ASNT NDT LEVEL III - VISUAL TESTING (VT) - NOTES

Visual testing Notes

Introduction

Visual testing is done in all stages of the “life” of a component or machine, basically during
and after manufacture as well as at regular intervals during service.

Very often, testing is performed in two steps:

1. Overview or general visual testing.
2. Local or detailed visual testing.

Visual testing can be a very simple but powerful application. However, very tight cracks
cannot be seen with the unaided eye.

In order to find them, other NDT methods have to be applied such as magnetic particle (MT)
or liquid penetrant testing (PT). Discontinuities that are not surface-breaking cannot be
found by VT or PT and may be detected in only a very limited way by MT.

Volumetric NDT methods, such as ultrasonic testing (UT) or radiographic testing (RT),
although able to detect surface discontinuities, are effective at indicating discontinuities in
the interior of a material.

Visual inspection is one of the most common and powerful means of non-destructive
testing. Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eye-
sight of the tester.

To be most effective visual testing requires training (knowledge of product and process,
anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria, record keeping, for example).

It is also a fact that all defects found by other NDT methods ultimately must be
substantiated by visual testing. Visual testing can be classified as direct visual testing,
remote visual testing and translucent visual testing. Often the equipment needed is simple.

A portable light, a mirror on stem, a 2X or 4X hand lens, one illuminated magnifier with
magnification 5X or 10X. For internal inspection, light lens systems such as borescopes allow
remote surfaces to be examined. More sophisticated devices of this nature using fibre optics
permit the introduction of the device into very small access holes and channels. Most of
these systems provide for the attachment of a camera to permit permanent recording.

Several characteristics about the part being examined may be determined, which include
dimensional conformance, the presence of discontinuities, general fit and wear, and simple
cosmetic compliance.

It can be performed by direct or indirect methods during various stages of manufacturing or

after the component has been placed in-service.

The quality of an inspection are affected primarily by four factors.

→ The quality of the detector (eye or camera).
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→ The lighting conditions.

→ The capability to process the visual data.
→ The level of training and attention to detail.

For best results the inspector or machine vision operator must have:
→ A basic knowledge of material processing, forming, machining and joining processes.
→ A general understanding of design features, application and service requirements.
→ Specific instructions on what to look for and specific accept/reject criteria.

Various optical aids used in visual inspection.

→ Mirror on stem
→ Hand magnifying glass
→ Illuminated magnifier
→ Inspection glass
→ Borescope.

The applications of visual testing include:

→ Checking of the surface condition of the component.
→ Checking of alignment of mating surfaces.
→ Checking of shape of the component.
→ Checking for evidence of leaking.
→ Checking for internal side defects.

Some of the advantages of visual testing are as follows:

→ Testing is simple
→ Testing speed is high
→ Testing is possible while test object is being used
→ Permanent records are available when latest equipment are used

Some of the limitations of visual testing are as follows:

a) Can detect only surface flaws
b) Eye resolution is weak
c) Eye fatigue

Digital detectors and computer technology have made it possible to automate some visual
inspections. This is known as “machine vision inspection.”

Manual Versus Automated Inspection

The majority of visual inspections are completed by an inspector, but machine vision is
becoming more common.

The primary advantage of an inspector is their ability to quickly adapt to a variety of lighting
and other non-typical conditions, and their ability to use other senses.

The primary advantage of a machine vision inspection system is their ability to make very
consistent and rapid inspections of specific details of a component.
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Machine vision is primarily used in production applications where a large number of

components require inspection and the inspection conditions can be closely controlled.

Definition of Visual Testing

Visual testing might be called the foundation of NDT. Looking at a technical component
during and after manufacturing to check if it serves the intended purpose must have been
the first attempt to perform quality control (QC). This was combined with measurement
when tolerances were specified and became tighter. Subsequently, the search for
discontinuities became part of visual quality control. Later on, many companies separated
the visual search for discontinuities and named it in line with other NDT methods: visual
testing (VT) or visual examination (VE).

Direct Visual Testing: VT applying no visual aids except mirrors and magnifiers.

Light source Eye

Direct visual testing with uninterrupted light ray to the eye.

Indirect or Remote Visual Testing: VT using aids for enhanced vision including borescopes
as well as equipment that is remotely driven because the area examined is inaccessible.

Remote visual testing with interrupted light ray to the eye.

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Visual Inspection Lighting

The purpose of lighting in a visual inspection area is to provide adequate contrast so that
the detection of relevant objects or discontinuities is accomplished with a high degree of
success

Contrast detection is the most basic of visual tasks. It is a property of the difference
between an object (flaw) and its background of either luminance or color. Luminance
contrast is the difference in reflected light between the discontinuity and its background.

Visual and Optical Testing is the monitoring of specific parameters by visual and optical
assessments of test objects and surfaces using the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Visual testing requires light to cause visual stimulation. Light is electromagnetic radiation, as
is ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), or X-radiation. The only difference among these types of
radiation is their wavelength or energy.

White light is a mixture of colors. Colors become visible when one or more wavelengths in
the light spectrum are missing

Light has an approximate velocity of 186 000 mi/s (300 000 km/s or 3 x 108 m/s = 3 x 105
km/s) depending on the medium in which it travels. The denser the medium, the less the
velocity. Therefore, light travels fastest in a vacuum.

0.01nm 1 nm 100nm 1 mm 1 cm 1m 1k

400nm 700nm

Electromagnetic spectrum with enlargement of visible light perceived by the human eye.

The light spectra are a visible spectrum which comprises only a small range of
electromagnetic spectrum extending approximately from 380 nm in the extreme violet
region to 730 nm in the extreme red.

Equipment used to measure wavelength Spectrometer

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Visible light is defined as radiant energy (energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves)

capable of exciting the human retina and creating a visual sensation.

Radiation wavelength (nm)

10 6 10 5 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 10 –1 10 –2 10 –3 10 –4 10 –5 10 –6
isibl
ligh X-rays
Radio Infrared e Cosmic rays
t
Ultraviolet Gamma rays
V
10 –9 10 –8 10 –7 10 –6 10 –5 10 –4 10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 1 10 10 2 10 3

Optical radiation
Photon energy (MeV)

The place of optical radiation within the electromagnetic spectrum.

It is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 380 - 730 nm.
At these wavelengths radiant energy makes visible anything from which it is emitted or
reflected in sufficient quantity to activate the receptors of the eye.

The Human Eye

The visual system is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see. It
interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world
surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three
dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological
manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception

The visual system consists of:

→ The eye, especially the retina
→ The optic nerve
→ The optic chiasm
→ The optic tract
→ The lateral geniculate nucleus
→ The optic radiation
→ The visual cortex

The retina consists of a large number of photoreceptor cells which contain a particular
protein molecule called an opsin. In humans, there are two types of opsins, rod opsins and
cone opsins. Either opsin absorbs a photon (a particle of light) and transmits a signal to the
cell through a signal transduction pathway, resulting in hyperpolarization of the
photoreceptor

Rods are found primarily in the periphery of the retina and are used to see at low levels of
light.

Cones are found primarily in the center (or fovea) of the retina. There are three types of
cones that differ in the wavelengths of light they absorb; they are usually called short or

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blue, middle or green, and long or red. Cones are used primarily to distinguish color and
other features of the visual world at normal levels of light.

Light enters the eye through the pupil and an image is projected on the retina.

Muscles move the eyeball in the orbits and allow you to focus the image on the central
retina or fovea.

Retina Iris

Macula Aqueous

Vitreous humor Lens

Cornea
Retina

Ciliary
Optic muscle
nerve

Cross section of the human eye.

Rods are sensitive to blue-green light and are used for vision under dark or dim conditions.

Cones operate only in relatively bright light, but they provide us with our sharpest images
and enable us to see colors.
There are three types of cones
→ L-cones are red absorbing cones or those that absorb best at the relatively long
wavelengths peaking at 565 nm
→ M-cones are green absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 535 nm
→ S-cones are blue absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 440 nm.

Cones provide us with our sharpest images because most of the 3 million cones in each
retina are confined to a small region just opposite the lens called the fovea. The maximum
concentration is about 180,000 cones per square mm.

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Our sharpest and most colourful images are produced in the fovea.

Outside of this region our vision is relatively poor but, since we can quickly redirect our eyes
we tend not to be aware of our poor peripheral vision.

Normal visual acuity or 20/20 vision is defined as the ability to resolve a spatial pattern
separated by a visual angle of one minute or 1/60 of a degree of arc.

One degree of a scene is projected on about 290 micrometers of the retina.

In 290 micrometers there are 123 cones and in 1/60 of a degree there 2 cones which is the
number required to resolve an object.

The size of an object that can be seen at a given distance can be calculated using the
following formula: X = (d tan θ/2)2

When visually inspecting an object for a defect, a comfortable viewing distance “d” might be
around 12 inches. At 12 inches, the normal visual acuity of the human eye is 0.0035 inch. (It
must be noted that this value is for the situation where there is good lighting and high
contrast between the objects being viewed.)

Vision

When evaluations are made by an inspector, eye examinations must be done at regular
intervals to assure accuracy and sensitivity. These examinations may consist
of the following:
→ Near Vision (Jaeger)
→ Far Vision (Snellen)
→ Color Differentiation

When using machine vision, different but similar performance checks must be performed.

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Contrast Sensitivity

an object can be before it becomes indistinguishable from a uniform field

It has been experimentally determined that the minimum discernible difference in gray
scale level that the eye can detect is about 2% of full brightness

Contrast sensitivity varies with

→ the size or spatial frequency of a feature
→ The lighting conditions
→ Whether the object is lighter or darker than the background

It should be noted, however, that larger objects are not always easier to see than smaller
objects as contrast is reduced.

If object visibility was dictated solely by image contrast, the alternating bright and dark bars
should appear to have equal height everywhere in the image. However, the bars seem to be
taller in the middle of the image.

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Light Levels

Under normal lighting conditions the cones are operating and the eye has good visual acuity
and is most sensitive to greenish yellow color, which has a wavelength around 555
nanometers (photopic curve).

When the light levels drop to near total darkness, the response of the eye changes
significantly as shown by the scotopic response curve on the left.

At this level of light, the rods are most active and the human eye is more sensitive to any
amount of light that is present, but is less sensitive to the range of color.

At this very low light level, sensitivity to blue, violet, and ultraviolet is increased, but
sensitivity to yellow and red is reduced

Intensity

The intensity of illumination is defined as flux per unit area incident on a given surface, the
ray falling perpendicular to the surface.

The word flux here means luminous flux (Øv) that is a measure of the rate of flow of light
i.e. the radiant flux in the wavelength range 380 -760 nanometre (nm).

It is measured by reference to emission from a standard source, usually in lumens (lm).

Luminous flux is the quantity of the energy of the light emitted per second in all directions.

The unit of luminous flux is lumen (lm).

One lumen is the luminous flux of the uniform point light source that has luminous intensity
of 1 candela and is contained in one unit of spatial angle (or 1 steradian).

A steradian can be defined as the solid angle subtended at the center of a unit sphere by a
unit area on its surface. For a general sphere of radius r, any portion of its surface with
area A = r2 subtends one steradian.

The solid angle is related to the area it cuts out of a sphere:

where
A is the surface area of the spherical cap, 2πrh
r is the radius of the sphere, and
sr is the unit, steradian.

Because the surface area A of a sphere is 4πr2, the definition implies that a sphere
measures 4π (≈ 12.56637) steradians. By the same argument, the maximum solid angle that
can be subtended at any point is 4π sr.

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The way the light distribution occurs over an area with distance i.e. the inverse square law
and the Lambert cosine law are represented below.

Light Intensity Measurement

Effective visual inspection requires adequate

lighting.

The type of inspection will dictate the lighting

requirements. Inspection of components with fine
detail and low contrast will require greater
illumination than components with large details and
high contrast.

Light intensity may be measured with a suitable light

meter. The unit of measure for white light is foot-
candles (fc).

A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct light

thrown by one standard candle at a distance of 1
foot.

Inspection of components with fine detail and low

contrast may require 100 foot-candles or more.
Specification requirements for lighting should be
reviewed prior to performing an inspection.

Light Directionality

The directionality of the light is a very important

consideration.
For some applications, flat, even lighting works well.
For other applications, directional lighting is better
because it produces shadows that are larger than the
actual flaw and easier to detect.

Max. 24 in. (610 mm)

Permissible
viewing angle
30° 30°

Maximum permissible viewing angle and distance as defined by standards.

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Inverse Square Law

The greater the intensity of the light source and The shorter the distance between source
and surface

If the distance from the light source to the test surface is doubled, the area doubles in two
dimensions—length and width—and the illumination will be lower by one-half times one-
half, which is one-fourth. As a number multiplied by itself is written as the number
empowered by two, we can write the law of illumination or inverse square law as follows:

E = I/d2
where
E = the illumination on the surface
I = the intensity of the light source
d = the distance of the light source from the surface.

Lambert’s law:
The intensity of illumination (I) from a point source that falls on the surface is given by
relationship known as

Lambert’s cosine law: I = L x cosθ/r2

Where,
L = illuminating power or luminous intensity of the point source
cos θ = cosine of the angle of incidence of light radiation on the given surface
r = distance between the source and the surface

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Colours

White light has a band of wavelengths of different colours. This is called the spectrum of
white light.

The longest wavelength is red light, which has a wavelength in air of about 700 nm
(nanometres).

The shortest wavelength is violet, which has a wavelength in air of about 450 nm.

In a vacuum (and practically in air), all colours travel at the same velocity (Velocity of Light -
3 x 108 m/s = 3 x 105 km/s).

In a medium such as glass, however the colours travel at different velocity, with red the
fastest and violet the slowest.

According to wave theory refraction is due to a change in the velocity of light when it enters
a different medium. Thus when a ray of white light passes through a prism, it is refracted
and split into its constituent colours, and these phenomena is called dispersion. The
principal colours are given by the word VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Green, Orange, Yellow, and
Red). The deviation produced for the violet rays is maximum and for red rays it is minimum.

Brightness or Luminosity

A hue (colour / shade) may also vary in brightness, according to the intensity of pre-
dominant radiation.

Excessive brightness (or brightness within the field of view varying by more than 10:1)
causes the unpleasant sensation of glare.

Glare interferes with the ability of clear vision, critical observation and judgement.

Magnitude & Units

The candela is the SI base unit of luminous intensity; that is, power emitted by a light source
in a particular direction.

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It is the luminous intensity in a given direction of a source that emits monochromatic

radiation of frequency 540 x 10-12 Hz and that has radiant intensity in that direction of
1.4641 milli-watt per steradian. It is symbolized cd and was formerly known as candle.

Monochromatic Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation, especially visible radiation, of only

one frequency or wavelength.

Radiant intensity: In radiometry, radiant intensity is the radiant flux emitted, reflected,
transmitted or received, per unit solid angle

Foot - candle

It is the unit of intensity of illumination is defined as the amount of light falling on one
square foot area of a spherical surface of radius 1 foot when a source of one candle power
is kept at the centre of curvature.

1 foot - candle is also known as 1 lumen per square ft.

Lux (lx)

A unit of illuminance, and is equal to the illumination produced by a luminous flux of 1

lumen distributed uniformly over an area of 1 square metre (Lumens/m2 (lux))

It can also be described as the illumination on a surface all points of which are at a distance
of 1 metre (m) from a point source of 1 candela (cd)

Lux = Lumens/m2

Equipment used to measure Lumens/m2 (lux) is Photometer

Measuring equipment

Although the human eye is the main detector for white light, instrument detectors such as
photoconductive cells, photodiodes, phototransistors and photographic film etc. can
measure the radiant properties of light and provide accurate data not available by human
eye assessment.

The measurement of light is called photometry with the measurement instruments being
called photometers and radiometers and are either portable or laboratory based, the latter
being the most accurate.

A radiometer is an instrument used to detect and measure electromagnetic radiant energy.

A photometer is a specific type of radiometer which measures only the visible part of the
radiant energy.

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There are many types of photometers. Photometer for visible light and radiometer for
ultraviolet light

The choice of photometer will depend on the intensity of the light source, the wavelengths
of the source, the accuracy required, whether testing is indoor or outdoor

Measurement of ultraviolet light

Ultraviolet light, known also as black light, is not visible to the human eye, but can be made
visible by using fluorescent dyes. These dyes absorb the ultraviolet radiation and emit the
absorbed energy as light of wavelengths usually in the yellow-green portion of the
spectrum.

Ultraviolet radiation is defined as the part of the electromagnetic spectrum having

wavelengths from 100-400 nm i.e just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. It is
divided into 3 types, UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C.

UV-A is the portion between 315-400 nm

UV-B is the portion between 280-315 nm
UV-C is the portion between 100-280 nm

Radiometers are used to measure radiant power over a wide range of wavelengths,
including ultraviolet light. These instruments measure ultraviolet light in micro watts per
cm2

Interaction of Light with Matter

Light that strikes an opaque surface might be absorbed and re-emitted as heat radiation or
directly reflected without a change of its energy or wavelength. Direct VT makes use of
reflection.

Transparent materials, such as glass or certain plastics, allow transmittance of light. When
materials are transmissive or translucent, inhomogeneities in the interior can be found
visually in a technique referred to as translucent visual testing.

Absorbed light

Incident light Transmitted light

Reflected light

Absorption, reflection, and transmittance of light.

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(a) (b)

Reflection of light: (a) rough, uneven surface; (b) smooth surface.

Reflection may be specular (mirror-like) or diffuse depending on the condition of the

surface.

Reflection

The phenomenon of reflection is described as the return of all or part of a beam of light
when it encounters the boundary between two media

As illustrated in the Fig, AO is the ray of light incident at O on the plane surface of glass
medium, some of the light is reflected from the surface along OC in accordance with the
laws of reflection. The rest of the light travels along a new direction OB in the glass. The
reflection of light ray AO at point O obeys, the following laws of reflection

The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence are all in the same plane. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

Refraction

The refraction phenomenon occurs where a change of direction of a wave front occurs as it
passes from one medium to another, in which its velocity of propagation is altered. The
phenomenon occurs with all types of waves, but is most familiar with light waves.

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Dispersion

The splitting up of a ray of white light by refraction into its components is known as
dispersion.

Dispersion occurs because the deviation of each wavelength is different on account of the
different velocities at which they travel through the refractive medium.

If a ray of white light strikes one face of a prism and passes out of another face, the white
light is split into its components and the full visible spectrum will be formed as shown in Fig.

Visual Inspection Lighting

The purpose of lighting in a visual inspection area is to provide adequate contrast so that
the detection of relevant objects or discontinuities is accomplished with a high degree of
success

Contrast detection is the most basic of visual tasks. It is a property of the difference
between an object (flaw) and its background of either luminance or color

Luminance contrast is the difference in reflected light between the discontinuity and its
background.

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Diffraction

Diffraction phenomenon is the spreading of waves after they pass through small openings
(or around small obstacles).

The diffraction is appreciable when the width of the opening is comparable to the
wavelength of the waves and very small when the width is large compared to the
wavelengths.

Light has a very short wavelength such as 6 x 10-7 m and so light waves are diffracted
appreciably only through small openings.

Absorption and Transmission of light

When passing through a medium a beam of light may lose intensity because of two effects:

Scattering of light out of the beam, and

Absorption of photons by atoms or molecules in the medium.

When a photon is absorbed there is a transition to the excited state.

The illuminance of a surface illuminated by light falling on it perpendicularly from a point

source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the surface and
source.

If the rays make an angle with the normal to the surface, the illuminance varies as the
cosine of the angle of incidence.

The luminous intensity (I) of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) decreases
exponentially with the distance “ d ” when it enters an absorbing medium i.e.

I = Io e – α d

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Where, Io = Intensity of the radiation that enters the medium (i.e. Incident intensity)
α = Linear absorption coefficient of the medium

Materials, with respect to light, are Transparent and Translucent or opaque

The transparent material permits the transmission of light without significant deviation or
absorption. However, a substance may be transparent to radiation of one wavelength but
not to radiation of another. Some forms of glass are transparent to light but not to
ultraviolet radiation, while other forms of glass may be transparent to all visible radiations
except red light.

Translucent materials permit the passage of radiations but not without some scattering or
diffusion. Frosted glass allows light to pass through it but an object cannot be seen clearly
because the light rays are scattered by it.

The extent to which a medium is opaque (non-transparent) to electromagnetic radiations,

especially to light, is the opacity of the medium and this is the reciprocal of the
transmittance. A medium which is opaque to X- rays and gamma rays is said to be radio-
opaque.

Emissivity and reflectance

Emissivity

It is well known that hot bodies emit radiations in the form of heat. These thermal
radiations consist of electromagnetic waves with longer wavelengths than visible light and
X-rays.

The emitted energy in the form of thermal radiations is distributed over a continuous wave,
and this spectral distribution changes with temperature.

At low temperature, the radiation emission

rate is small and is chiefly of relatively longer
wavelengths (infrared radiations)

At temperatures between 500 and 550°C,

bodies begin to radiate visible light, which
means that the distribution of energy among
the various wavelengths has shifted so that
large portion of the radiant energy has
wavelengths within visible spectrum.

At still higher temperatures, the fraction of

visible light increases until at 3000°C, when
the body appears white hot and the emitted
radiations contain the shorter wavelengths.

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Reflectance

Reflectance is defined as ratio of radiant flux reflected by the surface to that falling on it.
This quantity is also known as radiant reflectance

The radiant reflectance measured for a specified wavelength of the incident radiant flux is
called the spectral reflectance.

Generation of Light

A description of the generation of light requires a knowledge of how light is produced at the
atomic level

An atom consists of a nucleus with a positive charge orbited by electrons with a negative
charge

In the atom's normal state, the orbits of the electrons are stable and no electromagnetic
radiation is emitted

The orbits, or shells, allowed around the nucleus are a characteristic of each element. When
an electron is excited, it
→ moves in to a higher
→ unstable orbit or
→ it is removed from the atom's orbit

Finally, the excited electron moves back into

→ the original orbit or into another lower energy
→ more stable orbit

The energy the electron loses is given off as a discrete particle of radiant energy. Planck's
Formula gives the wavelength of the emitted radiation:

All light is produced by this change in the orbit of electrons. Natural and artificial light
sources are referred to as luminous bodies

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Natural light sources Temperature (K) Artificial light

Blue sky 10 000

9000

Northern light blue sky 8000

7000

6000 Xenon bulb

High-intensity carbon arc
Photographic daylight

5000 Fluorescent lamps

4000 Tungsten halogen lamp

Moonlight Projector lamp
500 W photoflood
100 W lightbulb
3000
25 W lightbulb

2000 Candle flame

Natural light sources include

→ sunlight
→ the aurora borealis and
→ bioluminescence

Aurora borealis

a natural electrical phenomenon characterized by the appearance of streamers of reddish

or greenish light in the sky, especially near the northern or southern magnetic pole.

The effect is caused by the interaction of charged particles from the sun with atoms in the
upper atmosphere.

In northern and southern regions it is respectively called

→ aurora borealis or Northern Lights and
→ aurora australis or Southern Lights

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Bio - luminescence

the biochemical emission of light by living organisms such as glow-worms and deep-sea fish

the light emitted by organisms such as glow-worms and deep-sea fish

Most other apparent light sources, such as the moon, only reflect the light of a luminous
body

Types of Light

Light sources for visual and optical inspection may be divided into four categories:
→ Incandescent
→ Luminescent
→ Polarized
→ Coherent light

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Light source types: (a) condenser reflector; (b) spot projector; (c) diffuse light source; (d)
collimated light source.

Incandescent Light

Incandescence is the emission of light due to the thermal excitation of the atoms or
molecules.

Sources of incandescent light include filament lamps, pyroluminescence, gas mantles, and
carbon arc lamps

Incandescent light: (a) sketch of a light bulb showing the filament;

Luminescent Light

Luminescence is emission of light by a substance not resulting from heat; it is thus a form of
cold-body radiation. It can be caused by chemical reactions, electrical energy, subatomic
motions, or stress on a crystal, which all are ultimately caused by Spontaneous emission.

Luminescence results from the excitation of a single valence electron.

Luminescent light is more monochromatic in nature than incandescent light sources.

Sources of luminescent light include

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→ gaseous discharge lamps

→ lasers
→ light emitting diodes (LED)
→ fluorescent lamps

In chemistry, a valence electron is an electron that is associated with an atom, and that can
participate in the formation of a chemical bond; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the
bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a shared pair.

Polarized light

Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane. The
process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization. There
are a variety of methods of polarizing light.

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The vibrations of polarized light have been oriented to show preference. This means that
the vector describing the direction of the light wave form is constant in time.

Linear polarization means that either the vector or the waveforms have been aligned so that
both are in the same plane.

Circular polarization has a vector that rotates uniformly with time.

Circular polarization is described as having a rotation that resembles a helix.

Elliptical polarization has a rotating vector that is not uniform with time. This type of
polarization is difficult to physically describe.

Although polarized light can be produced directly, it is most commonly produced using a
conventional light source and a polarizing light filter. The polarizing filter is rated by the type
of polarized light it produces: linear, circular, or elliptical.

Many optical techniques use polarized light because of its ability to produce uniform
patterns of constructive and destructive interference of the light waves.

This allows the characteristics of many products to be measured by assessing the

interference patterns when polarized light is transmitted through or reflected from a test
object.

Techniques using polarized light include moire fringe methods and bifringence techniques.
For example: Face Pattern Recognition

Coherent Light

Coherent light is a beam of photons (almost like particles of light waves) that have the same
frequency and are all at the same frequency. Only a beam of laser light will not spread and
diffuse.

In lasers, waves are identical and in phase, which produces a beam of coherent light.

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Coherent light, such as that produced by a laser, is visible light or radiant energy with a high
degree of phase coherence.

Phase coherence requires both frequency coherence and the spatial coherence of polarized
light.

Phase coherence requires the individual waves of light to be of the same frequency and the
sinusoidal curve of the wave to be aligned.

While the light produced by most light sources has a broad spectrum and produces a
diverging luminous area, laser or phased light is aligned.

Luminance contrast is the difference in reflected light between the discontinuity and its
background.

Luminance contrast is defined in several ways

where:
C = contrast ratio or relation target contrast
Lg = greater luminance
L l = lesser luminance

The contrast value is constant for any value of luminance but reflection varies due to angle
and position.

The contrast varies due to changes in the position of the object or the observer. The
probability of detection increases as the relative contrast value increases. Figure, illustrates
this as a percentage of accuracy and relates it to the probability of detection.

Chromatic contrast is the difference in hue (colour) and saturation between an object and
its background.

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Quality of lighting or illumination in the inspection area refers to the distribution of the light
sources in the area and implies that these devices aid visual performance and comfort.

Quality illumination is composed of

→ Area lighting and
→ Specific test lighting.

To avoid inspector eye fatigue and to enhance the probability of detection due to size, the
luminance ratios of the inspection area should be controlled.

Table lists the maximum recommended luminance ratio between the test object and the
environment, and between different areas of the environment.

This table recommends maximum luminance ratios for areas where reflectances in the work
area can be controlled when control of the surrounding area is limited.

Disability glare reduces visibility and visual performance.

Glare is caused by light sources or reflections from light sources in the field of view. Discomfort glare
produces visual discomfort.

To reduce glare, it may be necessary to:

→ decrease the intensity of the light source
→ reduce the area of the light source
→ increase the angle between the light source and the field of view or
→ decrease reflections by using a light source with a larger area and lower luminance
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Shadows in the inspection area can be controlled by the use of horizontal illumination produced by a
light source with a large surface area or by reflection from luminant walls.

Shadows in the inspection area can be controlled by the use of horizontal illumination produced by a
light source with a large surface area or by reflection from luminant walls.

Horizontal illuminance describes the amount of light landing on a horizontal surface, such a desk

Vertical illuminance describes the illuminance landing on a vertical surface, such as a wall

Harsh shadows generally cause eye strain, but some shadow effect can accentuate contrast
(highlight contrast) and aid in the detection of depth and form.

In most visual inspection situations, the color quality and spectral distribution of the light sources
have no effect on vision acuity.

When color discrimination or color matching is part of the inspection process, the color of light
should be chosen carefully.

Generally, the light color and spectral distribution should approximate sunlight.

The color of light can be used to enhance or subdue a color. To enhance a color, the light source
should be rich in the color.

Illuminance is of prime importance in performing visual tasks. The Illuminating Engineering Society
(IES) recommends the illuminance levels listed in Table for the performance of visual tasks.

When performing visual inspections under field conditions, it can be difficult to obtain appropriate
lighting. It is important to weigh the effects of substandard lighting on the probability of detecting a
significant indication.

Lighting that takes advantage of the spectral sensitivity of the light sensor and the optical
characteristics of the test material are recommended.

Spectral sensitivity is the relative efficiency of detection, of light or other signal, as a function of the
frequency or wavelength of the signal.

The spectral sensitivity of sensors are quite different from that of the human eye.

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This difference allows for the use of light sources that are not effective during direct visual
inspection or those that are harmful to the eye.

This includes
→ Polarized light
→ Monochromatic light
→ Coherent or laser light

Reflective

Spectrally selective reflectors reflect uneven amounts of the incident light's initial
wavelength and absorb or transmit the balance.

The non-uniform reflective characteristics of a spectrally selective reflector may be

illuminated by the use of a monochromatic illumination source.

Specular reflection, also known as regular reflection is the mirror-like reflection of waves,
such as light, from a surface. ... The result is that an image reflected by the surface is
reproduced in mirror-like (specular) fashion.

Absorptive material characteristics include

→ selective
→ Non-selective absorption

Non-selective materials appear black or gray in appearance.

Selective materials absorb some wavelengths more than others. They appear to have a
distinctive color.

Transmitive

Transmitive characteristics describe

→ Transparent
→ Translucent materials.

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Transparent materials transmit the light spectrum with no apparent scatter.

Translucent materials transmit a large percentage of the light but scatter some portion due
to diffusion.

Opaque materials transmit no light - all of the spectrum is absorbed or reflected.

Inspection Technique

The placement of the light source or sources and the amount of direct or diffuse light
produced by each light source are critical for accurate inspections

The type of illuminator controls the amount of direct and diffuse light produced.
Types of illuminators include
→ condenser reflectors
→ spot projectors
→ diffuse light sources
→ collimators

Condenser and spot projectors have mirrors or reflective surfaces designed to produce a
field of light that is a gradually expanding cone.

The condenser's reflector (front lens) concentrates the cone of light, while a spot or flood
projector allows for the gradual expansion of the light cone.

Collimators use a small hole to produce a direct cone of light that expands very little.

Diffuse surface light sources use a translucent material to scatter the incident light

Common illumination geometries for optical inspections such as

→ microscopic examinations
→ machine vision

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include
→ diffuse front illumination
→ dark field specular illumination
→ light field specular illumination
→ diffuse rear field illumination
→ rear off set illumination

Diffuse front illumination

Diffuse front illumination (Figure) is used to flood the area of interest with as much light as
possible and to minimize shadow formation.

It typically is used on opaque materials where there are prismatic reflections or where the
contrast values are very high.

By making the light source more directional, differences in the surface texture become more
apparent.

Diffuse front illumination.

Dark field specular illumination

Specular materials are inspected for differences in contrast due to the reflection angle using
dark field or light field specular illumination.

With dark field specular illumination (Figure), the sensor is positioned at an angle other than
the angle of reflection. Under normal circumstances, the camera shows only a dark field.
The sensor receives a signal only when an irregularity in the surface changes the angle of
reflection.

This technique is normally used for surface flaw recognition.

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Camera

Light
source

Dark field specular illumination.

Light field specular illumination

With light field specular illumination (Figure), the light sensor is positioned in line with the
reflected light.

An irregularity causes the light to be deflected away from the sensor. The contrast value
produced by this method are much lower than those produced by dark field geometry.

This method is most commonly used to

assess the characteristics of the surface such as color and shine

Camera Light
source

Light field specular illumination.

Diffuse rear field illumination

Diffuse rear illumination (Figure) is normally used with translucent materials or to detect
opaque objects in a translucent or transparent medium

With most microscopes, the diffuser is placed directly below the test object. Directional rear
illumination is used for edge detection on opaque objects such as those in optical
comparators

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Camera

Specimen

Diffuser

Light
source

Diffuse rear illumination.

Rear off set illumination

Rear off set illumination (Figure) is used when materials are highly transparent and the
difference in the light transmission between the object of interest and the background is
small.

As with dark field front illumination, the lighting and camera geometry normally require the
camera to show a dark field.

Scattered light, produced by the area of interest, provides greater inspection contrast than
diffuse rear illumination.

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Instruments for illumination

Source of visible radiation

An important factor affecting visual tests is lighting, an improper lighting condition existing
during a visual examination is that can’t be rectified by improving upon the magnification.

The amount of light required for visual test is dependent on several factors such as type of
test, the importance of speed or accuracy, reflections from backgrounds and inspection
variables.

Example Question:
Matt surface finishes allow the use of:
→ 180 lux illumination for critical flaw detection
→ 550 lux illumination for critical flaw detection
→ 1200 lux illumination for critical flaw detection
→ 3000 lux illumination for critical flaw detection

Spectral quality

Daylight is the best light possible, as it produces optimum wavelength distribution for the
human eye

Among indoor areas the available light is normally insufficient. Sunlit areas may be
satisfactory for
general examination, but may not be sufficient for examining internal areas such as bores
and deep crevices.

Both general lighting devices and specific lighting devices are available and are required for
use depending on the situations.

Luminous efficiency of light sources

The luminous efficiency of a light source is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux
(lumens) to the total power input (Watts or equivalent).

The maximum luminous efficiency of an ideal white source is about 200 lumen/watt

A white source is defined as a radiator (source) with constant output over the visible
spectrum and no radiation in other parts of the spectrum.

Flash lamp

This is a tungsten filament bulb, with a battery supply up to 12 V. It is portable robust and
easy to use.

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Incandescent

These devices are most commonly sold as microscopic lights. Their useful life is not long as
they burn out and overheat easily.

They do not have sufficient intensity and tend to produce an image of lightbulb filament on
the subject being illuminated.

Discharge

These are gas discharge lamps. They emit only certain (selective) wavelengths, so are usually
only used where there is no other source available.

Examples include: sodium and mercury vapour lamps.

Fluorescent

This is a gas discharge tube, which can be battery operated or use mains voltages. Their
usefulness is limited, but they give a soft uniform light over a large area.

Ultraviolet

The electromagnetic spectrum that covers the wavelengths from 10 nm to 380 nm is called
ultraviolet radiation

Human eye response is insensitive to these radiations i.e. they are not visible to human eye

Sun is a natural source of light rich in ultraviolet radiations.

→ An electric arc of carbon, iron or other materials
→ mercury vapour lamps
→ discharge of electricity through hydrogen contained in quartz tubes

are some of the artificial ultraviolet producing light sources

Mercury vapour arc lamp

Mercury vapour lamp is a source of ultraviolet light

This type of lamp emits light whose spectrum has several intensity peaks within a wide band
of wavelengths

Radiation emitted is confined to four visible wavelengths in the visible spectrum and several
strong ultraviolet lines

When used for a specific purpose such as examination of test part by liquid fluorescent
penetrant and magnetic testing methods, the use of glass filter is made to filter out un-
wanted radiations of these sources and permit UV peaking around 365 nm

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A clear mercury lamp of 1000 watt input power has a typical initial luminous efficiency of 56
lm/watt.

Luminous efficiency is the measure of light-producing efficiency of the source.

It is the ratio of the total luminous flux output to the total input power of the source.

Mercury vapour lamp of 100 to 1000 watt input power has mean life times in excess of
24000 hours based on 5 hour burning time per start and operation from correct ballast
transformer.

Visual aids

Lenses, prisms and mirrors

Characteristics of construction Lenses

A lens is a portion of transparent refracting

medium bounded by two spherical surfaces or by
one spherical surface and a plane surface.

Lenses usually are made of glass or other

transparent material. The centres of curvature of
all lens surfaces lie on a single straight line called
the principal axis of the lens

The converging types of lens in common use

include: double convex or bi-convex lens,
planoconvex and concavo-convex

These lenses diverge the beam of incident parallel

rays, after refraction. [Link] an illustration on types
of lenses

Magnification (linear magnification) of lenses

Magnification is defined as the ratio of the size of an image to the size of the object.

Mathematically, it is given by

M = Size of Image/Size of object

Magnifier

Optical aids to vision such as mirrors, lenses, microscopes, borescopes, fiber optics and
magnifiers, compensate for some of the limits of the human eye by enlarging small
discontinuities.

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The optical device recognized as magnifier helps in enhancing the size of surface
discontinuities and other anomalies through the process of magnification.

In regard to selection and use of simple magnifiers, the following features and facts should
be kept in mind.

Magnification and depth of field

The letter X is normally used to designate the magnifying power of a lens, e.g., 10X.
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the apparent size of an object seen through a
magnifier (known as the virtual image) to the size of the object as it appears to the unaided
eye at 250 mm.

The main limiting factor for magnifying device is depth of field

Virtual Image

An optical image formed from the apparent divergence of light rays from a point, as
opposed to an image formed from their actual divergence

Focal length

Magnification power of a lens =10/focal length (mm)

A lens with 25 mm focal length will have a magnification power of 10X.

This is true if the lens is held 25 mm from the object and the eye is placed 25 mm from the
lens.

Formation of image

Convex lens

The position, size and nature of the image formed by a convex lens can be found by knowing
the position of the object and focal length of the lens.

The construction of a ray diagram as described will illustrate the image formation for a
particular case as shown in below Fig.

The image formed by a convex lens is real, inverted for object to lie beyond lens and its
principal focus, whereas the image formed is virtual and erect if object lies between focus
and lens.

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Principal Focal
plane plane

Focus beam

Object
Optical axis
Middle beam
Image

Focal length

Image transfer by a lens.

Inspection Planning and Visual Inspection Tool

Before starting the actual inspection, the requirements of the inspection must be
determined.

A systematic inspection plan saves time and ensures that the inspection is complete and
appropriate for the material being evaluated.

As part of the planning process, the following questions should be considered:

What standards, codes, or specifications apply?

What requirements exist for record keeping to document that all the requirements of the
standards, codes, and specifications are met?

How is traceability maintained?

What knowledge and skills are required of the inspector?

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Are the physical stresses to which the object will be subjected during its service life known?

What special tools or techniques are required to perform the required inspections?

Is the lighting appropriate for the intended inspections?

Is access to the areas to be inspected adequate?

Assure appropriate personal protection equipment is available and used when performing
the inspections

Visual inspection is accomplished using

→ mirrors
→ weld inspection tools
→ comparison standards
→ magnification
→ dimensional measurements
→ optical dimensional inspection techniques
→ borescopes
→ etching
→ profilometers
→ hardness testing

Mirrors

Mirrors are one of the most common inspection aids because they allow for inspection
inside pipes and holes, and inside or behind many other objects.

In addition, they are extremely easy to use. The following points should be considered when
mirrors are used during inspection.

(a ) (b )

Mirrors for visual testing: (a) variety of shapes and sizes used in visual testing; (b) mirror
tilted at end of telescopic handle.

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Weld Inspection Tools

Fabrication weld inspection is a highly specialized field that requires an in-depth knowledge
of welding metallurgy, the welding process, welding symbols, and the requirements of the
applicable welding code.

Visual weld inspection for surf ace discontinuities and inspections to determine proper weld
joint configuration are performed using artificial light sources, mirrors, magnifiers, rules, and
specialized weld gages.

Comparison Standards

Comparison standards include go/no-go gages, transfer gages, and screw and pitch gages.
→ Plug gauges
→ Taper gauges
→ Feeler gauges
→ Pins
→ Surface roughness standard (Visual comparison / scratching the test piece)
→ Thread ring gages and thread plug gage

Steel ruler.

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Indirect transfer calipers.

Vernier scale.

Digital caliper.

Clamp ring Ratchet

Anvil Spindle

Barrel Thimble

Frame

Micrometer.

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Plug / Ring gauges

Tapper Plug gauges

Feeler gauges

Pins

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Surface roughness standard (Visual comparison / scratching the test piece)

Thread ring gages and thread plug gage

Screw threads on nuts, bolts, studs, tapped holes, and threaded pipe ends are inspected for
a variety of characteristics including threads per inch, pitch, major and minor diameters, and
form.

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Devices for magnification used in visual and optical inspections range in magnifying power
from 1.5X to well over 2000X

Magnifiers

Magnifiers are lenses that can be used to enlarge the image of an object.

The ratio of the virtual image to the real size x2/x1 is called magnification.

Magnifying glasses and loupes for visual testing.

Magnifiers are described by their

→ Magnification
→ Field of view
→ Working Distance
→ Depth of Field

The magnifying ability of a lens depends on the amount of curvature in the converging lens

Greater curvature produces a greater angle of refraction, which reduces the focal length,
thereby increasing the amount of magnification

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The power of a magnifier describes the amount of enlargement compared to viewing the
object 254 mm (10 in.) from the eye.

An object 25 mm (1 in.) from the eye would appear to be ten times as large as the same
object viewed at 254 mm (10 in.)

The magnifier that produces enough refraction to allow the eye to focus at this distance has
10 x magnification (10 power) and a focal length of 25 mm (1 in.). The amount of
magnification for a simple lens is determined by the formula:

where:
f = the focal length (millimeters)
M = magnification

The depth of field is the maximum range of distances that are in focus

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Magnification

Macrograph -10 x

Micrograph - Greater than 10 x

Laboratory microscopes normally range in power from 100x to 2000x and over

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Dimensional Measurement
→ Rules, Tape Measures
→ Calipers and Mechanical Gauges
→ Surface Plate Inspection
→ Dial Indicators

Optical Dimensional Inspection Techniques

→ Optical Flats
→ Optical Comparators
→ Autocollimators
→ Borescopes

Optical techniques are advantageous when measuring profiles and other characteristics that
require an assessment in two axis at the same time

Optical Flats

An optical flat produces interfering patterns of light that depend on the difference in the
location of the two reflecting surfaces formed by the bottom side of the flat and the test
piece surface.

The greater the difference between these two surfaces, the greater the number of
interference bands and the closer the spacing of the bands.

To produce sharply defined interference bands, a monochromatic light source should be

used

Optical Comparators

Optical comparators, or optical projectors, project an enlarged shadow of the test piece
onto a translucent glass screen.

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The profile being inspected must be exactly

perpendicular to the light source.

Any misalignment will produce an enlarged shadow

and geometric distortion. Poor alignment is
frequently visible as a fuzzy edge or a double image.

Resolution of up to 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in.) is

obtainable with corresponding accuracy depending
on the magnification level. Magnification levels of
10x, 20x, and 50x are common.

Auto Collimators

An autocollimator consists of an alignment telescope, a collimator, and a series of slits and

lenses used to produce a parallel or partially polarized light beam.

They are frequently used to check the flatness, straightness, or alignment of relatively large surfaces
such as large machine tool slides and aircraft airframe components.

An alignment telescope is used with a sighting target to determine if the area of interest is
displaced in the horizontal or vertical axis from the telescope's line of sight

A beam of parallel light is projected from the collimator and reflected off the target

If the target is perpendicular to the light beam from the collimator, the image will be exactly
aligned in the eyepiece

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Any change from perpendicular will displace the reflected image.

Both the angle from normal and the displacement from the normal plane can be calculated
when the distance to the surface being inspected is known

Machine Vision

Machine vision technology uses an imaging system and a computer to analyze an image and
to make decisions based on that analysis.

In inspection applications, the machine vision optics and imaging system enable the
processor to "see" objects precisely and thus make decisions about which component meet
a specific inspection criteria.

Machine vision can eliminate human factor error that might result from doing difficult,
tedious, or boring tasks. It also allows process equipment to be utilized 24 hours a day.

The following process steps are common to all machine vision applications:
→ Image acquisition: An optical system gathers an image, which is then converted to a
digital format and stored into computer memory.
→ Image processing: A computer processor uses various algorithms to enhance
elements of the image that are of specific importance to the process.
→ Feature extraction: The processor identifies and quantifies critical features in the
image (e.g., the position of holes on a printed circuit board, the number of pins in a
connector, the orientation of a component on a conveyor) and sends the data to a
control program.
→ Decision and control: The processor's control program makes decisions based upon
the data. Are the holes within specification? Is a pin missing?

Manipulator

Illumination Camera Objective lens

Mo nitor

Microphone Recorder Text generator

Digital printer

Components of remotely manipulated visual test system.

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As mentioned previously, machine vision is primarily used in production applications where

a large number of components require inspection and the inspection conditions can be
closely controlled. Uses include:
→ Assembly verification (caps, fasteners, electronic board components, etc.)
→ Surface inspection (dents, scratches, porosity and other undesirable features)
→ Verification of colors, gradients, patterns in fabrics and labels.
→ Confirmation of proper labelling for medications, foods and other products.
→ Inspection of coating coverage.
→ Feature measurements.

A variety of components are included in a machine vision system, which depend on the
environment, the application, and the budget. However, the following components are
common to all vision systems :
→ Front-end optics: this includes the lighting, the lens, and the camera.
→ Frame grabber: this is a computer processor board that accepts the video input from
the camera, digitizes it, and stores it for analysis.
→ Processor: A computer processor is required to control the vision application.
→ Control Software: Computer software is used for controlling and executing vision
tasks.

Advantages of Visual Inspection

→ Readily used on almost all materials.
→ Simple to perform.
→ Low in cost, (application dependent).
→ Relatively quick.
→ Results may be permanently recorded.
→ Can be automated

Limitations of Visual Inspection

→ Direct inspections are limited to surfaces only.
→ Indirect inspections require greater inspector knowledge and training.
→ Inspector dependent, knowledge of materials and processing, eye sight.
→ Standards (workmanship) may be difficult to obtain.

Endoscopes and Borescopes

Devices for viewing the interior of objects are called endoscopes. The first borescopes were
medical endoscopes turned to industrial applications for observation of the internal
structures and surfaces of a part or component.

Medical endoscopes and industrial borescopes share several features:

→ a source of illumination
→ a means of delivering an image to the viewer’s eye
→ adjustability to view a surface of interest

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In the world, an endoscope denotes a medical instrument, whereas borescope is the

preferred term for the same type of instrument used in NDT. However, the tendency in
industrial practice is to extend the term “endoscope” to visual inspection equipment for
NDT, as well.

Borescopes may be categorized into three groups:

→ rigid borescopes
→ fiber borescopes
→ video borescopes

Rigid Borescopes

A series of converging lenses is enclosed in a tube. The image is formed at the tip of the borescope by
the use of a lens, mirror, or prism.

The image is refracted from one lens to the next until it is focused on an image plane for viewing by a
human eye or a camera

Because they are rigid, they are fragile and cannot be used to see around comers.

Bending the case will destroy the functionality of the instrument

Lens system in representative rigid borescope.

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FL1 FL2
(1) (2) (3)

0
0´ 0´´
0´´´

Optical lens system in a borescope tube.

Image window

(a )
Light exit opening

Image window with Light exit opening

(b ) movable prism

Figure 5: Visual testing with a Figure 6: Borescope tips: (a) straight view;
rigid borescope. ( b) side view.

View

Light
View

(a ) (b )

View
View

Light Light

(c ) (d )

Borescope direction of view: (a) forward; (b) side; (c) forward oblique; (d) retrospective.
View angles range from 35° to 60° to 90°.

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Rigid borescope: (a) schematic; (b) in use.

Fiber optic Borescopes (Flexible)

Fiber optic borescopes consist of thousands of small optical glass or quartz fibers that are
assembled into a bundle.

The fibers are coated to create a large difference in the refractive indices between the fiber
and its surface, producing total internal reflection.

The signal is continuously reflected off the inside surface of the fiber for its entire length
with no loss of brightness

To properly transmit an image, the fiber bundle must be coherent. Each fiber must be in the
same location with respect to all the other fibers at each end of the bundle

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Transport of an image by a fiber bundle.

Ocular lens
Objective lens system
Exit surface
Entry surface
IR filter

Light source

(a)

(b)

Flexible or fiber borescope: (a) schematic showing entry and exit surfaces of glass fiber
bundle; (b) in use.

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Fiber optic borescope: (a) diagram; (b) instrument in use.

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Endoscopes

The medical community commonly refers to these devices (Borescope) as Endoscopes

Today, borescopes are commonly used in industrial environments where it is necessary to

inspect areas that would otherwise require disassembly or dismantling

The design of rigid borescopes is similar to that of a Telescope

(a)

(b)

Endoscope for: (a) straight inspection; and (b) curved inspection.

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Etching

Etching is the removal of surface material by chemical means

This process is commonly used with metallic substances

Etching removes layers of surface contamination to clean or prepare parts for visual or
penetrant examination or to prepare a test specimen for metallography

Profilometers

Profilometers are used to measure surface roughness or texture

Hardness Testing

While hardness testing is not considered to be a visual inspection, visual inspectors

frequently perform these tests when they have the necessary training and skill required to
conduct hardness tests.

Hardness is defined as a material's resistance to penetration.

Property of a material but it is related to its elastic and plastic properties.

→ Brinell Hardness Testing
→ Rockwell Hardness Testing
→ Micro hardness Testing
→ Vickers Hardness Testing
→ Mohs Hardness Scale

Optical and Tactile Comparisons

Evaluations of the quality and roughness of surface finishes may be made after mechanical
operations such as drilling, grinding, or polishing.

At jobs or on a construction site, there is often no need for exact measurements; an

approximate assessment of the roughness

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is sufficient. Therefore, a simple visual comparison with a reference block or a standard

block is much easier.

MSS quality standard for comparing cast surface finishes.

Measuring surface roughness.

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Weld Inspection:

Weld Crown
metal
Base metal HAZ (reinforcement )
HAZ

Fusion line Root

Cross section through a typical fusion weld including heataffected zone (HAZ).

1/4
SMAW
1/4 G

Completed weld joint

Welding symbols.

Welding joints: (a) butt joint; (b) T joint; (c) lap joint.
The welded joint can be produced in different ways depending on the shape of groove and
the angle of bevel prepared for welding, as shown in Figure 4.

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Fillet Square groove

Square groove Bevel groove Vee groove

J-groove U-groove

Weld grooves.

Transverse crack in weld

and heat-affected zone

Star-shaped
crater crack

Centerline crack
Toe crack

Root crack

Typical weld cracks.

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(a ) (b )

(c)

Three types of weld porosity: (a) single pore; (b) clustered; (c) aligned.

(a ) (b)

(c )

Visual appearance of cracks: (a) crater crack; (b) centerline crack; (c) heat-affected zone
HAZ crack.

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(a)

(b)
.

Two locations of slag inclusions: (a) in toe along fusion line; (b) centerline in weld face.

(a )

(b ) (c)

Visual appearance of root discontinuities: (a) root retraction or suckback; (b) root
convexity or drop-through; (c) incomplete penetration.

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(a ) (b ) (c )

Root discontinuities in weld: (a) incomplete penetration = root slit is not fused; (b) root
retraction = incomplete wetting or suck-back; (c) excessive root, too large root slit = drops
of weld metal at root.

(a)

(b)

Two types of weld undercut: (a) crown; Visual appearance of undercut

(b) root.

(a ) (b )

Overfill of the weld groove: (a) schematic; (b) actual weld.

(a) (b )

Two types of weld misalignment: (a) linear misalignment; (b) angular misalignment.

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(a)

(b)

Weld misalignment: (a) linear; (b) angular.

Weld spatter.

Arc Strike

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Grinding cracks: (a) photograph of grinding cracks in a weld whose crown has been
removed; (b) illustration showing the grinding process; (c) illustration showing the effect
of excessive grinding.

Hammer marks.

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Sensor

Light source

(a)

(b)

Visual examination of a poorly reflecting (textured) surface:

(a) diagram; (b) crack next to a weld.

(a) (b)

High-low gage for measuring: (a) internal misalignment; (b) root weld space.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Cambridge gage: (a) 0° to 60° angle of preparation; (b) excess weld metal in
reinforcement; (c) pitting or depth of undercut;
(d) fillet weld throat size; (e) high/low misalignment.

(a)

(b)

Cambridge gage: (a) being used to measure weld reinforcement;

(b) setting for fillet weld measurement.

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VWAC gage.

Palmgren displacement weld gage.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Uses of palmgren gage for measuring: (a) leg length of fillet weld; (b) convexity of fillet
weld; (c) concavity of fillet weld; (d) crown reinforcement of butt weld.

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Set of fillet weld gages.

VWAC gage.

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(a) (b)

Tools for measuring pore diameter: (a) gage with boreholes;

(b) transparency with stepwise circles.

(a) (b)

Tools for measuring crown height: (a) palmgren gage; (b) cambridge gage.

Theoretical throat

Size
(a)

Theoretical throat
Leg length
Leg length

(b) Leg length

Gaging and sizing of fillet welds: (a) concave; (b) convex.

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Determining weld acceptability with wire and disk.

Surface comparators.

1 2

(a)

1 2

(b)

1 2

(c)
4
3

Discontinuities in the rolling process: (a) rolling lap (1→2); (b) centreline delamination
(1→2); (c) segregation (1→2) and inclusion laminations (3→4).

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(a) (b)

Discontinuities in rolled products: (a) laps on a wire after rolling; (b) cross section of a rod
with an overlap.

Rolled-in scale: marks on the rolled surface varying in shape, thickness, and frequency. The
rolled-in scale originates from the inherent surface scaling of the stock before or during hot
rolling or heat treatment.

(a ) (b )

Figure 16: Scale: (a) macrophotograph (plate); (b) visual appearance (wire).

(a ) (b)

Figure 17: Scratches: (a) surface; (b) cross section.

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(a) (b)

Cracks: (a) linear; (b) branching.

(a) (b)

Roll marks: (a) surface; (b) cross section.

(a) (b)

Shells: (a) surface; (b) macrophotograph (metallographic).

(a) (b)

Slivers and spills: (a) surface; (b) cross section.

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Seams (two examples).

2 in. (50 mm)

2 in. (50 mm)

2 in. (50 mm)

2 in. (50 mm)

Line drawn around discontinuity to determine the area to be excavated

(B5 EN 10163-1:2004).

4 in. (100 mm) 1.5 in. (38 mm)

4 in. (100 mm)

1.5 in. (38 mm)

Affected zone of multiple linear discontinuities

(B5 EN 10163-1:2004).

(a) (b)

Steps of a welding job: (a) plates; (b) rounded plate tack-welded.

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(a) (b)

Weld repair: (a) excavation area with hammers and welding electrodes; (b) welder doing
repair welding.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(c)

(d)

Tension

Compression (b)
(e)
Figure 1: Basic types of mechanical loads: Figure 2: Types of fractures
(a) tensile stress; (b) compressive stress; involving deformation: (a) ductile; (c) torsional
stress; (d) shear stress; (b) brittle fracture. (e) bending.

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(a) (b)

Bolt discontinuities: (a) bolt showing deformation (necking down); (b) bolt broken
directly under the head with only minor deformation.

F T
F
F0

α t
(a) t (b)

Types of forces: (a) application of a constant load (F = force; t = time); (b) cyclic load (F0 =
maximum force in one direction; T = full cycle).

Fracture surface of fatigue damage with weave patterns (bar).

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Progressive stages of creep:

(a) inch-worm analogy; (b) direction of stress.

(a) (b)

Discontinuities of crack-oven tubes:

(a) deformation under high temperatures; (b) cross section.

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Oxide

Metal
100 µm
(a ) (b)

Degraded part of a heat exchanger: (a) with holes due to through-wall oxidation;
(b) section of metal with oxide layers.

(a ) (b )

Thermal fatigue: (a) visual appearance; (b) cross section with cracks.

(a )

(b )

General corrosion: (a) in a vessel wall; (b) inside surface of boiler tube.

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5 mm
(a)

(b)

Pitting: (a) area with pitting cluster; (b) a single through-wall pit.

(a)

(b)

Visual appearance of stress-corrosion cracking: (a) cracking area enhanced by liquid

penetrant testing (PT); (b) magnetic particle testing (MT) indications.

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Part of a rotating machine showing wear.

(a)

(b)

Schematic of the flow pattern of a liquid causing erosion: (a) liquid surface;
(b) action of liquid on solid component.

(a) (b)

Erosion: (a) photograph of eroded area (external surface); (b) evidence of erosion by
droplets from the nozzle into the tube (internal surface).

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Erosion corrosion on a water turbine wheel, showing pits in the grooves.

Pump impeller material damage caused by cavitation.

Cavitated turbine blades.

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Surface shrinkage in a Surface porosity in a casting

casting (MSS SP-55). (MSS SP-55).

(a) (b)

Endoscopic images of a casting for quality assurance: (a) rough discontinuities; (b) fine
discontinuities.

SCRATA replica for identification of cold shuts.

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Visual Inspection Applications:

Visual inspection of fabricated pipes on a table.

Light source
Sensor

LU
E
LB
E

fR,B

fR,U
(a)

(b)

Reflectivity from a crack: (a) diagram;

(b) photograph of cracks in a wind power mill gear box.

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Video borescope in use.

7.29 mm

1.05 mm

Measurement with a video borescope.

(a ) (b )

Remote visual inspection of nuclear facility: (a) subsea camera; (b) inspection area.

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Video borescope with cold light source and glass fiber guide.

Visual testing of a casting.

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Crawlers are used to explore pipelines, steam headers, small tanks, and pressure vessels.
Problems can occur when debris or sharp bends limit the space to move forward or even to
turn.

Pipe crawler: (a) side-view diagram; (b) application.

Visual testing with a screen.

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Submersible remotely operated vehicle (ROV) unit being prepared for visual inspection
(Westinghouse ROV MIDAS VI).

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