or
in urban environments, allow for an assessment of this effectiveness.

Each criterion is assessed, either quantitatively or qualitatively,

according to a grid:

++ very favorable
+ favorable
neutral
- unfavorable
-- very unfavorable

In urban areas, the indicators for each criterion are evaluated for
the year of commissioning and twenty years later. The criteria are:

1. Continuity of route
2. Improvement of the functioning of the agglomeration
3. Security
4. User Satisfaction
5. Environment
6. Exceptional nature of the initial state
7. Employment
8. Reducing energy dependence
9. Land use planning and regional development
10. Costs

In the countryside, the ten criteria for evaluating a project are

analyzed more specifically:

Criteria Analysis points

1. Economic development and
spatial planning
Economic development: Number of communes and
Spatial planning: population
Average state premium rates
2. Security Number of accidents avoided per year
Number of lives saved per year
Number of injured graves
avoided/year
3. Benefits for users Time: hours gained and F.
Operating expenses

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4. Environment Favorable, neutral, unfavorable

5. Exceptionally initial situation Number of encumbrances
unfavorable Traffic disruption risks
Number of security black points
Number of blackheads noise
6. Impact on other modes Variation of recipe modes
competitors
7. Employment Number of jobs related to
the investment
maintenance, upkeep and operation
8. Energy Energy balance (T.E.P.)
Energy efficiency
9. Financial assessment for power Cost economic
publish investment
Global economic cost
Variation of tax revenues
10. Monetizable cost-benefit analysis Updated global advantages
Net profit
Discounted profit
Immediate profitability rate

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Chapter 4 - The sizing parameters of the roadway

4.1 Basic elements of geotechnics applicable to earthworks

4.1.1 Reminders

A soil is the product of mechanical or physicochemical decomposition.

of rocks. It is the mixture of a more or less granular fraction
important and of a more or less significant clay fraction.

A sun is composed of three different elements:

– the gas, contained in the spaces between the particles, is often of
the air when the ground is dry or a mixture of air and water vapor
when the ground is wet. When all the voids are filled with water,
the ground is saturated.
– water, we distinguish several categories of water in the soil. Free water
can circulate between the grains, the adsorbed water forms a film
around each grain. It acts as a lubricant between the
grains. We will detail its role in a following paragraph.
– the solid skeleton. It is made up of particles from
physical and chemical decomposition of parent rocks. The grains
can be very fine in size or be recrystallized. The assembly
the different grain sizes will partly determine the
soil behavior.

This soil deforms by the sliding of the particles that compose it.
resists through friction and/or through inter-particle attraction (this is the
cohesion).

Thus, the action of earthworks consists of manipulating soils and using them.
as materials.

4.1.2 Soil Behaviors

The behavior of soils varies depending on its components:

1 – Case of soils governed by granular fractions

0%<Q materials less than 80m <12%

These materials resist shear according to the following law:

 = tg ()
with
normal admissible constraint

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) internal friction coefficient

is a function of granularity, granular distribution and
of compactness. The slope of the embankments must be less than this
value.can vary from 30 to 60°.
These materials are rather permeable, generally not frost-sensitive, they
have no tensile resistance, more or less traffickable,
their bearing capacity is high, they are more or less erodible.

2 - Cases of soils governed by their clay fraction

Q materials below 80m > 12%

These materials are characterized by their cohesion. Clay plays a role in this.
role of 'cement'. Their shear resistance is expressed as follows:
 = C + tg (with C: value representing cohesion
clayey.can vary from 0 to 20°.
It depends on water status, compactness, and nature.
mineralogical nature of clay. This mineralogical nature depends on
the parent rock from which the clay was formed and from its
crystalline structure originally. It appears in the form of
sheets or booklets. Each sheet results from the superposition
of tetrahedral silica layers and octahedral layers
of alumina.
C can vary from a few Pa to several MPa.
The load-bearing capacity and the trafficability of these materials depend on their
water content. They are almost waterproof. Their gel formation
depends on their clay content.

Thus, very few soils present themselves in the form of a single fraction.
granular (gravel alluvial, clay from Flanders ...). Most are
mixtures of two fractions. Their behavior is therefore complex.

The purpose of the identification tests is to analyze the relative share of

two fractions to prejudge the behavior of the soil as a whole. It is
sometimes necessary to conduct behavior tests.

4.1.3 Characteristic physical parameters of soils.

Soils are composed of solid grains, water, and air.

We distinguish:
– the density of solid grainss mass of grains / volume of grains
– the density of wet soil= total mass / total volume
– thedensity of dry soil dmass of the dry soil / total volume
– porosity n = volume of air + water / total volume
– void index e = air volume + water / grain volume

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–% of air voids naair volume / total volume

– degree of saturation Srvolume of water / volume of air + water
– water content by weight w = volume of water / volume of grains
– volumetric water content wvvolume of water / total volume

4.1.4 Identification tests for reworked soils

Tests characterize the nature of the soils. Granulometry is performed.

by particle size analysis by sieving for D > 100m and by
sedimentometry for D < 100The measure of clay content is carried out
either by the measurement of Atterberg limits30, either by the measure of
the equivalent of sand31either by methylene blue test32.

Tests characterize the state of materials. The measurement of the content in

water compared to specific material criteria allows to
define the amount of water corresponding to the maximum resistance.

Tests characterize the soil behavior during compaction. We

most often resorts to the normal or modified Proctor test.

Tests determine the mechanical behavior of the soil under traffic.

This is the CBR test33(immediate and after immersion), from the trial to the

30The Atterberg limits: Depending on the water content, a remolded soil presents itself in the following
of variable consistencies for which we can distinguish four states: liquid, plastic,
solid with withdrawal and solid without withdrawal.
In reality, the soil gradually transitions from one state to another and the respective boundaries are
defined conventionally by the Atterberg limit.
The tests are carried out on the fraction of the material passing through the 0.42mm sieve.
Liquidity limit WL, between the liquid state and the plastic state
Plasticity limit Wp, between the plastic state and the solid state with shrinkage
Withdrawal limit Ws, moisture content just sufficient to fill the soil voids at the time when it
reached its minimum volume by drying
Plasticity index Ip, difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit:
31[Link]
This test is carried out on the grain size fraction 0/5mm. These are mainly the elements
less than 2mm that contain the clay fraction This fraction accounts for most of the reaction
with methylene blue and therefore quantifies the soil's sensitivity to water. We take 30g of the fraction
0/5mm dry that one puts to soak in 200ml of demineralized water. Be careful, the mixture is
held with the paddle stirrer. Once this procedure is done, we move on to the test of the
Task. This test involves successively injecting precise dosages of methylene blue until
saturation of clay particles. The advantage of this test is that the moment of this saturation
may be repeated. To do this, a drop of liquid is taken from the beaker containing the soil.
imbued with blue; this drop is, with the help of the glass rod, deposited on the filter paper.
obtain a deposit with a diameter between 8 and 12mm. Following this, 2 results are possible: The
The central blue droplet is surrounded by a colorless zone, resulting in a negative test. The droplet
The blue center is surrounded by a lighter blue shaded area; with this result, the test is positive.
33 CBR Californian Bearing Ratio

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plate, from the test to the dynaplate and from the deflection test under
twinning.

Essays characterize behavior in relation to aggression.

mechanics. It mainly concerns the measurement of fragmentability:
micro-Deval test34and Los Angeles35.

Experiments characterize behavior towards aggression.

physicochemical. This is a test of alterability.

Tests characterize the behavior towards frost. It is about

specific to the swelling test for gel36and of the freeze-thaw testing.

Tests characterize the behavior of the soil with respect to water. This is about
more specifically to measure circulation phenomena,
of water imprisonment inside the soil. The suction test highlights
evidence this characteristic. We will address it in the next paragraph.
the incidence of water in the soils.

4.1.5 Behavior of soils and use in embankment and subbase

The aspects to systematically consider when studying the capabilities of

reuse of soils is as follows:
– aptitude to densification
– ability to withstand traffic (important characteristic in phase
of the construction site

– ability for processing with lime or cement

– evolutionary character

Other aspects must be considered depending on the context:

– gelidity

34 Fragments of broken rock with sharp edges are enclosed in a cylinder placed in
rotation; the edges of the fragments are worn by friction and moderate impacts. We weigh the
rounded fragments at the end of the test. The mass loss is proportional to the fragility of the
rock.

The principle is the same as the Micro-Deval test, but steel balls of 47 mm are added.
diameter; we sieve at the end of the test. The size of the cylinder, the number of balls, the number of
tours/minute and the duration of the test are standardized.
To characterize the freeze sensitivity of materials, they can be subjected to the test of
swelling (NF P 98-234-2). Representative of the phenomenon, it consists of measuring at intervals
regular, the elongation of a cylindrical soil sample to be tested maintained at a temperature
negative on its upper face and placed at its base in contact with distilled water. The test of
swelling highlights the noticeably linear relationship linking the elongation of
the test tube what we refer to as the amount of gel transmitted to it and
whose value is at every moment equal to the square root of the product of the temperature
negative maintained in the upper part of the vial due to the elapsed time of exposure to freezing
from this one.

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– erodibility
– capillarity

soils' suitability for densification:

This ability will be determined by the weighted distribution of
different particles (granulometric analysis), by the clay content (Limits
Atterberg and blue value, depending on angularity and depending on
the evolution of density as a function of water content (Proctor test). This
the last criterion is the most significant.

soil suitability to support traffic:

This skill is important during the construction phase, it is also
determinant for the stability of the platforms. It will be measured by the
possibility to level the upper part of the earthworks. This
leveling capacity is determined by Dmax and by the distribution
weight of particles (grain size analysis). It is also measured
by the ability of the soil to withstand tangential forces (analysis
granulometric, Atterberg limits or blue value). The slipperiness of
the surface will mark the quality of the soil to support construction traffic
security, but also its ability to "anchor" the upper layers.
Last aspect of this ability: sensitivity to water. We will measure it.
the evolution of lift as a function of water content (measurement of
the immediate load-bearing index I.P.I.)

ability to process with lime, cement, or road binders:

This skill is becoming increasingly important in the context of a
better use of natural resources and the economy of
rare materials (alluvial bed materials).

evolutionary character:
This character has two different dimensions for usage in
fill or in layer form. In filling, it will be important to know
the behavior of the material under implementation constraints and
in the work in service ( measurement of the density of the blocks and
fragmentability tests), but also the behavior of the material under
variations in water management. When used in a layered formation, it
it will be necessary to know the material's behavior to shocks and to
attrition37in the presence of water caused by the movement of machinery (tests
Los Angeles, Micro-Deval humid, fragility test.

4.2 Roles, characteristics, and use of the shape layer

The form layer is a specifically French technique.

Used by many countries, it is used there only to operate on

37 attrition: production of fine particles due to material wear

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geometric corrections of the upper part of the earthworks.

4.2.1 Definition

It is a more or less complex structure that serves to adapt the

random and scattered characteristics of fill materials or
natural terrain with mechanical and geometric characteristics
required thermal conditions to optimize the pavement layers.

4.2.2 Roles of the form layer

The form layer facilitates the trafficability of the construction site, it protects
thus the leveling of the earthworks while avoiding it undergoing changes
physical aspects, whether it concerns its geometry or its lift. These
mechanical performances (EV2> 50 Mpa and deflection < 0.02) facilitate the
implementation of the foundation layers and their compaction.

Due to her greatest ease in mastering and regulating her surface, she
allows for more precise sizing of the foundation layers and of
roadway.

In the long term, the form layer allows for elevation and
to homogenize the load-bearing capacity of the pavement support platform. It
ensures protection against frost (and against the effects of cycles
(freeze/thaw) by removing water-sensitive materials from the roadway
materials of the upper part of the earthworks.38

4.2.3 Conditions for the execution of a form layer

The shape layer must be made of materials that are insensitive to

the water and whose granulometric composition allows it to retain a
high trafficability (Dmax < 80 mm, with a grain size curve
continue to avoid the 'ballast' effect). The sizing of the layer
the form must allow to fulfill its role in the short term, but also in
long term for its consideration in sizing of
road layers.

Its thickness will be all the greater as the lift of the part
The upper level of the earthworks will be all the weaker. The guide for the
road earthworks, however, recommend minimum values of
Importance of the edge supporting the form layer:
38Optimization of support platforms for highway pavements based on construction conditions and the technical assessment.
global economic (pavements + base layer) -Yves GUERPILLON
Unable to access the content of the provided URL.

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– 35 MPa for treated shaped layers

– 15 to 20 MPa for untreated shaped layers.

For example, a TC5 type roadway30traffic of 6 million

heavyweights in 30 years) will be made up of:
– 36 cm of hydrocarbon materials for a platform of 50 Mpa
– 31 cm of hydrocarbon materials for a platform of 120 Mpa

The granularity will be optimized: the finest fraction (0/d) will be

eliminated by screening to remove water sensitivity, the fraction the
most important, especially if it is coarse, will be crushed to facilitate
the implementation and the trafficability of this layer of form.

The moisture content will be maintained by watering during the installation.

work, to achieve an optimum density and therefore good
mechanical performances. The characteristics of the material used for
the form layer can be improved by correction:
– contribution of hydraulic binder (lime, cement)
– granular correction
– the two

Finally, the shape layer can be improved in surface quality.

of fine external materials that will facilitate its adjustment. It will be
protected by a curing coat.

4.3 Water and frost in the roadways

4.3.1 Water and clay

The importance of water in soils is related to the presence of clay.

Clays, as we indicated earlier, form structures
tetrahedra and octahedra assembled in sheets. Depending on the nature of
components, the distance between the sheets is more or less important
leaving a more or less important place in contact with the environment
Exterior: it is the specific surface of the material.

Examples: Montmorillonite 600 m² / g

the kaolinite 20 m²/g

The sensitivity to water will be affected accordingly.

The relationship between clay and water is related to the characteristics

surface electrical properties of clay:

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The clay particle has a charge deficit at its periphery.

water molecule has a positive charge, it partly responds to
deficit of the clay particle. There is a very strong bond, of several
ten Mpa, called Stern layer, with a density of 1.5 very
difficult to remove. Methylene blue, used during the VBS test comes
to settle around the Stern layer, it characterizes the surface well
specific.

The measurement of water content only slightly affects the layer of

Gouy There is a potential difference between the Gouy layer and the
39

Stern layer. The purity of the water plays an important role in the value of
this d.d.p.: the more mineralized this water is, the lower the d.d.p. is.

This organization at the macroscopic scale interferes at a scale

larger in the following way:
– clay loses little water through gravitational drainage
– the permeability to water is all the more important as the soil is
saturated with water.

4.3.2 Water movements in the soil

Darcy's law40has defined that the speed of water is proportional

to the hydraulic gradient41The differences in permeability generate
waterproofing phenomena:
– if two permeable layers have permeabilities of
same order, the layer of relatively lower permeability
behaves temporarily like a waterproof material.

39hInvalid URL provided for translation.

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[Link]/~fourar/enseignement/projets/Ecoulement_monophasique/[Link]
41hUnable to access or translate the content from the provided URL.

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– these differences in permeability generate water circulations

horizontal.

The suction

A lower pressure than that of the air that exerts on the water at
The interior of the grains leads to movements of water. This phenomenon
allows the water to rise to a height greater than that of the state
natural.

Capillary
clayforces
particle
Suction is characterized by suction curves. Its value in
the pressure Stern
is all thelayer
stronger as the tube is thin (Laplace's law).

Gouy layer
A suction curve is specific to a material. The slope of this
undeformed
The curve indicates the drainage effort to varylayer
the water content W%.

The determination of the suction curve is carried out in a

depression chamber.

4.3.3 The effects of freezing in the soil

The zero isotherm remains stable in the soil as long as the forces of
Suction draws water towards the frost front. This isotherm descends.
then to find water and make the gel lenses expand.
ground level

frost front

water table level

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4.3.4 Permeability and water movement

A completely dry soil loses its permeability. Soil treatment.

with hydraulic binders modifies its permeability. Aeration by a
disk machines or by ripping increases soil permeability, and
facilitates evaporation.

4.3.5 Applications to pavements

The maximum lift will be achieved for a platform with the

lower water content (which does not indicate that the water content must
to be useless). It is necessary to interpose a drainage layer under the layers
of roadways, if the leveling of the earthworks is likely to present a content
in high water (variation of water level in the area of a gentle slope profile and in
clayey terrain for example).

The drainage layer acts as a reservoir, if it undergoes

suction effects in relation to the support soil (clay soil). It is necessary to
dimension the shape layer to eliminate the rises
hair in the pavement. The water content is determined based on
from the value given by the Proctor test. After measurement, we determine the
suction curve of the material. One can then calculate the thickness of the
form layer to prevent the rise of water by capillarity.

It is also important to ensure the drainage of the leveling layer.

to limit the rise of water in the upper layers. This
Precaution is just as valid in the clearing areas as in the
fill areas.

In the same vein, the cross slope of the coping

The earthworks will be well-cared for; for fine materials, its value must be
equal to 4%. In backfill, the interface between materials will be carefully managed to
always maintain slopes outward and do not block areas
water retention. The 'berm grass' will need to be paid attention to
In particular, it must be made with permeable materials.

The ditches serve to sanitize the leveling of the earthworks, their height of
the water line must therefore be below this level, if the depth of the ditches
is limited by the footprint of the road, the water collection functions of
The surface and the sanitation of the base must be separated. We establish
so road drains, covered with draining materials in part
superior.

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4. 4.4 The technical guide for road earthworks

The road earthworks guide aims to develop a

classification of soils specific to their use in embankment and in layer
form. This classification takes into account the conditions
meteorological.

The classification of this guide divides materials into three types:

– the soils
– the rock materials
– industrial by-products

Soils are classified based on their granularity.

– soils with a Dmax of less than 50 mm are considered
as fine and gravelly soils and are rated A or B
– soils with a Dmax greater than 50 mm are considered
as coarse and bulky and are rated C and D
– if the fraction of materials below 80 m is greater than
35% of the soils are considered fine and are rated A.
– if the fraction of materials below 80 m is between
12% and 35% of the soils are considered fine and rated B
– if the fraction of materials is less than 80 m is less than
12% of the soils are considered granular and are rated D
and C1.

Soils are classified based on their clay content.

The plasticity limit is used to characterize the clay content of soils.

His interpretation is all the more reliable as the weighted proportion of
the fraction 0 / 400 m (fraction used for the test) contained in the soil
studied is important and that the clay content of this fraction is high.

Beyond a proportion of 50% of this fraction and a value

from 12, the interpretation of the Ip is simple, but it becomes almost
impossible when this proportion falls below 35% and the
IP value below 7.

The value of methylene blue VBS allows to characterize

the clay content of a soil. This parameter represents the amount of blue of
methylene that can adsorb on the external and internal surfaces of
soil particles. It is a quantity related to the specific surface area of the soil. We
can be considered that the blue value of the soil generally expresses the
the quantity and quality of clay contained in the soil. The VBS is expressed in
grams of blue for 100g of soil.

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The soils are classified based on their mechanical behavior.

These parameters are only taken into account to judge
the possible use of layer-shaped soils (traffic resistance,
fragmentation). The behavioral parameters considered in the
the classifications are Los Angeles and Micro-Deval.
Thresholds retained:
– for the values of LA and MDE: 45
– for the sand friability: 60

The state parameters are taken into account:

It is essentially about the water status for loose soils
sensitive to water. Five states have thus been selected:
– very humid state
– wet state
– average humidity state
– dry state
– very dry state

The water status of a soil is evaluated based on:

– the position of the natural water content of the 0/20 fraction by
relative to the water content of the optimum Proctor.
– the position of the natural water content in relation to the limits
d'Atterberg which is expressed by the consistency index Ic with
Ic = (Wl - Wn) / Ip
– The immediate carrying index (IPI) expresses the value of the CBR index.
immediate measured without overload, nor immersion on a
compacted soil test tube at normal energy and its content in
natural water. The IPI is the parameter to prioritize for characterization
the humid and very humid states. It reflects the difficulties of
circulation of vehicles. It has no meaning for the states
dry and very dry.

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The terms of use for backfill are specified in the

last column. The seven sections are represented by a letter:
– And for the extraction, with the values
0 no condition to recommend
1 layer extraction (10 to 30 cm)
2 frontal extractions for h > 1 or 2 m
– G action for the granularity, with the values
0 no condition to recommend
1 removal of elements > 800 mm
2 removal of elements > 250 mm for processing
3 complementary fragmentation after extraction
– Action for water content
0 no conditions to recommend
1 reduction of moisture content by aeration
2 spin-drying by temporary deposit
3 watering for maintenance of the state
4 humidification to change the state
– T treatment
0 no condition to recommend
1 treatment with a suitable additive or reagent
2 treatments with lime only
– R setting
No conditions to recommend
1 thin layers 20 to 30 cm
2 medium couches 30 to 50 cm
– C compaction
1 intense compaction
2 medium compaction
3 low compaction
– H height of embankments
0 no condition to recommend
1 low height embankment5 m
2 backfill of average height10 m

The GTR then details the compaction energy to be implemented.

depending on the material, its condition, and the intended purpose. This
energy is expressed in the form Q / S, which will translate directly
on the site by the number of passes to be made by the compactor in
function of its power (see the ranking of compactors).

The GTR specifies the conditions for the use of layer soils.
form.

The GTR classifies the terrace floor (AR) and the platforms.
(PF) based on their mechanical performance.

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Chapter 5 – The Execution of Earthworks

5.1 The organization of road earthworks

Terracing is extracting
" transporter
" to deposit or to fill in.

It is a very important position in the completion of a construction site:

5.1.1 Strongly Present Hazards

In terms of Works of Art or Highways, the realization

generally corresponds to the forecasts. There is little deviation in the expenses.

In terms of earthworks, however, the uncertainties are greater.

sensitive. Indeed, knowledge of the context does not reach a level of
absolute precision. The work is sometimes different from the project. Moreover,
Weather conditions directly impact the conditions of
achievement. We have seen earlier the variation in water content
modifies the behavior of fine materials.

It is an important position also because of the part it represents:

to build 1 kilometer of motorway, there are between 75,000 and 200,000 cubic meters
of earthworks.
in the cost of a highway, the share of earthworks varies between
1/5 and 1/3.

It is also about earthworks that disputes arise between Masters

Works and companies are the most numerous and the most important.

5.1.2 A fundamental rule the balance of excavation - backfill

In the past, earthmoving was done manually and the transport

by animal-drawn carts. The designers were therefore looking for the most
small volume to level and the shortest distance for transportation.
studies aimed to make the project fit the ground. It seemed
interesting to balance the excavations with the embankments, that is to say to have some
equal volumes.

Today, these notions of balance and minimization of transport

remain valid, but take a back seat after the table of
correspondence. The materials are no longer discovered gradually.
of extraction.

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Thanks to geological studies and surveys, the nature of the soils is

known and used wisely.

5.2 Compaction

In order for the materials used to support the loads

for roads, it is necessary to improve their shear resistance:
– by tightening the solid grains against each other
– by reducing the Volume of Voids by expelling air, through the
compaction.

The reduction of voids leads to a decrease in water inflow.

later ones, whose harmful effects we have seen.

It also reduces the causes of attrition, and therefore attrition.

5.2.1 Effects of Compaction on Coarse and Fine Soils

[Link] Effects on granular soils

For a granular soil, compaction, that is to say the increase in weight

dry volume d, improves all physical properties. Moreover, the
Water content has virtually no influence on compaction.

For the density index Id is high, the shear resistance increases.

The soil is elevated and the deformations are lower.

Compaction is facilitated by rounded grains and by a

graded granulometry. On the site, rollers are generally used.
on tires or vibrating machines.

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[Link] Effects on fine soils

The compaction of fine soils affects their shear resistance and

their deformation, compressibility, permeability.

With a high moisture content, compaction has virtually no

influence on shear resistance; on the other hand, at low water content
this resistance increases with the compaction energy.

If one wants to improve the shear resistance of a fine soil, there is

So it is beneficial to compact at low water content. The results are
analogues if we are interested in the deformations that occur in a roadway
as in a fill, should not exceed limit values.

The same goes for compressibility. The most compressible soil

is the one with the highest water content.

Regarding permeability in compacted soil, it is

all the more weak as the water content is high. At low contents of
In water, the clay particles have a flocculated structure, whereas in high ...
water content, the particles are more oriented. In road works,
Unlike dam works, we seek high permeability.
facilitating drainage. Therefore, we compact fine soils when they are rather dry.

5.2.2 The compaction parameters

Three factors influence compaction:

– the forces applied by the compactor
– the soil's ability to evacuate air
– the amount of water contained in the soil.

We will examine these 3 factors successively:

The forces applied by the compaction machine

the higher the forces, the faster the rearrangement occurs
grains.

The soil's ability to expel air:

- for a granular soil, the voids are contiguous, the air has none
difficulty in evacuating ;
– for a clayey soil, on the other hand, the voids are microscopic and
The air will evacuate slowly.

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The amount of water contained in the soil:

It reduces shear resistance, meaning it reduces the
shear constraint on the rupture plane. There is a rupture when
the shear stress depends only on the normal stress
acting on this plan.

Let's consider a fine soil. The compaction machine exerts a stress:

if the soil is very draining, it no longer contains water:
Interstitial pressureis equal to 0. The compaction is not
complete.

if the soil is poorly draining and contains a little water:

Total constraints are increasing. The interstitial pressure promotes
the compaction.

– if the soil is non-draining, or poorly draining and contains a lot

of water, or if the compactor's pressure increases, the pressure
interstitial becomes very high. The air and the water cannot
to escape, they push the ground sideways. It is the
matelassing (or rubber cushion).

5.2.3 The compaction machines

The most commonly used compaction machines are classified into 3.

categories
the tire rollers,
the vibrating rollers,
the foot rollers.

Tire rollers:
It is the load per wheel that determines the efficiency in depth, the
Contact pressure conditions the superficial efficiency.

They are classified into 3 types:

P1 with a load per wheel of 2.5 to 4 tons
" " " " 4 to 6 T
P3 " " " > 6 T

The vibrating rollers:

The most widespread, because they are versatile.
The vibrating character provides great effectiveness in depth, thus
that for the foundations of pavements with very angular elements. They are
classified according to the static load applied per unit of
width of vibrating cylinder.

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V1: static charge per unit of compressed width from 15 to 25

Kg/cm
V2 " " " from 25 to 35 Kg/cm
V3 " " " from 35 to 45 Kg/cm
V4 " " " 45 Kg/cm

Inside these classes, there are subclasses a, b, c, d in

function of the dynamic characteristics of the machine. They are
also classified according to their morphology:

single-axle vibratory roller

1 single vibrating cylinder
1 chassis with a hitch at each end
1 motor for vibration.
Very effective in rocky embankments.

automotive single-cylinder vibrating roller

1 single vibrating cylinder, self-propelled
1 single engine for traction and vibration.
Very maneuverable and very comfortable.
TANDEM TRANSVERSE vibrating roller
2 vibrating cylinders on the same axis,
1 single engine for traction (provided by the cylinders) and for the
vibration.
9/10 of the weight on the cylinders that can rotate at speeds
different --> turns.
2 stability wheels.

the TANDEM LONGITUDINAL vibrating roller

The two cylinders (1 or 2 vibrating) are parallel;

the mixed roller CYLINDER-TIRES

Association of a vibrating cylinder and a tire roller.
Mainly used for heavy emulsions.

The foot dowel rollers:

These are the direct descendants of the sheep-footed rolls that
they reproduced the imprint of these animals that compacted very well
the grass runways of aerodromes in the first half of the century.
The surface of the cylinder is covered with steel studs that detach in
remontant without pulling up the ground.

Very suitable for fine plastic soils.

Classified into two categories, based on the static load by
cylinder width unit: (- d° - vibrating rollers).
Average load of 30 to 60 Kg/cm
PD2: " " 60 Kg/cm

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Another machine used for compaction: it is the water truck: its capacity
must be related to the construction site.

5.3 The execution of excavations

The execution of the excavation must incorporate the specific constraints of each phase.
of their execution:
– extraction

– preparation of the embankment site

– transport of materials
The essential constraints to consider are the management of
the flow of water and the construction of embankments.

5.3.1 The extraction

This is carried out according to the terms of the GTR which for a type of
given material: rocky bench, loose and compact soils..., advises a
type of extraction.

5.3.2 Preparation of the backfill site

Fragmentation of the rocky benches may prove necessary. It
is carried out by the possible use of the ripper, explosives... and by finishing
the fragmentation of the embankment by the use of a specialized compactor
(grid-roller or spiked roller or also kanding).
The control of moisture content, ensuring sensitivity to
the water from the materials, avoiding ruts or hollows by arranging
sufficient slopes (10%) and ensuring that there is a device
water drainage complete.
In steep slope areas, it may be necessary to carry out
notches that will increase and ensure the stability of
embankments, their dimensions and more specifically the height ratio on
width will depend on the mechanical characteristics of the soil materials
from the backfill support zone.

5.3.3 Transport of materials

Terracing is moving the soil and therefore transporting it. The phase of
Transport is therefore important and will condition the cost of the operation.

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To transport, the selected machines must present

characteristics adapted to rhythms and distances:

– fora distance between approximately 0 and 50 m, we use the

bulldozer. The materials are pushed by the blade.

for distances ranging from about 50 m to 2000 m, we

very often use the self-propelled scraper, bi-
motor operating alone or in pairs (push-pull) or with assistance
of a bulldozer. The materials are transported in the bucket of the
medium speed scraper (from 30 to 50 km/h). To obtain a
best yield, the tracks are wide (10 m) and well-equipped
to withstand the pressures generated by the heavy axles
over 50 tons.

– fordistances between 2000 and 10000 m the scrapers

cede the ground to the dump trucks. The loading is done at
the help of a shovel or with a large wheeled loader. The track will be
even more refined because the speed of the dump trucks will be higher
elevated (60km/h).

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– fordistances greater than 10,000 m, road trucks

are used (6x4, semi-trailers or double semi-
Trailers). The track then becomes a real roadway.
– thegrader is used for fine tuning especially for
the fine soils. This machine also constantly maintains the tracks of
construction site.

5.3.4 Water flow

The flow of water on an excavation site represents the
difficulty to avoid. It can condemn the activity of the site. The flow
water should be taken into account in the preparation and throughout the
construction site.
The runoff of water has two sources: surface waters
related to bad weather and groundwater.
If the land, before the excavation work, is traversed by a
underground flow or through an underground aquifer, the works can
be disturbed by the flow of water. The tracks will become
quickly impractical.
Several solutions can be implemented, they will be

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adapted to the importance of the problem:

– lower the water table by drainage trench or by pumping
– installation of horizontal drains

– draining mask: made with materials cut to D min, it

serves both as a drain and as a stabilizer for the fill.
– construction of ditches, maintaining cross slopes and
maintenance of trails

5.3.5 The embankments

The embankment slopes are constructed by excess fill material.

materials. They are not removed by earthworks by a shovel
hydraulic only when the fill layers have been perfectly
compressed.
Their stability depends on the friction angle of the material that they
component. It is also necessary that they present an appearance
coarse enough to support the topsoil placed on
work after their adjustment.

5.4 The construction of embankments

5.4.1 The preparation of the fill area

We partially mentioned it in the previous paragraphs. The

The backfill area must be cleared of all elements beforehand.
which are not minerals:
– vegetation (trees, shrubs, crops ...)
– topsoil (it will be placed in a cord or in stock)
– constructions or roadway areas if the embankment thicknesses
are weak.

It will eventually be leveled, geotextile mats can

be installed if the soil bearing capacity is insufficient. These materials have
to transform nominal efforts into cross efforts related
at the weight of the fill.

In compressible areas (like peat, for example), if the thickness

the compressible materials are too important for them to be
drains can be implemented. A network of

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horizontal drains will then be installed on the upper surface.

Other techniques can be implemented such as

ballasted columns. The technique is similar to that of piles: some
columns by introducing a vibrating needle. In fine soils, the
vibration will lead to liquefaction and consolidation in the area
from the action of the needle. In granular soils, the passage of the needle
will make way for a cylinder that will be filled with gravelly materials
(with a high coefficient of friction).

5.4.2 Soil Treatments

The impossibility of carrying out embankments with materials in the current state.
of excavation leads to the use of fill materials. This approach is
costly, on one hand in view of the supply price and the cost of
transport. The materials apparently unfit for their reuse
can see their characteristics modified thus allowing them to
filling with embankment. Whether it is the water content or their clay content.
Binders offer opportunities for improving natural materials.

[Link] Usable binders

Two types of binder can be used separately or

simultaneously to modify soil behavior it is about:

– lime: lime modifies the water status of the soil.

CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)22+ exothermic reaction. Lime
modify the characteristics of the clay fraction. By modifying
the electric fields around the clay particle by
cation exchange, this chemical reaction causes the
soil flocculation. In the long term, lime increases the pH of the
mixes and leads to the dissolution of aluminum silicates
contained in the clay. The crystallization is slow.
– hydraulic and pozzolanic binders: they modify
weakly the soil moisture status. On the other hand, in the medium and long term
terms, they lead to the formation of silicates and aluminates
of hydrated calcium. This reaction promotes agglomeration
particles of soil through crystalline bonds. The hardening
The mixture depends on the nature and dosage of the binder, the state
water content and the compactness of the mixture, the degree of intimacy of the
mix, of the more or less clayey nature of the soil,
presence of certain chemical compounds (certain oxides
block the chemical reaction in the medium term and can
cause swelling reactions).

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[Link] Formulation Study

The formulation study must allow, on one hand, to verify the

soil compatibility with the proposed treatment product, to establish
the water content / binder content of the abacus and identify the product of
treatment.

Before estimating the amount of binder to use, it is fundamental to

check the chemical compatibility of the binder with the soil. The presence
oxide, even in very small quantities in the soil can lead to
medium-term swelling reactions (up to 90 days). This is the reason
for which compatibility studies are conducted.

Type of treatment
Parameter considered Treatment with a
lime alone hydraulic hose
5 Pharmacy Open
Swelling 5 < Gv10 Doubtful Dubious
volumetric >10 Inapt Inapt
Resistance in 0.2 Parameter no Apt
compression considered for this Doubtful
0.1Rtb < 0.2
diametral type of treatment
MPa < 0,1 Inapt

Empirically, lime dosages range from 2 to 6 %.

the dosages in mixed treatment often correspond to 4 to 5%
lime with 1 to 2% cement.

Hydraulic binders cannot be used at temperatures

below 0° (like concrete). Road binders have been implemented in
point (Lygex, Arc-Gs ...). They present capabilities, not validated by the
suppliers to resume their take after short periods of cold.

[Link] Implementation of treatments with binder

The binders are applied on surfaces of materials already

adjusted and slightly over-thick. The binder is implemented with a
spreader. The consideration of the harmful consequences of binders
near crops, wetlands, vegetation, and people
a skirt to be placed on these machines, which helps to limit
the release of products around the treated area.

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After the spreader passes, a pulvimixer ensures the mixing of the

linked with the material to be processed at a variable depth, generally from
20 to 30 cm. Some models of spray mixers can reach 40 cm.
depth.

It is necessary to calibrate the binder density at the start of the construction site.
m². To this effect, a one square meter tarp is laid on the ground, it is enough to
weigh the amount of binder it contains after the spreader has passed.

The success of the treatment is linked to the water content of the mixture.
It must obviously comply with the study. Thus, on the day of
this water content is measured on-site and corrected if
necessary by a sprinkler. New types of equipment allow
to bring water inside the very material, throughout the
depth to be treated. Watering ramps are fixed on bases that
penetrate into the ground.

The treated area is then leveled with the grader and compacted.
new optimum calculated with the GTR.

The effectiveness of the treatment is measured at the due date of the administration, by
a measure of deflections and lift.

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5.5 The controls

The checks carried out on a earthworks site are

several natures:

– geometric, it is the verification that the executed work is

in accordance with the specifications of the project owner. This point is
important, as much the altimetric contours as the layout have been
determined, as we saw in the chapter of
studies, to take into account strong constraints.

– mechanics: it is necessary to verify that the delivered platform, as such

that the shape layer presents performances
mechanics conforming to the specifications and especially to the
assumptions that were made for the calculation of the pavement
supporter. The checks are carried out by the project manager. He
it essentially involves deflection measurements and load-bearing capacity.

We often talk about the ratio EV2/EV1 < 2 and deflection.

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Chapter 6 – The Roadways

6.1 The components of a pavement

The roadways can be likened to a multi-layer structure. They are

implementation on a support platform, generally topped with a layer
in shape.

We measured it in the previous chapter, the shape layer has

multiple roles: soil support protection, homogenization and improvement of
characteristics and performance of the support platform, trafficability of
construction sites for roadways.

The roadbed can be composed of 2 layers:

– the foundation layer,
– overcoming the base layer.
It brings to the roadway the resistance to vertical layers and distributes the
impressions on the support platform.

Finally, the surface layer is made up of:

– the wearing course supporting the assaults of traffic and
climatic variations
– the binding layer between the wear layer and the base layers

6.2 Modes of pavement damage

Roads undergo the combined stresses of mechanical forces and

climate variations. The most commonly encountered degradations are:

on the wearing course:

– shear due to the tangential forces exerted by rolling loads
– creep rutting (extreme temperature and traffic conditions)
– fatigue cracking due to lack of adhesion of the surface layer
on the seat
– fissuration due to the rise of cracks in the base layer
– cracking due to thermal fatigue following the aging of asphalt

on the treated bearing layers:

– fatigue cracking due to repeated tensile bending efforts
– thermal shrinkage and swelling fissuration of aggregates treated with binders
hydraulics
– cracking due to the thermal gradient of concrete slabs
– pumping and shifting of slabs in layers with cracks
of withdrawal or of joint

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on unbound base layers and pavement support:

– permanent deformation of the structure due to the accumulation of deformation
plastic.

6.3 The families of pavement structure and their functioning

– soft pavements: layer of bituminous materials less than

15 cm, sometimes limited to a coating, on a base made up of one or
several layers of untreated granular materials (thickness of 30
at 60 cm). The stresses due to traffic are transmitted to the layers
of the base with a low horizontal dispersion. The efforts lead to the
deformation of the unbound base layer and that of the layer of
rolling. Environmental conditions weigh on the intensity of
deformations, indeed the hydric variations of poorly drained substrates
promote swelling in humid periods and shrinkage cracks in
dry period.
– thick bituminous pavements: wearing course
bituminous on layers of pavement composed of materials
treated with hydrocarbon binders. The thickness of the layers facilitates the
diffusion of vertical efforts by attenuating them in the base layers.
The tensile-bending efforts are resumed in the bonded base layers.
The layering of layers is very important, indeed it allows for the
transmission of efforts and the maximum elongations at the base of
the deepest layers of the roadway. An absence or a bad
layering leads to a demand on each of them in
traction and very premature wear of the roadway.
– the pavements with treated base using hydraulic binders: base
treated with hydraulic binders from 20 to 50 cm with a layer of
rolling in hydrocarbon materials, these roadways are qualified as
semi-rigid. The great rigidity of the treated seat layers limits the
constraints transmitted to the roadway layers, they are on the other hand
subject to tensile-bending constraints crucial for their
sizing.
– mixed structure pavements: surface layer and layer of
base made of hydrocarbon materials (10 to 20 cm), foundation layer
treated with hydraulic binders (20 to 40 cm). The layer of treated material
the hydraulic binders placed in the foundation diffuse and attenuate, due to
its high stiffness, the forces transmitted to the supporting ground. It constitutes a
support of low deformability for the upper layers of
bituminous materials. The weakness of these structures lies in the
sensitivity of interfaces to differential expansions, the layers
can then peel off and the upper layers can support
constraints that lead to their destruction.
– the inverse structure pavements: layer of bituminous materials
(about 15 cm) on a layer of untreated granular materials

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(about 12 cm) resting on a layer of binder-treated materials

hydraulics (total thickness of the structure 60 to 80 cm). The layer
intermediate in untreated granular materials is relatively
deformable in the horizontal direction, it serves to limit the
fissures. These structures deform over time due to ruts
limited and transverse fatigue cracks. The implementation is
more sensitive to imperfections than those provided with glued layers,
they are particularly sensitive to water. Indeed, the circulation of
Water in the intermediate layer quickly leads to ruin.
upper layers.
– the cement concrete pavements: these structures consist of a
concrete layer of 15 to 40 cm, possibly covered with a layer
thin asphalt. The concrete layer can be continuous with a
longitudinal reinforcement (continuous reinforced concrete) or discontinuous with or
without connecting elements at the joints. In view of the modulus of elasticity
reinforced concrete, the determining forces are those of
tension by bending in the slab. These structures are sensitive to the
fissuration produced mainly by shrinkage. They poorly support the
consequences of the evolution of support points at the angles and on the right of
fissures that produce, ultimately, pumping effects. The slab is
imbalance and moves with the flow of traffic, which amplifies the phenomenon.

6.4 - Sizing - some principles

France has made a resolutely determined choice of method.

sizing at the end of the particularly harsh winter of 1962-1963 and which
had weakened the road network. Before the 1960s, the structures of
the roads had evolved little while the heavy truck traffic was in full swing
development.

The calculation method took into account the evolution of techniques and the
road surveying capabilities, the "standardization" of materials,
mastery of their characteristics and working on calculation tools.

A first catalog of semi-empirical, semi-calculated structures is published in

1971, the fully calculated catalog was released in 1977.

6.4.1 The stages of pavement sizing

The first step: mechanical inspection

At this stage, we check that a mechanical structure retained on the basis of

materials, of type and thickness allow the passage of a combined traffic weight
heavy for a given duration and for a given ground.

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The data:
– heavy truck traffic accumulated with the reference axle at 13T
– linear elastic characterization of materials
– fissuration due to fatigue if the material is bonded, permanent deformation if
unbound material
– choice of total ruin risk before the end of the calculation period

The 2nd step: freeze/thaw verification

At this stage, we verify that the structure determined earlier can withstand
successive thaws without major disorders. We proceed then by adjustment
from the layer of shape or structure.

Method:

Characterization of frozen and unfrozen conductivity of materials

Verification of the frost resistance of the soil in place
Application of the Fourier method

6.4.2 The limits of the model

The model is based on several theoretical principles:

1- the layers of materials are linear, elastic, and isotropic: in reality

most materials do not exhibit linear elastic behavior under
rolling loads and this for several reasons:
– untreated materials and soils have a non-elastic behavior
linear see plastic
– bituminous materials have variable elastic behavior in
function of temperature
– only materials treated with hydraulic binders have a behavior
substantially compliant with the model

The main consequence is a poor consideration of

phenomena of surface layer rutting, of deformation
permanent non-bonded layers,

2 - The interfaces between layers, the model considers them as glued or

slippery: thus there is a poor consideration of the mechanisms of
delamination of an interface, the phenomenon of slab uplift
rigid under thermal gradient.

The model considers that the layers are infinite in plan: the structures
rigid and semi-rigid materials exhibit discontinuities (cracks, joints)

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determinants of their behavior (occasional increases of

constraints). Thus, the model does not adequately take into account the structures
discontinues, the consideration of the appearance and spread of
fissures.

6.4.3 The pavement design tools

The sizing method is described in the technical guide

design and sizing of pavement structures published by the
SETRA and the LCPC.

The structures catalog is an application of this guide, it allows to

achieve, based on a combined traffic of heavy goods vehicles and the choice of
materials, a preliminary sizing of the structures.
This same catalog presents a method for freeze/thaw verification of the
retained structure.

SETRA has, in the same order, published a sizing software: it

This is ALIZE-LCPC Routes. This software is published by the company ITECH.

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Chapter 7 - Sustainable Development and Road Infrastructures

7.1 – Some notions of sustainable development

Sustainable development is a mode of development that meets

needs of present generations, without compromising the ability of future generations
futures to satisfy theirs." This is the definition given at the UN in 1987.
Giro Harlem Bruntland42.

This declaration is primarily remembered as the birthplace of

sustainable development. It is mainly the culmination of a first stage of the
taking into account the finite nature of the Earth environment.

Other factors have contributed to the consideration of this phenomenon.

several global meetings, climate change, the significant decline
sensitive to biodiversity, the depletion of fossil fuels.

It is no longer a question of a trend today, but of inscription.

of these principles in national and international policies. How to speak
of deglobalization, of the North-South relationship, without addressing them within the framework of
sustainable development. Indeed, this principle is not only synonymous
of ecology, it incorporates the necessary consideration of human development in
general.

Thus, new tools have been implemented following this decision.

conscience: the agendas 21, the Kyoto protocol, corporate social responsibility
companies43the fourth.

This movement does not hide its implementation difficulties and its
contradictions, particularly in North-South relations. However, it is established
that limitless development is no longer possible, there remains to be translated
effectively its principles in economic, political and
social of the countries of the planet.

7.2 - Sustainable development and transport infrastructures

The globalized economy is particularly manifested by a specialization of

regions and countries and therefore by an increased development of transportation. We
we have been able to determine that the policy in this area has led and leads to
development of certain infrastructures compared to others. In France, the
Road transport has been predominant since the end of the 20th century.

Bruntland Report, Our Common Future

43From English Corporate Social Responsibility

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The reflection will increasingly focus on intermodality and on adaptation of

infrastructures to economic and social needs. The inevitable rationalization of
means that will accompany decentralization will not contradict this principle.

It is up to the road managers, namely the Departments and the

Municipalities, local authorities intervening in other social fields and
economic, to integrate them into the definition of real policies of
transport.
Thus, the road no longer represents a policy in itself but rather an element.
contributing to these necessary reflections, it is then obvious to address these themes
transversely:
– urbanism and transportation
– economic activities and exchanges with the territories of their markets
– social policies and access to public services
– rurbanization44and impact on energy consumption

Initiatives launched, such as those of ARENE45in Ile de France,

show that a rationalization of transportation methods can be studied
without sacrificing any dimension of the issue.

Global approach to environmental consideration in

Movements and road arrangements - Paris left bank of the Seine

Space management and road infrastructure congestion lead to

to reduce the role of the car in local commuting.
The actions implemented are of several types:
– urbanism: diversity of urban functions (housing, activities, businesses)
to reduce this type of movement
– bus services with connections to SNCF and RER stations
– insertion of soft mobility during the creation or rehabilitation of
neighborhoods
– reduction of capacity of road arteries when other means of
transport are implanted
– establishment of a mobility center

We can clearly see that these actions are taking place and that they cannot be
effective only in the long run. They must therefore be supported by policies
sustainable planning to avoid being victims of fashion trends. The
the relevance of the experience of the ARENE seems obvious in light of the impacts
economic and financial in very dense urban sectors. The mes
reflections can take place outside of large urban areas for the measurement
motifs but for reasons of different origins.

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Regional Agency for the Environment and New Energies -
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Essentially rural regions are often marked by a

desertification that will be all the more pressing as it is amplified by the
aging of the population and the effects of the decrease in public support for
agricultural activity (mutation of the common agricultural policy).

The State and the concerned communities must quickly think about a
new land use planning where infrastructure policies
road routes will have their rightful place.

7.3 Sustainable Development and Transport Infrastructure Management

Sustainable development can reach its full dimension in modes

operation and maintenance of road networks.

Regarding traffic management46, the introduction of technologies of

Information and communication allow and will allow the use of networks.
existing roads at optimum traffic levels47.

It is indeed known that the optimal energy consumption corresponds to

reference speeds, the traffic is linked to them48Below certain thresholds, there is
traffic saturation but also pollution peak, all the more elevated as the
weather conditions are favorable there (high pressure for example).

Real-time knowledge of traffic, the means to communicate with

the users49(RDS for example) allows to adjust the maximum speeds,
to implement load shedding systems and overall to increase the
network usability capacity.

Regarding the maintenance of road networks quality processes

were tested by the services of the Ministry of Transport. This is about
DEQUADE Environment.

The method50is based on:

– a complete analysis of maintenance activities
– the identification, for each activity, of impacts and risks
environmental, on safety and health
– the prioritization and definition of priority actions aimed at stabilizing and
to reduce the negative impact of these activities.

46 Capacity and traffic management:

[Link]/recherche/incitatif/predit/telechargeable/ref_apr_predit_ydavid.rtf
47TTraffic flow theory: [Link]
48Eflow of traffic [Link]
49 Real-time traffic information:
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50 Environmental analysis method for road maintenance and operation activities:
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The services related to the maintenance and operation of the road have been
studied differently in the fields of implementation (mowing, viability
winter, waste collection, stormwater treatment
road repair ...) and the management of the necessary resources for the
realization (maintenance of operating centers, choice of vehicles and equipment
dedicated to maintenance ...).

7.4 Sustainable Development and Road Construction Techniques

The last field that sustainable development can cover in

The subject of road infrastructure is related to their design.
Before the implementation phase, the various stages are as many opportunities
to implement the principles of sustainable development, foremost the
consultation. We were able to measure in the previous chapters this
what each phase contributed to the development of a project. Studies
prerequisites that allow for the identification of the issue and the context of the project,
the preliminary project summary that compares the solutions and selects the one that will be implemented,
In the project that details it, each step is an opportunity to involve the public. Whether it
whether it concerns users, local residents of the project, or simply the citizen, the involvement
taking into account the comments, oppositions, and proposals enriches the project. The
consultation will now be an integral part of the development and implementation
infrastructure project work.

Beyond traditional impact or incidence studies, the study of a

the project will increasingly have to take into account the measurement of external costs:
impact on health, impact on the economy, but also maintenance and operation.
The road is certainly still long, laws and regulations will be necessary,
but it is no longer conceivable to stop, for the choice of a solution based solely on cost.
Investment: today when buying a car, the consumption
Energy efficiency is one of the selection criteria.

After the study phases, the project is finally implemented, it is the

phases of construction after the competitive bidding. If the calls for tenders can
define the technique, they can also encourage the creativity of companies, by
opening the variant offers. This is then an opportunity for the service providers to
propose alternative solutions.

These solutions exist at all levels of construction: earthworks,

bridges and roads. We have chosen to illustrate our point with two
examples: recycled asphalt and materials from household waste.

Recycled asphalt mixes:

Two different techniques exist: cold recycling or the use of
friable aggregates. Cold recycling allows for on-site execution of
roadworks, it is about the rehabilitation of the existing roadway. The layer of
rolling, as well as the foundation layers are planed, an emulsion of

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pure bitumen as well as a fluxing agent are injected into the milling material, the mixture is
then kneaded in place. This technique is suitable for low traffic roads.
Regarding the introduction of milling products as a substitute for
aggregates, the technique is completely similar to the production of conventional asphalt.
It requires mastery of the granulation of the milled materials, and also of their
origin: it is particularly necessary to know the original binder, to verify its
chemical compatibility with the binder that will be injected. This technique is better
better controlled. However, the introduction of recycled products is limited to
25% for the base layers (essentially bitumen gravel) and 10% for
the wearing courses). However, this technique is banned for the
high-traffic roadways.

Warm asphalt51:
The technique implemented aims to reduce the manufacturing temperature and
of the implementation of asphalt. The result is a decrease in the amount of CO2.
produced for the same amount of coatings produced.
The manufacturing methods are multiple: bitumen with plasticizer,
hot moldability with or without the addition of double hot coating and foam,
sequential coating.

The ashes from household waste:

In France, two technical pathways mainly allow for treatment.
household waste: landfilling and incineration. For illustration,
Ile-de-France produces more than 3.5 million tons of household waste per year.
which are incinerated. Nearly a million tons of ash, the main residue of
this incineration, are produced per year.

The ash residues are mainly composed of water, salts, limestone and
of lime, silica, alumina, and heavy metals. The slags are classified
according to the respective importance of their components. Thus, a regulation
developed by the Ministry of the Environment52retains three classes of ash:
type V ashes, directly valorizable, type M ashes,
valuable after maturation, type S ash, storable. They are
evolutionary, they can transition from one state to another through maturation and thus become
valuable. Numerous controversies about their toxicity, particularly with the
the presence of heavy metals has slowed the development of their use. The
normalization of leaching tests53part of these concerns has been alleviated.

Type V slag can be used as materials for

fill, but also to create treated or untreated shape layers. The guide
for the construction of embankments and shaping layers they took into account. They
are classified as organic soils of industrial by-products type. The laboratory
the central bridges and roads has developed a reference document54on the MIOM,
l'UNICEM - Ile de France has published a technical guide for the use of MIOM.
51 We also talk about low energy coated materials EBE or low energy asphalt LEA.
Circular of May 9, 1994:
53NFX 31-211
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These materials are now achieving real success in Île-de-France, at

regarding the scarcity of aggregates. Reserved for small developments, they are
now used on highway construction sites.

Whether it is recycled asphalt or MIOM, these materials

alternatives still have difficulty establishing themselves, their use is at a standstill
today at the still low prices of natural aggregates. One can imagine a
different evolution in the long term, the protection of non-renewable resources
could also translate into a very noticeable increase in their price.

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