2013

POWER PLANT LAB REPORT

SUBMITTED TO : SIR SAQIB

SUBMITTED BY : [Link] ASLAM (09-ME-368)

1/1/2013
 Experiment No: 1
Objective
Introduction to boilers

Theory
Introduction to Boilers
Boiler is a metal container in which a liquid is heated and changed into a vapor. Most boilers
change water into the vapor steam. Steam is used to heat buildings and processes. It
changes from vapor to liquid form as it delivers heat into a room or building, giving off even
more heat as a result. Some heating systems, called hydronic systems, circulate hot water
rather than steam. However, the heat source in these systems is still referred to as a boiler.
Steam produced in boilers is also used in steam turbines and for refining oil or drying paper.
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches its gaseous state is called evaporation.

Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of

(1) Radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body through a
conveying medium without physical contact,

(2) Convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying medium, such as air or water and

(3) Conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical contact, molecule to molecule.

The heating surface is any part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion on one
side and water on the other. Any part of the boiler metal that actually contributes to
making steam is heating surface. The amount of heating surface a boiler has is expressed in
square feet. The larger the amount of heating surface a boiler has the more efficient it
becomes.

The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is called its sensible heat. In
the teapot illustration to the left the 70 oF water contains 38 Btu’s and by adding 142 Btu’s
the water is brought to boiling point.
The saturation temperature or boiling point is a function of pressure and rises when
pressure increases. When water under pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises
above 212 oF. This occurs in the boiler. In the example below the boiler is operating at a
pressure of 100 psig which gives a steam temperature of 338 oF or 1185 Btu’s.

Latent Heat
When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact with liquid, its temperature is said to
be superheated. The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as degrees above
saturation, is referred to as the degrees of superheat.
How Boilers Work
Both gas and oil fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to heat water. The key
boiler components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber, heat
exchanger, and controls. The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the
assistance of an ignition device, provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes
place in the combustion chamber, and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water
through the heat exchanger. Controls regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air
supply, exhaust draft, water temperature, steam pressure, and boiler pressure. Hot water
produced by a boiler is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment throughout the
building, which can include hot water coils in air handling units, service hot water heating
equipment, and terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows through pipes from
areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an external energy source such
as a pump. Steam utilized for heating can be directly utilized by steam using equipment or
can provide heat through a heat exchanger that supplies hot water to the equipment.

Materials
The pressure vessel in a boiler is usually made of steel (or alloy steel), or historically
of wrought iron. Stainless steel is virtually prohibited (by the ASME Boiler Code) for use in
wetted parts of modern boilers, but is used often in super heater sections that will not be
exposed to liquid boiler water. However electrically-heated stainless steel shell boilers are
allowed under the European "Pressure Equipment Directive" for production of steam for
sterilizers and disinfectors.

In live steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is more easily fabricated in
smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for steam
locomotives), because of its better formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in
more recent times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and
cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.

For much of the Victorian "age of steam", the only material used for boiler making was the
highest grade of wrought iron, with assembly by riveting. This iron was often obtained from
specialist ironworks, such as at Creator Moor (UK), noted for the high quality of their rolled
plate and its suitability for high-reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure
boilers. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is
stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labor.

Cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such
heaters are usually termed "boilers" in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce
hot water, not steam, and so they run at low pressure and try to avoid actual boiling. The
brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high pressure steam boilers.

Fuel
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil,
or natural gas. Electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion heating
elements. Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly
(BWR) or, in most cases, in specialized heat exchangers called "steam generators" .
 Experiment No: 2
Objective
To study the types of boilers

There are two major types of boilers

1. Fire Tube Boilers

2. Water Tube Boilers

Fire Tube Boilers

A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or more
tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred
through the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately
creating steam.

The fire-tube boiler developed as the third of the four major historical types of boilers: low-
pressure tank or "haystack" boilers, flue boilers with one or two large flues, fire-tube boilers
with many small tubes, and high-pressure water-tube boilers. Their advantage over flue
boilers with a single large flue is that the many small tubes offer far greater heating surface
area for the same overall boiler volume. The general construction is as a tank of water
penetrated by tubes that carry the hot flue gases from the fire. The tank is
usually cylindrical for the most part—being the strongest practical shape for a
pressurized—and this cylindrical tank may be either horizontal or vertical.

This type of boiler was used on virtually all steam locomotives in the horizontal
"locomotive" form. This has a cylindrical barrel containing the fire tubes, but also has an
extension at one end to house the "firebox". This firebox has an open base to provide a large
grate area and often extends beyond the cylindrical barrel to form a rectangular or tapered
enclosure. The horizontal fire-tube boiler is also typical of marine applications, using
the boiler. Vertical have also been built of the multiple fire-tube type, although these are
comparatively rare: most vertical boilers were either flue, or with cross water-tubes.

Operation
In the locomotive-type boiler, fuel is burnt in a firebox to produce hot combustion gases.
The firebox is surrounded by a cooling jacket of water connected to the long, cylindrical
boiler shell. The hot gases are directed along a series of fire tubes, or flues, that penetrate
the boiler and heat the water thereby generating saturated ("wet") steam. The steam rises
to the highest point of the boiler, the steam dome, where it is collected. The dome is the site
of the regulator that controls the exit of steam from the boiler. In the locomotive boiler, the
saturated steam is very often passed into a super heater, back through the larger flues at the
top of the boiler, to dry the steam and heat it to superheated steam. The superheated steam
is directed to the steam engine's cylinders or very rarely to a turbine to produce mechanical
work. Exhaust gases are fed out through a chimney, and may be used to pre-heat the feed
water to increase the efficiency of the boiler. Draught for fire tube boilers, particularly in
marine applications, is usually provided by a tall smokestack. In all steam locomotives
since Stephenson’s Rocket, additional draught is supplied by directing exhaust steam from
the cylinders into the smokestack through a blast pipe, to provide a partial vacuum. Modern
industrial boilers use fans to provide forced or induced draughting of the boiler.

Another major advance in the Rocket was large numbers of small-diameter fire tubes
(a multi-tubular boiler) instead of a single large flue. This greatly increased the surface area
for heat transfer, allowing steam to be produced at a much higher rate. Without this, steam
locomotives could never have developed effectively as powerful prime movers.

Water Tube Boiler

A water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by
the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the steam-
generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace,
while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the
furnace to generate steam.

The heated water then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam is drawn off the top
of the drum. In some services, the steam will reenter the furnace through a super heater to
become superheated. Superheated steam is defined as steam that is heated above the
boiling point at a given pressure. Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore used to drive
turbines, since water droplets can severely damage turbine blades.

Cool water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the feed water drum via large-bore
'down comer tubes', where it pre-heats the feed water supply. (In 'large utility boilers', the
feed water is supplied to the steam drum and the down comers supply water to the bottom
of the water walls). To increase economy of the boiler, exhaust gases are also used to pre-
heat the air blown into the furnace and warm the feed water supply. Such water tube boilers
in thermal power station are also called steam generating units.

The older fire-tube boiler design – in which the water surrounds the heat source and the
gases from combustion pass through tubes through the water space – is a much weaker
structure and is rarely used for pressures above 350 psi (2.4 MPa). A significant advantage
of the water tube boiler is that there is less chance of a catastrophic failure: there is not a
large volume of water in the boiler nor are there large mechanical elements subject to
failure.
 Experiment No: 3
Objective
Comparison of Fire tube boiler and Water tube boiler.

Theory
Water Tube vs. Fire Tube Boiler
Water Tube vs. Fire Tube Boiler is comparison between two types boiler which is viewed
from several aspects. Water tube and fire tube boiler is steam boiler classification which is
categorized based. Commonly water tube boiler is appropriate for significant gas streams
going above enormous amounts of generated steam (lb/hr) and also can certainly manage
high temperature and pressure of steam. Fire tube boiler is appropriate for low pressure of
steam, commonly under 500psig.

Water Tube vs Fire Tube Boiler can be seen in several aspects below:

Water Tube Boiler’s aspects:

- Gas flow : higher than 50.000 pounds/hour

- Temperature of gas inlet : small to adiabatic firing

- Pressure of gas : commonly under 2 psig

- Water inventory : low

- Location of soot blower : everywhere within boiler

- Multiple pressure of steam : yes

- Multiple modules : yes

- Heat flux- vapor area : could be high when use fin tubes

- Heating surface form : fin tube and also bare tube

- Combustion firing : doable

- Super heater location : everywhere in the gas way utilizing screen area
Fire Tube Boiler’s aspects:
- Gas flow : generally less than 50.000 pounds/hour

- Temperature of gas inlet : small to adiabatic firing

- Pressure of gas : commonly high up to 2100 psig

- Water inventory : high

- Location of soot blower : at exit boiler or inlet boiler

- Multiple pressure of steam : no

- Multiple modules : no

- Heat flux- vapor area : commonly low

- Heating surface form : bare tube

- Combustion firing : doable

- Super heater location : at exit boiler or inlet boiler

Within water tube boiler, expanded areas could be employed to create it stream-lined if the
gas flow is thoroughly clean. The pressure drop of flue gas may also be decrease when
compared with an equal fire tube boiler due to design intensiveness. Water tube boiler
could be scaled-down and also consider less, especially when the gas stream is significant,
excess one hundred thousand pounds per hour.

Super heater could be applied in the two boiler types. Within water tube boiler super heater
might be positioned in an most effective area of gas temperature. A protect screen area or a
huge convection area prefaces the super heater. Within fire tube boiler, it should be
positioned at possibly the exit gas or inlet gas, generating the design fewer adaptable and
weak to deterioration or slagging.

When the discharged gas is concentrated naturally, the areas could be cleaned simply by
employing retractable soot blowers. Generally, the kind of boiler to be utilized for a specific
condition is established by the practical knowledge of the boiler maker. Occasionally a
collaboration of water and fire tube boilers is applied to match exceptional demands. From
explanation above comparison between Water Tube vs. Fire Tube Boiler can be known.
Comparison of water tube boiler and fire tube boiler
The first comparison comprises of the type of the flow – in fire tube boilers, fire moves
inside tubes but in case of water tube boiler, water moves inside tubes.

In case of fire tube boiler, fire tubes are subjected to external pressure because they are
immersed in water in shell, so a high pressure in shell will mean that a high external
pressure is acting on the fire tubes which will produce large stresses specially hoop stresses.
These stresses may be beyond the crushing strength ( or compression strength) of material
of tube resulting in failure of tubes. To bear these large stresses, we can use very high
strength material which will be too costly or we can increase to increase thickness but
increased thickness produces more flow across the thickness of tube, resulting in
overheating and consequently bursting of tubes.

While in case of water tube boiler, water tubes are subjected to high internal pressure which
produces less stress as compared to external pressure case, so water tubes in case of water
tube boiler can be subjected safely to high pressures.

Thirdly in case of fire tube boiler, since fire tubes are inside the shell and moreover since
these fire tubes must be prevented from directly exposed to (i.e. they should remain in
water space, so the shell of fire tube boiler must be of larger diameter. Since shell is thin
walled pressure vessel for which

σθ = pr / t

σaxial = pr / 2t

So an increase in radius, even if pressure is same low value which is safe for fire tubes,
would mean that hoop stress is increased. To bear this increased stress, we can increase
thickness but there is a limit to the thickness of shell dictated by constraints of
manufacturing and bending of sheet. So obviously if p is also increased, then both p and r
will contribute to produce high value of hoop stress. So this also limits the pressure that can
be safely withstood by shell of fire tube boiler.

While in case of water tube boiler, most of water is flowing through the tubes and there are
no tubes in water drum to which we have to accommodate by increasing internal diameter
of water drum, so internal diameter of water drum can be kept smaller.

Thirdly since in the fire tube boiler, fire tubes are inside the shell, so that end plates or tube
sheets of shell of fire tube boiler must be flat circular plate so that fire tubes are welded
here. So these flat plates will also be subjected to pressure. A flat plate is not an ideal shape
to resist this pressure, because this pressure will tend to bend flat plate and make it
hemispherical resulting in distortion of flat plates ( called bulging).

While in the water tube boiler, since water tubes are outside the shell of eater drum, so we
can connect dish (i.e. hemispherical) or ellipsoidal ends which can resist high pressure to
which they are subjected.
These reasons why fire tube boiler cannot be used for high pressure steam generation,
while water tube the boiler can be used in such cases.

Note: in real practice, in case of water tube boiler external pressure may not be zero gauge
exactly but near to this. Similarly in case of fire tube boiler, internal pressure for fire tubes
in not necessarily are gauge but not too different from this. But although we have here
presented calculation for zero gauge case, same trend will be for the case of nonzero gauge
cases.
 Experiment No: 4
Objective
Study of Super Heaters

Theory
Super Heaters Introduction
A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into dry steam used
in steam engines or in processes, such as steam. There are three types of superheaters
namely: radiant, convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few
tens of feet to several hundred feet (a few meters or some hundred meters).

Types

 A radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber.

 A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases.
 A separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler.

Steam Engines
In a steam engine, the superheater re-heats the steam generated by the boiler, increasing
its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will condense inside the engine.
Superheaters increase the thermal efficiency of the steam engine, and have been widely
adopted. Steam which has been superheated is logically known as superheated steam; non-
superheated steam is called saturated steam or wet steam. Superheaters were applied
to steam locomotives in quantity from the early 20th century, to most steam vehicles, and to
stationary steam engines. This equipment is still used in conjunction with steam turbines in
electrical power generating stations throughout the world.

Locomotive Use
In steam locomotive use, by far the most common form of superheater is the fire-tube type.
This takes the saturated steam supplied in the dry pipe into a superheater header mounted
against the tube sheet in the smoke box. The steam is then passed through a number
of superheater elements—long pipes which are placed inside special, widened fire tubes,
called flues. Hot combustion gases from the locomotive's fire pass through these flues just
like they do the fire tubes, and as well as heating the water they also heat the steam inside
the superheater elements they flow over. The superheater element doubles back on itself so
that the heated steam can return; most do this twice at the fire end and once at the smoke
box end, so that the steam travels a distance of four times the header's length while being
heated. The superheated steam, at the end of its journey through the elements, passes into a
separate compartment of the superheater header and then to the cylinders as normal.
Damper and snifting valve
The steam passing through the superheater elements cools their metal and prevents them
from melting, but when the throttle closes this cooling effect is absent, and thus a damper
closes in the smoke box to cut off the flow through the flues and prevent them being
damaged. Some locomotives (particularly on the London and North Eastern Railway) were
fitted with snifting valves which admitted air to the superheater when the locomotive was
coasting (drifting). This kept the superheater elements cool and the cylinders warm. The
snifting valve can be seen behind the chimney on many LNER locomotives.

Front-end throttle
A superheater increases the distance between the throttle and the cylinders in the steam
circuit and thus reduces the immediacy of throttle action. To counteract this, some later
steam locomotives were fitted with a front-end throttle—placed in the smoke box after the
superheater. Such locomotives can sometimes be identified by an external throttle rod that
stretches the whole length of the boiler, with a crank on the outside of the smoke box. This
arrangement also allows superheated steam to be used for auxiliary appliances, such as the
dynamo and air pumps. Another benefit of the front end throttle is that superheated steam
is immediately available. With the dome throttle it took quite some time before the super
heater actually provided benefits in efficiency. One can think of it in this way: if one opens
saturated steam from the boiler to the superheater it goes straight through the superheater
units and to the cylinders which doesn't leave much time for the steam to be superheated.
With the front-end throttle, steam is in the superheater units while the engine is sitting at
the station and that steam is being superheated. Then when the throttle is opened,
superheated steam goes to the cylinders immediately.

Cylinder valves
Locomotives with superheaters are usually fitted with piston valves or poppet valves. This
is because it is difficult to keep a slide valve properly lubricated at high temperature.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The main advantages of using a superheater are reduced fuel and water consumption but
there is a price to pay in increased maintenance costs. In most cases the benefits
outweighed the costs and superheaters were widely used. An exception was shunting
locomotives (switchers). British shunting locomotives were rarely fitted with superheaters.
In locomotives used for mineral traffic the advantages seem to have been marginal. For
example, the North Eastern Railway fitted superheaters to some of its NER Class P mineral
locomotives but later began to remove them.
Without careful maintenance superheaters are prone to a particular type of hazardous
failure in the tube bursting at the U-shaped turns in the superheater tube. This is difficult to
both manufacture, and test when installed, and a rupture will cause the superheated high-
pressure steam to escape immediately into the large flues, and then back to the fire and into
the cab, to the extreme danger of the locomotive crew.
Superheater and its types
Superheaters are the devices we mostly use for converting steam from saturated to
superheat. Using them, we can increase steam temperature even up to 1000°F.

The commonly used materials for the manufacturing of superheaters are following

There are mainly types of superheaters

 Convective superheated
 Radiant superheated

Convective superheaters are installed behind the screen of furnace and flames. This
position ensures the uniform gas mixture entering in the superheated and helps to lower
gases temperature. These superheaters require larger heating surface because their LMTD
value is low. The operating temperature of the superheated is 1800 – 1900°F.

In case of radiant superheaters, they are installed at the exit of burner and require less
heating surface because their LMTD value is high. The operating temperature of the
superheater is 2000 – 2200°F. In this case, heat transfer takes place due to the temperature

difference present between combustion gases and tube wall and is represented as Tf4 – Tw4.

Performance characteristic comparison

By comparing both types, we will see that convective superheater is far better than radiant
superheater in terms of performance.

The placement of convective superheater allows us to predict the performance with greater
accuracy and reliability. However in case of radiant superheater, this job is very difficult and
the main reason is due to complexity of combustion process is furnace.

Radiant superheaters are installed in a place where exhaust gases need to make a turn so at
that place, it is very difficult to predict gas flow distribution pattern over tubes at various
loads.

Moreover the controlling of air fuel mixture with the addition of exhaust gases to control
NOx emissions is another problem of flame temperature and temperature distribution along
flame.

Using simple mathematical modelling, we cannot predict furnace energy balance. But can
predict its temperature by 50 – 150°F and this prediction gap effect the performance of
radiant superheaters.

However if the actual furnace temperature is more than the predicted temperature then
overheating problem can initiate. But if actual furnace temperature is less than the
predicted temperature then desire steam temperature cannot achieve.

Moreover both types have differences in the conditions in which they absorb more heat.
Radiant superheaters absorb more energy at lower load but convective superheaters absorb
more energy at high load.
However in industry depending upon the requirement, we have the flexibility to use
superheater in multiple stages consisting of the combination of radiant and convective
designs. This design overcomes the flaws present in one type and results in the increase in
efficiency.

Attemperator and its types

Steam consumers (e.g. turbine, industrial process) require relatively constant steam
temperature (±5°C); therefore means of boiler steam temperature control is required.
Steam temperature control system helps maintaining high turbine efficiency, and turbine
material temperatures at a reasonable level at boiler load changes. An uncontrolled
convective superheater would cause a rise in steam temperature as the steam output
increases.

Methods for steam temperature control are:

• Water spraying superheated steam

• Steam bypass (superheater bypass)

• Flue gas bypass

• Flue gas re-circulation

• Heat exchanger system

• Firing system adjustment

Dolezahl attemperator
The Dolezahl attemperator (or simply attemperator or de-superheater) is a steam
temperature control system that uses condensate as spray water. The location of the
attemperator on the recovery boiler shown in the figure

In a Dolezahl attemperator system saturated steam from steam drum is lead to a condenser
that is cooled by feedwater. Condensate
(saturated water) continues from condenser to
spray water groups (injectors). The injectors
spray water into the steam and thus reduce the
temperature of the superheated steam. Injectors
are usually located between superheater stages.

The main advantage of Dolezahl attemperators is

the high quality of spray water since the
impurities do not follow with the steam flow
from the steam drum. Complexity (condenser and tubing) and thus expensiveness is the
biggest disadvantage of Dolezahl attemperator systems. Nowadays Dolezahl attemperators
are mostly used in special boiler applications.

Spray water group

Water spraying the steam flow is the most common method for live steam temperature
control. Main advantages of water spraying-based temperature control are the speed and
effectivity of the regulation. This makes their use possible in large-scale boilers. It can be
used for reheat steam temperature control as well, but usually reheat steam temperature
control is performed by combining water spraying with some other method (e.g. flue gas
bypass).

The main function of spray water group is to reduce steam temperature by injecting water
into steam flow when needed. It is also used to prevent superheater tubes against excessive
temperature rise (too much superheating), which could lead to superheater tube damage.
The sprayed water can be feedwater (normally) or condensate (condensate steam from
boiler process). The system using condensate is called an attemperator.

Water atomizer types

The two existing types of steam coolers are categorized by their way of cooling water
atomization:

• Atomizer based on pressurized water flow

• Atomization by steam flow

The atomizer principle based on pressurized water has many possibilities of water spraying
directions and nozzle types. This type of system is applicable when variations in steam flow
are not large and the temperature difference between incoming steam to be cooled and
outgoing already cooled steam is big enough. Steam based atomizer uses steam as medium
for atomization. Medium and low-pressure steam is also used as sprayed matter in idea to
get more effective cooling. The atomization steam flow is normally constant, being about 20
% of the cooling water flow. The choice of spray water atomizer type is based on needed
operation range (here needed minimum operational load) and is usually very much case-
specific.
 Experiment No: 5
Objective
The study of economizer, draught, drafts and valves in boiler system

Theory
Economizer and its working principle
A boiler economizer is a device that is designed to increase the operating efficiency of a
boiler, cutting down on its operational costs over the lifetime of the boiler. Although the
savings on any given day may be relatively small, the impact over time can be significant,
especially with a large boiler system, such as the type used to heat large buildings like office
buildings and institutions. Some boilers are designed with economizers built in, while in
other cases, an economizer can be fitted on after the fact.

Boilers operate by heating water to make steam, and using that steam for heat or energy
generation. For the most part, a boiler is fairly efficient, but there is some heat loss when the
byproducts of combustion are vented. The byproducts of combustion are still hot, often
quite hot, and when they are simply vented, this represents lost heat for the boiler.

A boiler economizer acts as a waste heat recovery device, ensuring that this heat does not go
unused. Instead, the heat is used to essentially preheat the water, so that less heat is
required to bring the water to a temperature high enough to make steam. One could think of
this device as a feedwater heater; it ensures that the water used to feed the boiler to make
more steam is hot so that the boiler does not have to expend as much energy heating it.

Using an economizer does not just prevent heat loss — it can also extend the life of the
boiler. Temperature changes caused by using cooler feedwater can create wear and tear on
the boiler over time as the fittings heat and cool down cyclically. When the feedwater is
heated, the temperature differential is less extreme, putting less strain on the boiler and
giving it a longer operating life. Since a large boiler system can be expensive to repair or
replace, this adds to the overall savings on the heating system.

When someone installs a boiler economizer, it is important for him or her to use a product
that is suitable for the boiler. Some manufacturers offer economizers for their boilers, while
companies that make standalone devices can come to inspect the boiler to determine which
product would be most suitable. A heating and cooling specialist can provide additional
advice about installation, including a breakdown of how much an economizer can save.
There may be cases in which it is not fiscally responsible to install this device because the
costs of installation may outweigh the savings.

Boiler draught
It is universal law that fluid flows when there is pressure difference. If this difference is
large, we will experience large flow but if is low, we will experience small flow. In boilers,
we refer this pressure difference as boiler draught.

In boilers it is necessary for us to create pressure difference in order to remove the products
of combustion as well as to enter fresh air inside boiler.

In boilers, we use large chimneys or stack. The main reason is that some of the combustion
products are dangerous for health so we have to leaves these products at certain height
where they will not affect our health.

There are two types of boiler draughts which are following

 Natural draught
 Artificial draught

In natural draught boilers, pressure difference is created naturally and we don’t need to
use any external device like positive displacement device for this reason. But in case of
artificial draught boilers, pressure difference is created by using external mechanical device
or steam. There are further types of artificial draught, induced type, force type or the
combination of both.

There are different reasons to use draught inside boiler like to maintain the sufficient
supply of fresh air for combustion process and the removal of combustion product.

Similarly there are different parameters on which draught depends upon like the type of
boiler, burning fuel rate, rate of combustion products production and air requirement rate.
Normally the draught value is very small so we measure it in terms of mm of water.

Natural draught

Draught is used for the terminology to create pressure difference inside boiler to flow
exhaust gases. Draught can be produced naturally by using chimney. Since the density of
exhaust gases inside chimney is less than the air present outside chimney due to greater
temperature. Therefore it will create a flow of exhaust gases from boiler to atmosphere
through chimney. The exclusion of exhaust gases from boiler has direct effect on the fresh
atmospheric air to enter in the boiler
The height of chimney also affects the draught. If the height of the chimney is large then
more draught will produce and vice versa. Commonly the value of draught inside chimney is
less than 12 kgf/m2.

Types of chimneys

Normally chimneys are made of steel, brick or reinforced concrete. We prefer to use steel
chimney if have smaller boiler because steel chimneys are easy to construct and their initial
cost is also low. But if we are using boiler in large power plants then we will use self-
sustaining steel chimneys.

We manufacture brick chimneys in those places where we need a long life of chimney. But
brick chimneys have disadvantage of air leakage and this leakage effects the draught
produced.

Concrete chimneys are also used in industries. These chimneys don’t have any joint and are
light weight in construction. On the other hand, reinforced concrete chimneys are also used
and are less expensive than brick chimney. In these chimneys we don’t have the chances of
leakages across walls.

Artificial draught

Draught is actually the creation of pressure difference inside boiler. The reason behind
creating pressure difference is to move exhaust gases.

Artificial draught is used in those applications where natural draught is not sufficient to
move exhaust gases. In modern applications, boiler needs draught of more than 40 mm of
 water so natural draught cannot work. Therefore we use artificial draught in which we use
some external source.

Boilers having natural draught can only deal with fuel rate up to 20 kg/hr. per m2 grate area
but artificial draught can deal with fuel rate up to 300 kg/hr. per m2 grate area. Moreover
artificial draught can reduce fuel consumption up to 15% at same steam generation. Due to
these reasons, we favor to use artificial draught.

There are two methods in industry to produce artificial draught, these methods are
following

 Mechanical draught
 Steam jet draught

Mechanical draught can be produced by using fans, blowers etc. The boilers having artificial
draught now don’t need to use long stack to create draught but still need sufficient height to
exclude pollutants at sufficient height that will not affect our environment.
Valves
The safety valve (also referred to a relief valve, pop-off valve, or safety relief valve) provides
protection to the pressure vessel from over-pressurization and is the primary safety control
on all boilers. Safety valves are designed and installed in accordance with ASME and NBIC
code. They must be of sufficient size (capacity) to keep the boiler from developing more
steam pressure than the valve can relieve, and must be set at or below the boiler MAWP.
Valve pressure settings cannot be changed by plant personnel, but must be calibrated by a
certified repair facility. There should be no shut-off valves between the boiler and the pop-
off valve. Boilers with more than 500 square feet of heating surface require two or more
safety valves. Safety valves are spring-loaded valves and should be regularly tested by the
boiler operator on duty, unless plant policy states otherwise. Testing a safety (relief) valve is
performed by simply lifting the test lever on the side of the valve. This test is done while the
boiler is operating between 75% and 100% of its operating pressure. Prior to the test,
determine that the valve discharge is piped to a safe place.

A gate valve is an isolation valve, and is used only for the purpose of stopping or allowing
flow. Gate valves are used as steam stop valves, blow down valves, and so on. Gate valves
should always be fully open or completely closed, never in-between.

An outside stem and yoke (OS&Y) valve is a gate valve designed for boiler room service.
The stem and yoke are outside the valve body. A rising stem valve allows the boiler operator
to know the position of the valve by looking at the stem. If the stem is extended (up or out)
the valve is open. In an open position, the valve provides no resistance to the flow of steam.
If the stem is down or in, the valve is closed. These valves are typically seen in steam lines.

A globe valve is a modulation valve, not an isolation valve. A globe valve disrupts the flow
of the fluid, even in the fully open position. A check valve allows flow in one direction only.
These are often seen in feed water lines between the pumps and the boiler. When opening
any manual valve, the boiler operator should open the valve slowly in order to prevent
water hammer.

Draft
Air and fuel flow into the furnace or combustion chamber, where they are mixed and
ignited. Air and fuel flow into the furnace and flue gas flows out. The force driving this flow
is the differential pressure between the gases inside the furnace and those outside the
furnace. Furnace pressure is commonly referred to as draft or draft pressure. The draft is
maintained slightly negative to prevent the combustion products and ash from being
discharged from the furnace into surrounding areas through inspection ports, doors,
feeders, etc. For greatest efficiency, the controlled pressure should be as close as possible to
atmosphere, thereby minimizing the ingestion of “tramp air” or excess air drawn through
the openings in the furnace ductwork that cool combustion gases.

Draft is the difference in pressure between two points that causes air or gases to flow.

A natural draft furnace uses the stack (chimney) effect. Gases inside the stack are less
dense than those outside the chimney. The gases in the stack will rise, creating a vacuum
(suction) which will draw the combustion air into the furnace and combustion gases or flue
gas out of the furnace. Natural draft furnaces naturally operate below atmospheric pressure.
An induced draft fan draws the gases through the furnace and the combustion air into the
furnace. An induced draft fan is located between the boiler and the stack and makes high
stacks unnecessary. Control is accomplished by regulating the fan speed or damper
operation. An induced draft furnace is operated slightly below atmospheric pressure.

A forced draft furnace uses a fan or blower to force combustion air through the system.
Control is accomplished by regulating the fan speed or damper operation. This type of
furnace is operated slightly above atmospheric pressure.