2.

The Solar system

The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)

Earlier Theories
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Nebular Hypothesis (Theory) of Laplace (1796) tried to explain
the formation of the solar system. But it had many drawbacks as the theory was based on scientifically
erroneous assumptions. But one assumption it got right was that the solar system was born from a giant
interstellar cloud called nebula (a vast, swirling cloud of gas and dust).
• In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a result, a
cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As the passing star moved away,
the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and slowly condensed
into planets. Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this argument.
• In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the Nebular Hypothesis.
They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly hydrogen and helium
along with what may be termed as dust. The friction and collision of particles led to the formation of a
disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of accretion.
• The most popular argument is the Big Bang Theory (expanding universe hypothesis (Edwin Hubble,
in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding)). It was followed up by the Nuclear Disc Model
(Neo-Laplacian model) which dealt primarily with the formation of the solar system.

• According to the Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model), the nebula started its collapse and core
formation some 5-5.6 billion years ago, and the Sun and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion
years ago (the age of the earth is 4.543 billion years).

The Formation of the Sun

• The nebula began to collapse (gravitational collapse) in on itself after becoming gravitationally unstable.
This was possibly because of a nearby supernova sending shock waves rippling through space.
• Gravity then caused dust and gas to coalesce to the centre of the nebular cloud. As more matter got pulled
in, the centre got denser and hotter, increasing the gravity and pulling even more dust inwards causing a
snowball effect.
• About 99.9% of the material fell into the centre and became the protosun (no sunlight yet). Once the
centre of the cloud became hot enough it triggered nuclear fusion, and the Sun was born. The 0.1% of
matter that remained orbited around the Sun, causing the randomly shaped gas cloud to form a flat disc
shape. This flat disc, called the protoplanetary disc, was where the planets formed.
17

The Formation of the Planets

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• Within the solar nebula, the dust particles in the gas occasionally collided and clumped together. Through
this accretion process, the microscopic particles formed larger bodies that eventually became planetesi-
mals (infant stage of a planet) with sizes up to a few kilometres across.
• As the disc continued to cool, the planetesimals grew through accretion to form protoplanets. Gradually
they got larger and larger, sweeping up all the leftover dust, other protoplanets, and planetesimals until
they grew into the planets.

• In the inner, hotter part of the solar nebula, planetesimals were composed mostly of silicates and metals.
This hot, rocky material near the centre of the solar system gave rise to terrestrial planets with metal
cores (mostly composed of iron and nickel): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
• In the outer, cooler portion of the nebula, water ice was the dominant component. This gave rise to the
gas and ice giants: Saturn, Jupiter, Neptune, and Uranus.
• Rocks that escaped the pull of planets were left as asteroids, scattered through the solar system. Many of
these rocks orbit the Sun in an area between Mars and Jupiter known as the asteroid belt.

Iron Catastrophe and Planetary Differentiation

• When Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago, it was a uniform ball of hot rock. Radioactive decay and
leftover heat (primordial heat) from planetary formation caused the ball to get even hotter. Eventually,
after about 500 million years, our young planet’s temperature heated to the melting point of iron — about
1,538° Celsius. This pivotal moment in Earth’s history is called the iron catastrophe.
• The iron catastrophe allowed the greater, more rapid movement of Earth’s molten, rocky material. Rela-
18

tively buoyant materials, such as silicates, water, and even air, stayed close to the planet’s exterior. Droplets
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 of iron, nickel and other heavy metals gravitated to Earth’s centre, becoming the early core. This im-
portant process is called planetary differentiation.

[UPSC Prelims 2009] In the structure of planet Earth, below the mantle, the core is mainly
made up of which one of the following?
a) Aluminium
b) Chromium
c) Iron
d) Silicon

2.2. Components of the Solar System

• Our solar system consists of the sun, eight planets, dwarf planets (Pluto, Ceres, Eris), satellites & count-
less minor planets, asteroids, meteors, comets, etc.

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• Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric solar system —
an astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Who amongst the following was the first to state that the earth was
spherical?
a) Aristotle
b) Copernicus
c) Ptolemy
d) Strabo
20

Explanation:
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 • The idea of a spherical Earth was floated by Pythagoras around 500 BC & later validated by Aristotle in
340 BC.
• Ptolemy placed the Earth at the centre of his geocentric model of the solar system. Nicolaus Coper-
nicus refuted the geocentric model with his heliocentric model.
• Strabo is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented a descriptive history of
people and places from different regions of the world know during his lifetime.

• Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The
planets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects (like Pluto) are frequently
at greater angles to it.
• The orbits of the planets around the sun are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper
belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
2. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of
its orbit.

Planet Surface Period of Period of Dis- Diameter (km) Size Moons Density Specific
Temp in Rotation Revolution tance in Rank (gm/cm3) gravity
֯C AU (m/s2)

58 days 87 days 0.4 4,878 0.38 8 0 3.7 0.38

1. Mercury +427 5.4

243 days 224 days 0.7 12,104 0.95 6 0 8.9 0.9

21

2. Venus +480 5.2

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 23:56 hrs 365 days 1 12,756 1.00 5 1 9.8 1
3. Earth +22 5.5

1.025 687 days 1.5 6,787 0.53 7 2 3.7 0.38

4. Mars -23 3.9
days
9.9 hrs 11.9 years 5.2 11.19 1 79 24.9 2.53
5. Jupiter -150 1.3
1,40,000
10.7 hrs 29 years 9.6 1,16,000 9.46 2 82 10.4 1.06
6. Saturn -180 0.7

17 hrs 84 years 19.2 51,000 4.11 3 27 8.8 0.9

7. Uranus -214 1.3

16 hrs 164 years 30.0 48,000 3.88 4 14 11.1 1.13

8. Nep- -220
1.6
tune

Pluto -223 6.39 days 248 years 39.5 2,377 0.18 9 5 1.9 0.6 0.06
(dwarf)
Some of the values given in the table are rounded off.

2.3. The Sun

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• Age: 4.6 billion years; Diameter: 1.39 million km
• Temperature: 6000 °C on the surface and 16 million °C in the core
• Density: 1.41 times that of water (density of water = 999.97 kg/m³; earth’s overall density is 5.5 times that
of water)
• The surface gravity of the Sun is 274 m/s2 (28 times the gravity of the Earth). Comparatively, the surface
gravity of the earth and moon are 9.8 m/s2 and 1.62 m/s2 respectively.
• Speed of rotation: 7179.73 km/hrs. Comparatively, earth’s rotational velocity is 1675Km/hrs.
• Period of rotation: 25 days 9 hrs.
• Rotation: counter clockwise (when viewed from a long way above Earth's north pole).
• Mass: equivalent to 3,32,900 Earth masses.
• Composition: 98% of the sun is hydrogen & helium.
• Most of the solar system's mass is in the Sun (~99.8%), with most of the remaining mass contained in
Jupiter and Saturn. Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of
the angular momentum due to the differential rotation within the gaseous Sun.

The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere

• The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and convective zone. The
solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona (solar wind is
an outflow of gas from the corona).

Photosphere
• The photosphere is an extremely uneven bright outer layer of the Sun that emits most of the radiation.
The effective temperature on the outer side of the photosphere is 6000°C.

Chromosphere
• Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. It is a thin layer of burning gases. It is a bit cooler — 4,320
֯C.

Sunspot
• Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots
compared to surrounding regions. They appear as dark areas because they are about 500-1500 °C cooler
than the surrounding chromosphere. They correspond to concentrations of the magnetic field that in-
hibit convection & result in reduced surface temperature compared to the surrounding photosphere.
• Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven years. The point of highest sunspot activity during this cycle
is known as Solar Maximum, and the point of the lowest activity is Solar Minimum.
• The individual sunspot has a lifetime ranging from a few days to a few months. Each spot has a black
centre or umbra, and a lighter region or penumbra, surrounding it. It has been suggested that the Sun is
23
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 1% cooler when it has no sunspot and that this variation in solar radiation might affect the climates of
the Earth.

Solar Wind
• The solar wind is made of plasma (ionised atoms), a stream of energised, charged particles, primarily
electrons and protons, flowing outward from the Sun at speeds as high as 900 km/s and at a temperature
of 1 million °C.

Plasma
• Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, the others being solid, liquid, and gas. It is ionised
gas (atoms and molecules are converted into ions typically by removing one or more electrons from the
outer shell).
• Lightning and electric sparks are everyday examples of phenomena made from plasma.
• Neon lights could more accurately be called ‘plasma lights’ because the light comes from the plasma
inside of them.

Aurora

• An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic)
regions (due to magnetic field lines of earth and solar wind).
• Auroras are caused by charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, entering the atmosphere from
24

above causing ionisation and excitation of atmospheric constituents, and consequent optical emissions.
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Solar Flares
• Solar are magnetic storms which appear to be very bright spots with a gaseous surface eruption. As
solar flares are pushed through the corona, they heat its gas to anywhere from 10 to 20 million °C.

Solar Prominence
• An arc of gas that erupts from the surface of the Sun is called solar prominence. Prominences can loop
hundreds of thousands of miles into space. They are held above the Sun's surface by strong magnetic
fields and can last for many months.

Corona
• A corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other celestial bodies. The
Sun's corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen during a total solar eclipse.

2.4. Planets

• A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star is known as a planet. The planets of our solar
system are divisible in two groups:
1. the planets of the inner circle (as they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids) or the inner
planets or the ‘terrestrial planets’ (meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and metals, and
have relatively high densities) and
2. the planets of the outer circle or outer planets or the ‘gas giant planets’ or the Jovian planets –
meaning Jupiter-like or more like the sun.
• The inner circle consists of four planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) having smaller and denser bod-
ies. The outer circle comprises four planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) having a larger size and
less dense materials and a thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen.
• All eight planets in the Solar System orbit (revolve) the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which is
counter-clockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole.
• Six of the eight planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction (counter-clockwise). Venus and
25

Uranus have a strange retrograde rotation (clockwise), i.e., opposite of the sun’s rotation.
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An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, which is about 150 million km.
[UPSC Prelims 1998] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer by using the
codes given below the lists:
List-II
List-I
(Planet)
(Special characteristic)
1. Earth
A. Smallest planet
2. Venus
B. Largest planet in the solar system
3. Jupiter
C. Planet second from the sun in the solar system
4. Mercury
D. Planet nearest to the Sun in the solar system

Codes:
a) A-2; B-3; C-5; D-1
b) A-3; B-5; C-1; D-2
c) A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
d) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1

[UPSC Prelims 2002] Which one of the following statements is correct with reference to our
solar system?
a) The earth is the densest of all the planets in our solar system
b) The predominant element in the composition of earth is silicon
c) The sun contains 75 percent of the mass of the solar system
d) The diameter of the sun is 190 times that of the earth

[UPSC Prelims 2003] Among the following which planet takes maximum time for one revo-
lution around the Sun?
a) Earth
b) Jupiter
c) Mars
d) Venus

[UPSC Prelims 2008] In order of their distances from the Sun, which of the following plan-
ets lie between Mars and Uranus?
a) Earth and Jupiter
b) Jupiter and Saturn
c) Saturn and Earth
d) Saturn and Neptune

[UPSC Prelims 2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural sat-
26

ellites or moons?
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 a) Jupiter
b) Mars
c) Saturn
d) Venus

Inner Planets
• The four inner or terrestrial planets are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates,
which form their crusts and mantles, and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores.
• Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to gener-
ate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes.

The term inner planet should not be confused with the inferior planet, which designates those planets that are
closer to the Sun than Earth (i.e., Mercury & Venus).

Mercury
• Mercury's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon's, indicating that it
has been geologically inactive for billions of years (because there is no atmosphere on Mercury).
• When viewed from Earth, the planet can only be seen near the western or eastern horizon during the early
evening or early morning. It may appear as a bright star-like object but is less bright than Venus.
• Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than
on any other planet in the Solar System (−173 °C at night to 427 °C during the day).
• Mercury is smaller than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede (largest moon of
Jupiter) & Titan (largest moon of Saturn). However, Mercury is massive (has more mass) than Ganymede
& Titan.
• Images obtained by MESSENGER spacecraft in 2004 have revealed evidence for pyroclastic flows (vulcanic-
ity) and water ice at Mercury’s poles.

Venus
• Venus is the brightest planet in the solar system and is the third brightest object visible from the earth
after the sun and the moon. In ancient literature, Venus was often referred to as the morning & evening
star.
• It is the brightest among planets because it has the highest albedo due to the highly reflective sulfuric
acid that covers its atmosphere. It is sometimes visible to the naked eye in broad daylight.
• Venus is sometimes called Earth's sister planet or Earth's twin because of their similar size, mass, prox-
imity to the Sun, bulk composition and presence of similar physical features such as high plateaus, folded
mountain belts, and numerous volcanoes, etc.
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• It is radically different from Earth in other respects. The surface of Venus is totally obscured by a thick
atmosphere composed of about 96% carbon dioxide, covered with clouds of highly reflective sulfuric
acid.
• It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's
surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth.
• Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. This is
because of the greenhouse effect arising from high concentrations of CO2 and a thick atmosphere.
• A day on Venus is equivalent to 243 earth days and lasts longer than its year (224 days). It rotates in the
opposite direction (clockwise) to most other planets.

[UPSC Prelims 2005] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): Existence of human life on Venus is highly improbable.
 Reason (R): Venus has extremely high level of carbon dioxide in its atmosphere.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Moon
• The diameter of the moon is only one-quarter that of the earth and it is about 3,84,400 km away.
• The moon is tidally locked (the object's orbital period matches its rotational period) to the earth,
meaning that the moon revolves around the earth in about 27 days which is the same time it takes to
complete one spin. As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth.
• The moon is a significant stabiliser of Earth's orbital axis. Without it, Earth's tilt could vary as much as
85° (at present the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5° relative to the orbital plane).

Formation of the Moon

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• It is now generally believed that the formation of the moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of a
‘giant impact’ or what is described as ‘the big splat’.
• A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided with the earth sometime shortly after the
earth was formed. It blasted a large part of the earth into space. This portion of blasted material then
continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
• Scientists estimate that a day in the life of early Earth was only about 6 hours long and the Moon formed
much closer to Earth than it is today.

Effects on Earth
• As Earth rotates, the Moon's gravity causes the oceans to seem to rise and fall. There is a little bit of friction
between the tides & the turning Earth, causing the earth’s rotation to slow down just a little (1.4 milli-
seconds in 100 years). As Earth slows, it lets the Moon move away by a little (four cm per year).

Colonizing the Moon

• Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 with the Soviet Union's Luna program.
• Luna 2 made a hard landing (impact) on its surface and became the first artificial object on the moon.
• Crewed exploration of the lunar surface began in 1968 when the Apollo 8 spacecraft orbited the Moon.
• Neil Armstrong was the first, and Buzz Aldrin was the second to step on the surface of the moon on 29
July 1969 (Apollo 11 mission). To date, only Twelve astronauts walked on the Moon's surface.
• Discovery of lunar water at the lunar poles by Chandrayaan-1 in 2009 has renewed interest in the
Moon. The Chandrayaan probe discovered that the lunar soil contains 0.1% water by weight.

Advantages of Colonising the Moon

• A lunar base could be a site for launching rockets with locally manufactured fuel to distant planets.

There are Several Disadvantages to the Moon as a Colony Site

• The long lunar nights (350+ hours) would impede reliance on solar power. However, the lunar poles avoid
the problem of long lunar nights.
• The Moon is highly depleted in carbon and volatile elements, such as nitrogen and hydrogen.
• The low gravity on the Moon will have adverse effects on human health in the long term.
• The lack of a substantial atmosphere results in temperature extremes, harmful radiation reaching the
surface and increased chances of the colony's being hit by meteors.
• Growing crops on the Moon is difficult due to the long lunar night, extreme variation in surface tem-
perature, exposure to solar flares, nitrogen-poor soil, and lack of insects for pollination.

Mars
• Mars is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because of the reddish iron oxide prevalent on its surface.
29

It can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye.

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• Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the
solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density.
• The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along
with traces of oxygen, methane, and water.
• Methane can exist in the Martian atmosphere for only a limited period before it is destroyed by the solar
wind. Its presence despite its short lifetime indicates that an active gas source must be present. Geological
means such as serpentinization (reactions in rocks), volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the pres-
ence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources.
• Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts
of the two planets' rotational axes.
• The lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars is a challenge: the planet has
little heat transfer across its surface and poor insulation against the bombardment of the solar wind.
• Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that the atmosphere was once thick and dense and liquid
water existed on the planet's surface. However, now, liquid water can no longer exist on the surface of
Mars due to low atmospheric pressure (less than 1% of the Earth's). Whatever water is left is locked in
the two polar ice caps.
• Mars has surface features like impact craters, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps. It is the site of Olympus
Mons (shield volcano), the largest volcano and the highest known mountain (24 km) in the Solar
System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System.
• Mars is nearly geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and
minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.
• Mars has two irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are thought to be captured asteroids.

Mars Compared to Earth

• 53% of the diameter of Earth
• 10% of the mass of Earth
• Surface gravity on Mars is only 38% of Earth’s gravity.
• A day on Mars lasts 1.03 Earth days.
• Axial tilt on Mars is 25.19° (close to Earth’s 23.5° tilt).
• A year on Mars lasts about twice as long as an Earth year; the seasons are twice as long.
• The atmosphere of Mars (95% carbon dioxide) is less than 1% the thickness of Earth’s atmosphere.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] Which one of the following conditions is most relevant for the pres-
ence of life on Mars?
a) Atmospheric composition
b) Thermal conditions
30

c) Occurrence of ice caps and frozen water

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 d) Occurrence of ozone
• Hint: on earth, prokaryotes (their cells lack a nucleus) were the earliest life forms. They fed on carbon
compounds that were accumulating in Earth's early oceans.

[UPSC Prelims 2006] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): To orbit around the Sun the planet Mars takes lesser time than the time
taken by the earth.
 Reason (R): The diameter of the planet Mars is less than that of earth.
a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true and ‘R’ is the correct explanation of ‘A’.
b) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true but ‘R’ is not the correct explanation of ‘A’.
c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false.
d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true.

Outer Planets
• Outer Planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the dwarf planet – Pluto. The four outer planets,
called the gas giants, collectively make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun. They are composed
mainly of hydrogen & helium & lack a solid surface. Their moons are, however, solid.
• The two outermost planets, Uranus, and Neptune are composed of substances called ices, such as water,
ammonia and methane, and are often referred to separately as ice giants.
• All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The gas
giants have a magnetosphere, numerous moons, and significant atmospheric activity.
• Neptune has the strongest wind speed (2,100 km/h) followed by Saturn (1,800 km/h).

Why are the Inner Planets Rocky while the Outer Planets are Mostly in Gaseous Form?
• The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too warm for
gases on the surface to condense to solid particles.
• The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the surface of the
terrestrial planets. The terrestrial planets are smaller, and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping
gases. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian planets.

Jupiter
• It is composed mostly of gas & liquid swirling in complex patterns with no solid surface. Because of its
rapid rotation (once every 10 hours), the planet's shape resembles an oblate spheroid (slight bulge at the
equator).
• Jupiter’s four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) are called the Galilean satellites because
Galileo discovered them. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite (5,268 km in diameter) in this solar
31

system. It is larger than Mercury, and three times larger than the earth’s Moon (3,474 km in diameter,
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the fifth largest moon). The latest probe to visit Jupiter is Juno.
Saturn
• Saturn’s density is even lesser than water. Its rings are probably made up of billions of ice particles and
ice-covered rocks.
• Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System, and it is the only satellite in the Solar System with a
substantial atmosphere (nitrogen-rich).

Uranus
• In contrast to all other planets, it is tipped and spins on its sides. Its axis of rotation lies in nearly the
plane of its orbit (the poles of Uranus lie in a plane where equators of other planets lie).

Neptune
• Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) are called the twins of the outer solar system. They are surrounded
by a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium and contain a higher proportion of "ices" such as water,
ammonia, and methane ice giants" to emphasise this distinction.

2.5. Other Solar System Objects

Asteroid Belt
• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational in-
terference of Jupiter. They circle the Sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter. The circular chain of
asteroids is called the asteroid belt. It lies between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun.
• Asteroids (planetoids ― another term for an asteroid) are composed mainly of refractory rocky and me-
tallic minerals, with some ice. They range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic.

Ceres
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid (946 km in diameter), a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet. It has a
mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape. All asteroids, except Ceres, are
classified as small Solar System bodies.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] The group of small pieces of rock revolving round the sun between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter are called:
a) Meteors
b) comets
c) meteorites
d) asteroids

[UPSC Prelims 1998] Consider the following statements regarding asteroids:

32

1. Asteroids are rocky debris of varying size orbiting the sun

2. Most of the asteroids are small, but some have diameters as large and 1000 km
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 3. The orbit of asteroids lies between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn

Of these statements:
a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
b) 2 and 3 are correct
c) 1 and 2 are correct
d) 1 and 3 are correct

Explanation:
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid with a diameter of 946 km. Vesta (525 km) is the second largest.
So, only statement (1) is correct. Since this question was asked in 1998, the answer was (c) 1 & 2 only.

Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon

• The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris like the asteroid belt but consists mainly of objects composed
primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
• Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Charon is Pluto's largest moon. When dis-
covered in 1930, Pluto was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006 with the adoption of a
formal definition of a planet.
• International Astronomical Union’s definition of a planet: a Planet is an object that:
1. orbits the sun;
2. has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium ― a nearly round shape;
3. is not a satellite (moon) of another object, and
4. has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit
• IAU’s definition of Dwarf planet: Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary criteria except that it
has not cleared debris from its orbital neighbourhood.
• Pluto is a part of the Kuiper belt that contains millions of rocky and icy objects. Also, there are numerous
other objects in the Kuiper belt which are of similar size to Pluto. E.g., Eris (diameter: 2,326 km).
• So, if Pluto is considered a plant, then many other objects like Eris will also have to be considered planets.
Hence, Pluto (diameter: 2,377 km) (Kuiper belt) was voted by IAU as a dwarf planet just like Ceres
(asteroid belt) and Eris (diameter: 2,326 km) (Kuiper belt).

Comets

• Comets are icy frozen gases (water, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide) which hold together small
pieces of rocky and metallic minerals. They have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the planets which have
near-circular orbits.
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• Short-period comets, with an orbital period of a few hundred years, originate in the Kuiper belt. Longer
period comets, with orbits of thousands of years, come from the more distant Oort Cloud.
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 Oort cloud is a giant shell of icy bodies that encircle the solar system occupying space at a distance between
5,000 and 100,000 AU.
• When passing close to the Sun, comets heat up due to the effects of the solar wind upon the nucleus and
begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail.
• One of the larger comets is Halley's Comet. The orbit of Halley's Comet brings it close to the Earth every
76 years. It last visited in 1986.

[UPSC Prelims 2011] What is difference between asteroids and comets?

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1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky
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and metallic material.

 2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly
between Venus and Mercury.
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

• A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from asteroids, comets or other celestial objects and floats
through interplanetary space.
• A meteor, popularly termed a shooting star or falling star, is the streak of light that appears in the sky
when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere (mesosphere) at about 200 km at high speed and burns up
because of the friction.
• In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up completely and makes its way to the Earth’s surface.
The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.
• The circular depression created on the earth’s surface after the meteorite’s impact is called a meteorite
crater. Meteorite impacts are common on all planets and moons in the solar system.
• The most conspicuous meteorite craters can be found on the surfaces of the Moon and Mercury (because
they are geologically inactive due to negligible atmosphere).
• Largest Meteor Crater: A meteor crater in Arizona (USA) is 1,300 m deep and is the largest meteor crater
in the world. It was formed over 10,000 years ago.

Chicxulub Crater

• Chicxulub crater (Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula) was caused by a meteor impact that is believed to
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have wiped out the dinosaurs (mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous 65 million years ago).
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 Meteorite Craters in India
 Lonar Lake (a Ramsar Site) (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana District of Maharashtra
 Dhala crater (14 km in diameter) in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh and
 Ramgarh crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a potential meteorite crater in the Kota plateau in Rajasthan.

[UPSC Prelims 1995] A meteor is:

a) a rapidly moving star
b) a piece of mater which has entered the earth's atmosphere from outer space
c) part of a constellation
d) a comet without a tail

2.6. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun?

• Proxima Centauri (4.2 light-years away), a red dwarf, is the closest star to the sun. It is a part of Alpha
Centauri (4.37 lya), a system of three stars — Alpha Centauri A, Alpha Centauri B & Proxima Centauri.
• Proxima Centauri has been the nearest star for about 32,000 years, and it will hold this record for another
33,000 years. After 33,000 years from now, the nearest star will be Ross 248.
• Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are a binary pair, orbiting a common centre of gravity. Alpha Cen-
tauri A is just a little more massive and brighter than the Sun, and Alpha Centauri B is slightly less massive
than the Sun.
• Alpha Centauri is only visible in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the closest
visible star is Barnard’s Star (second closest), a red dwarf which is too dim just like Proxima Centauri to
see with the unaided eye.
• The closest star that one can see with the naked eye in the Northern Hemisphere is Sirius (Dog Star). Sirius
is the second brightest star when viewed from the earth, the brightest being the sun.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] Which one of the following stars is nearest to the Earth?
a) Polaris
b) Alpha Centauri
c) Sun
d) Sirius

How do Astronomers Measure the Distance to Stars?

• Astronomers use a technique called parallax. They measure the angle to a star when the Earth is on one
side of its orbit. Then wait for six months until the Earth has moved to the opposite side of its orbit, and
then measure the angle to the star compared to some distant reference object.
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 Parallax Method

2.7. Heliopause — The Boundary?

• What defines the boundary of the solar system? Sun's light? The influence of the Sun's gravity? Or the
influence of the Sun's magnetic field & the solar wind? There is no definite boundary where the light or
gravity stops or where they suddenly get weaker. The solar wind is however different from light or gravity.
As it streams away from the Sun, it races out against the interstellar medium ― space between the stars
permeated by hydrogen and helium gas).
• Even though the interstellar medium has a low density, it still has a pressure (similar to air pressure). The
solar wind also has pressure. It blows against the interstellar medium and creates a bubble-like region.
This bubble that surrounds the solar system is called the heliosphere (not a sphere in the true sense).
• Since the Sun is moving relative to the interstellar medium around it, the heliosphere forms a wave or
shock in the interstellar medium like a boat in the ocean. This is called the bow shock or wave.
• The region where the solar wind begins to interact with the interstellar medium and begins to slow
down is called the heliosheath.
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• The heliosheath has a few parts: the termination shock (the innermost part of the boundary), the helio-
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pause (the outermost part of the boundary) and the part in between the inner and outer boundary.
• The termination shock is the boundary where the solar wind particles slow down so that the particles are
travelling slower than the speed of sound.
• At the heliopause ― the boundary of the heliosphere, the pressure from the interstellar medium is strong
enough to slow down and eventually stop the flow of solar wind.
• Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock at 94 astronomical units (AU) and Voyager 2 crossed at 84 AU.

2.8. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System

• Here are the major artificial objects that have achieved escape velocity that will allow them to leave the
Solar System. Voyagers continue communicating with the Deep Space Network to receive routine com-
mands & return data.
 The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of U.S. spacecraft communication facilities,
located in the California, Madrid, and Canberra, that supports NASA's interplanetary spacecraft missions.

Launch Significant event Objective Current sta- Distance

Space probe
year tus from the Sun
in AU
Pioneer 10 1972 Flew past Saturn in 1979 Study the asteroid belt, the Contact lost ~ 120 AU
environment around Jupiter in 2003
Pioneer 11 1973 Flew past Saturn in 1979 and Saturn, solar wind and ~ 90 AU
Contact lost
cosmic rays.
in 1995
Voyager 2 Aug 1977 Passed the heliopause in Explore all Jovian planets. Active ~ 129 AU
December 2018 to enter in- Extended mission of both (as of Jan
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terstellar space (second the Voyagers is to study the 2022)

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 artificial object to leave the outer reaches of the Solar
solar system). System.
Voyager 1 Sep 1977 Passed the heliopause in Explore Jupiter, Saturn, and Active ~ 155 AU (as
2012 to enter interstellar Saturn's largest moon, Titan. of Jan 2022)
space (first artificial object
to leave the solar system).
New Horizons 2006 Flew past Pluto in 2015. It is To perform a study of Pluto, Active ~ 53 AU (as
currently travelling through and more other Kuiper of Jan 2022)
Kuiper belt. belt objects.
Juno 2011 Entered a polar orbit of Study Jupiter's composition, Active —
Jupiter in 2016 gravitational field, magnetic
field, etc.

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