9/29/2025
Automotive Vehicles
(BMEE213E)
Module : 5 Braking System 4 hours
Venugopal T
Professor
School of Mechanical Engineering
Mudule-5
Module : 5 Braking System 4 hours
Load transfer, brake force distribution, stopping distance,
Types of brakes - disc & drum brakes,
Actuation - mechanical, hydraulic, air, engine brakes,
Anti-lock braking system (ABS),
Electronic brake force distribution (EBD),
Traction control system (TCS),
Electronic stability program (ESP).
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Principle of Braking
The speed of the energy conversion controls the rate of retardation of
a vehicle (i.e. its rate of deceleration). Heat generation at the brake is
obtained by rubbing a fixed pad or shoe against a rotating object
driven by the motion of the vehicle.
In the early days, breaking was achieved by pressing a
wooden block against the steel tyre of a road wheel
Braking System
Modern vehicles’ braking systems are now electronically controlled by
ECU and this system is known as an anti-lock braking system (ABS)
Vehicles are required by law to be
Drum Brake fitted with an efficient braking Disc Brake
system; this usually means having a
brake (additional resistance)
attached to each wheel
Braking is achieved by converting the energy of motion (kinetic
energy) to heat energy, so exposure of the disc to the air stream
for cooling is an important feature of this type of brake
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Braking System
Drum Brake Disc Brake
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Disc Brake
As shown in Figure, it utilises opposed cylinders to apply force to the
friction pads and these pads apply a clamping force to the disc.
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Problem
In a disc brake, the hydraulic pistons are 50mm in diameter
and the effective radius of the brake disc is 150 mm.
Calculate the braking torque when the hydraulic pressure is
20 bar and the coefficient of friction is 0.4.
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Drum Brake
Figure shows the basic principle of a drum brake with one leading shoe
and one trailing shoe. The actuating force P is provided by a hydraulic
cylinder or cam. The shoes are pivoted at A1 and A2.
The action of force P creates a friction force between the rotating
brake drum and the brake lining. The friction force on the leading shoe
is μF and it acts tangentially to the drum. On the trailing shoe the
friction force is μF1.
The pivots are distance y from the centre of the drum and the
actuator force P is at distance X from the pivots. The drum radius is R.
The shoes are pivoted at A1 and A2
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Problem
In a certain drum brake the distance x is 12 cm, the
distance y is 24 cm and the drum radius is 14cm. If the
actuating force P is 800 Newtons and the coefficient of
friction is 0.4 calculate the effective friction forces on
each of the brake shoes.
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Inferences: The effective braking force on the leading shoe is
greater than that on the trailing shoe. It should be noted that this
effect is dependent on the direction of rotation of the brake drum,
which is the reason why two leading shoe brakes are less effective
when reversing a vehicle.
Drum Brakes
Advantages :
Durability: Since drum brakes have an increased friction
contact area, they last longer.
Low Cost: Drum brakes are cheaper to manufacture, hence
they are more widely used on almost all types of vehicles.
Low Input Force: Some drum brakes require low input force to
get them activated, meaning less push on the brake pedal, this
can be done through various means like hydraulic pressure.
Low maintenance: Due to better corrosion resistance, as they
are inside of a housing, they are slightly easier to maintain.
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Drum Brakes
Disadvantages
Overheat: Drum brakes tend to overheat in high braking conditions like going
down a hill or frequent high speed braking, as they don’t have an outlet to cool
themselves down. This causes the brake shoes to glaze or smoothen out and
produce no braking action.
Pushing The Brake Pedal Farther: When hard braking occurs, the drum expands
slightly due to a phenomenon called thermal expansion. So, to induce braking the
driver must press the brake pedal farther.
Grabbing: Grabbing in a drum brake occurs when the brake shoe becomes wet or
is slightly rusty. This causes it to offer more braking force than required and stays
that way for a brief moment of time. When a grab occurs, the tyres skid and keep
on skidding even when the pedal is released. This results in a loss of control of the
car and is dangerous for the driver, especially at high speeds.
Complex construction: A drum brake has many components, requiring an expert
mechanic for repairs.
Disc Brakes
Advantages
Less Effort: Due to hydraulics as a standard on all disc brake systems, engaging
a disc brake requires less effort and produces greater braking force.
Heat Dissipation: Due to the large surface area of discs any heat produced by
friction of the brake pads on the disc dissipates into the atmosphere. This
prevents overheating of the disc and improves braking even in frequent hard
braking situations.
Standard Performance In Any Weather: Disc brakes perform well even in wet
conditions and don’t slip or grab like their drum counterparts.
Easy Installation: A disc brake has a few components and hence very easy to
install, even you can learn how to change the brake pads on your discs.
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Disadvantages Disc Brakes
Expensive: Disc brakes are downright expensive and that is the reason why car
manufacturers opt for drum brakes on the rear wheels to bring down
manufacturing costs.
Rotor Warping: In case of high speed braking there is a chance that the brake
rotor might warp. This can happen due to very high temperatures on the discs
followed by immediate cooling. Improper installation of the disc brake could also
cause it to warp.
Brake Pad Wear Out: Brake pads on disc brakes tend to wear out faster than
drum brakes, this happens due to the powerful squeezing motion of the brake
piston on the brake pads. This provides better stopping power but reduced brake
pad life.
Less Effective As Parking Brakes: The brake pads on discs tend to expand when
heated and contract when cold. Since parking does not produce heat, the disc
brakes are less likely to hold the wheels for a longer duration. This is the reason
why high performance vehicles have an extra drum brake in addition to four
wheel discs.
Stopping distance and tyre adhesion
The strength of the force pressing a shoe against a drum governs the
resistance to rotation of a road wheel. During this operation the road
surface has to drive the wheel around. The limit of this driving force is
reached when the resistance of the brake equals the maximum
frictional force that is produced between the tyre and road. The latter
is called the adhesive force and can be calculated from the expression
When the limit is reached, the wheel starts to skid, so extra force on
the brake shoe will not produce any increase in the rate at which the
vehicle slows down. This situation is apparent when a vehicle is
braked on a slippery surface: slight pressure on the brake soon locks
up the wheel and very poor braking results. This shows that the
adhesion between the tyre and road is the main factor that controls
the minimum stopping distance.
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Parking brake
Most vehicle manufacturers have designed their parking brake
systems to operate on the rear brakes, but some have produced
systems connected to the front brakes. This is a good functional
alternative, but the design set-up is more complex due to the steering
application and wheel movement.
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For the parking brake system, the driver uses a separate
handbrake lever. The mechanical lever is connected to a
cable system that runs to the rear braking system.
The cable is connected to the rear brake shoes within the
brake drums using a mechanical linkage to operate.
On applying the parking brake, the lever is pulled up and
the movement of the cables operates the mechanical
linkage to move the shoes outwards.
The brake shoe lining grips on to the brake drum lining
face to stop the rear wheels from rotating.
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Brake Actuation Mechanisms
Mechanical
Hydraulic
Air
Engine brakes
Mechanical Actuation Mechanisms
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Mechanical Actuation Mechanisms
Hydraulic Brakes
Minimum pressure maintained in the line 50 kPa to avoid air leakage
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Tandem Master Cylinder
The tandem master cylinder has two separate hydraulic
chambers. This creates in effect two separate hydraulic braking
circuits. If one of these circuits becomes inoperative, the other
circuit can still function to stop the vehicle.
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Air Brakes
Engine Brakes
Releasing the accelerator pedal – reduce air intake or
fuel intake
Shifting to lower gear
Compression Braking- cutoff fuel supply -Jacobs
brake (or Jake brake)
Advantages
– Lower associated maintenance costs
– Safer downhill driving
– Improved fuel efficiency
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Anti Lock Braking Systems (ABS)
Components used in an auto braking system
ABS speed sensor, valves, a pump, brake fluid and a controller.
Wheel speed sensor (A), ABS control module or ECU (B), hydraulic motor
(pump) and pressure release valves (C), Brake pipe leading to caliper (D)
Anti Lock Braking Systems (ABS)
ABS speed Sensor:
The ABS sensor normally consists of a toothed ring and a magnet
enclosed within a coil.
The contact among the ring and the magnet induces an electric
field due to which a sign is generated.
This sign is then transformed into a digital signal and sent to the
ABS controller.
The controller then determines the speed of each wheel
individually.
ABS sensor is a key component in controlling the drift of the car
under any conditions.
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Anti Lock Braking Systems (ABS)
Valves:
Valves play a major role in the ABS system it controls the
pressure and limits it to a certain amount. When the brake pedal
is pushed harder, the valves limit the pressure on the brakes.
When a valve is jammed it stops functioning; open, close, or
change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system
from changing or controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.
The valve has three positions open, block, and release.
• In the open position, it allows the pressure to flow through
the brake.
• In the block position, it blocks the extra pressure and
maintains a limited pressure on the brakes.
• In the release position, it releases the pressure held on the
brakes
Anti Lock Braking Systems (ABS)
Pump:
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes
after the valves have released it. The controller will change the pump's status
in order to produce the desired amount of pressure and reduce sliding.
Brake fluid:
In the hydraulic brake fluid system, brake fluid is the main applicator of the
brakes. It is used to transfer force from the hydraulic lines to the braking
mechanism near the wheels. As brakes produce a lot of heat, the brake fluid
has a high boiling point for the effective operations. It also prevents corrosion
of the materials in contact.
Controller:
A controller is a unit in the ABS which receives the information from the
individual wheel ABS speed sensor. When an individual wheel loses the
traction, a signal is sent to the controller. The controller will then limit the
brake force and activate the ABS modulator.
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Anti Lock Braking Systems (ABS)
• In a vehicle, wheel speed sensors are located on the
wheels that monitor the speed of each wheel. The
electronic control unit (ECU) reads the signal from
each sensor.
• After the speed sensors detect that the speed of any
of the wheel(s) is reducing drastically compared to
others, the ECU sends the signal to the valves of the
respective wheel(s) to reduce the brake pressure,
and the valves get closed.
Anti Lock Braking Systems (ABS)
• After this, the wheels start to accelerate again, and the signal
is sent to the ECU one more time, which in turn sends the
signal to open the valve and increase the brake pressure, and
hence, brakes are applied.
• The cycle repeats itself until the application of brakes
becomes normal
• Pressure Modulations-15 times/sec
• Front wheel lock-Drivability issue
• Rear wheel lock-Stability issue
• Emergency Stop- Firmly apply brake pedal and hold it, ABS-
will take care
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Advantages of Antilock Braking
The brakes are applied and released numerous times
in one second, and hence, the system ensures that
the wheels do not lock up under hard braking.
The vehicle slows down while maintaining its grip,
and the available traction also allows the driver to
give steering inputs.
It helps the driver steer the vehicle to avoid an
accident.
Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD)
A few automobiles are now equipped with an electronic brake-assist system
that can recognize emergency braking and automatically apply full-power
brake force for shorter stopping distances.
This system is activated only in emergency braking situations and does not
affect normal brake operation. The system recognizes emergency braking by
the speed at which it was depressed and the brakes are automatically applied
under full power.
The system is driver-adaptive as it learns the driver’s braking habits by using
sensors to monitor every movement of the brake pedal.
When the sensors detect an emergency stop, an electronic valve at the power
brake booster is turned on. This supplies full braking power to the wheels.
The ABS prevents the wheels from locking in spite of the full-power braking
force.
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Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD)
Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD)
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Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD)
Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD)
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Traction Control System (TCS)
Automatic Traction Control (ATC),
Traction control systems (TCS),
Acceleration slip reduction (ASR) system
TRAC System
Traction control system (TCS)
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION
It is the purpose and function of the traction control system to prevent
the drive wheel(s) from slipping during acceleration.
A slipping tire has less traction than a non-slipping tire—therefore, if the
tire can be kept from slipping (spinning), more traction will be available to
propel the vehicle.
Traction control works with the engine computer to reduce torque
delivery from the engine, as well as the controller to apply the brakes to
the spinning wheel if necessary to regain traction.
Controlling wheel slip is the goal of both ABS and ATC. ABS controls
negative wheel slip by modulating the hydraulic pressure to the wheel, or
wheels, that is skidding.
An ATC system controls positive wheel spin by modulating hydraulic
pressure at the wheel that is spinning to slow down the wheel.
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Traction control system (TCS)
Traction control system (TCS) can be separate or used as part
of the electronic stability control (ESC) system.
Traction control allows an ABS system to control wheel spin
during acceleration. When tires lose traction during
acceleration, it is called positive slip.
Low-speed traction control uses the braking system to limit
positive slip up to a vehicle speed of about 30 mph (48
km/h).
Traction control is usually a part of the electronic stability
control system.
Traction control system (TCS)
The controller uses inputs from several sensors to determine if a loss of
traction is occurring. The input signals used for traction control include:
Throttle position (TP) sensor—This indicates the position of the throttle,
which is the driver command for power.
Wheel speed sensor (WSS)—The controller monitors all four wheel speed
sensors. If one wheel is rotating faster than the other, this indicates that the
tire is slipping or has lost traction.
Engine speed (RPM)—This information is supplied from the engine
controller powertrain control module (PCM) and indicates the speed of the
engine.
Transmission range switch—Determines which gear the driver has selected
so that the PCM can take corrective action.
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Traction control system (TCS)
A traction control or low traction light on the
dash is confusing to many drivers. When the
lamp is on or flashing, it indicates that a low
traction condition has been determined and
the traction control system is working to
restore traction. A flashing traction dash light
does not indicate a fault.
Most traction control systems are capable of reducing positive wheel slip at
all vehicle speeds.
Most speed traction control systems use accelerator reduction and engine
power reduction to limit slip before applying the brakes to the wheel that
is spinning.
This action helps reduce the possibility of overheating the brakes if the
vehicle were being driven on an icy or snow covered road.
Traction control system (TCS)
The controller usually performs actions to restore traction in the following
order:
1. Reduces engine torque to the drive wheels. This can include some or all of
the following:
• Retard spark timing
• Reduce injector on-time (pulse-width)
• Close or reduce the throttle opening
• Shift the automatic transmission to a higher gear (Torque reduction)
2. Applying individual wheel brakes to slow or stop the wheel from spinning.
The ABS controller supplies to the wheel brake only the pressure that is
required to prevent tire slipping during acceleration. The amount of pressure
varies according to the condition of the road surface and the amount of engine
power being delivered to the drive wheels. A program inside the controller will
disable traction control if brake system overheating is likely to occur.
3. Lights a low traction or traction control warning light on the dash.
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Traction control system (TCS)
Electronic stability program (ESP)
The electronic stability control (ESC) system applies individual wheel brakes to
keep the vehicle under control of the driver.
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Electronic stability program (ESP)
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION
It is a system designed to help drivers to maintain control of their
vehicles in situations where the vehicle is beginning to lose control.
Keeping the vehicle on the road prevents run-off-road crashes, which
are the conditions that lead to most single vehicle accidents and
rollovers.
Helps vehicle directional stability by applying and adjusting individual
wheel brakes to help bring the vehicle back to the intended direction.
Uses sensors to determine when the vehicle is not under control.
Uses a steering wheel position sensor to determine the intended
direction of the driver.
Operates at all vehicle speeds, except at low speeds where loss of
control is unlikely.
Electronic stability program (ESP)
The electronic stability control (ESC) system applies individual wheel
brakes to bring the vehicle under control if either of the following
conditions occur:
Oversteering—In this condition, the rear of the vehicle tends to move
outward or breaks loose, resulting in the vehicle spinning out of
control. This condition is also called loose. If the condition is detected
during a left turn, the ESC system would apply the right front brake to
bring the vehicle back under control.
Understeering—In this condition, the front of the vehicle tends to
continue straight ahead when turning, a condition that is also called
plowing or tight. If this condition is detected during a right turn, the
ESC system would apply the right rear wheel brake to bring the vehicle
back under control.
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Electronic stability program (ESP)
STEERING WHEEL POSITION SENSOR
Depending on the vehicle, the steering wheel position sensor
may also be called a hand-wheel position sensor. The function
of this sensor is to provide the driver’s intended direction with
signals relating to steering wheel position, speed, and direction.
VEHICLE SPEED SENSOR
The vehicle speed (VS) sensor is used by the Electronic Brake
Control Module (EBCM) to help control the suspension system.
The vehicle speed sensor is a magnetic sensor and generates an
analog signal whose frequency increases as the speed increases.
Electronic stability program (ESP)
LATERAL ACCELERATION SENSOR
The function of the lateral acceleration sensor is to provide the suspension
control module with feedback regarding vehicle cornering forces. This type of
sensor is also called a G-sensor, with the letter “G” representing the force of
gravity. For example, when a vehicle enters a turn, the sensor provides
information as to how hard the vehicle is cornering. This information is
processed by the suspension control module to provide appropriate damping
on the inboard and outboard dampers during cornering events.
This sensor can be either a stand-alone unit or combined with the yaw rate
sensor.
Typically, the sensor is mounted in the passenger compartment:
under a front seat
in the center console
on the package shelf
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Electronic stability program (ESP)
LATERAL ACCELERATION SENSOR
The function of the lateral acceleration sensor is to provide the suspension
control module with feedback regarding vehicle cornering forces. This type of
sensor is also called a G-sensor, with the letter “G” representing the force of
gravity. For example, when a vehicle enters a turn, the sensor provides
information as to how hard the vehicle is cornering. This information is
processed by the suspension control module to provide appropriate damping
on the inboard and outboard dampers during cornering events.
This sensor can be either a stand-alone unit or combined with the yaw rate
sensor. Typically, the sensor is mounted in the passenger compartment:
under a front seat
in the center console
on the package shelf
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Electronic stability program (ESP)
YAW RATE SENSOR The yaw rate sensor provides information to the suspension
control module and the EBCM. This information is used to determine how far
the vehicle has deviated from the driver’s intended direction.
This sensor can be either a stand-alone unit or combined with the lateral
acceleration sensor. Typically, the sensor is mounted in the passenger
compartment under the front seat, in the center console, or on the rear
package shelf. These codes can be found in service information.
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