CHAPTER 1: Crystal Structures & Bonds

2 MARKS
1. Space Lattice & Unit Cell
Space Lattice: Infinite 3D array of points representing atomic
arrangement.
Unit Cell: Smallest repeating unit that builds the entire crystal.
2. Atoms in FCC Unit Cell
1
Corner atoms: 8 × =1
8
1
Face atoms: 6 × =3
2
Total = 4 atoms
3. Coordination Number of BCC
8 (central atom touches 8 corner atoms).
4. Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Fraction of unit cell volume occupied by atoms (hard sphere model).
5. APF for BCC & FCC
BCC: 0.68 (68%)
FCC: 0.74 (74%)
6. Examples of BCC & FCC Metals
BCC: Fe, Na, W
FCC: Al, Cu, Au
7. HCP Structure
Three layers: top/bottom hexagonal layers (6 corners + 1 center),
middle layer with 3 atoms.
8. Primary vs. Secondary Bonds
Primary: Strong, involve electron transfer/sharing (ionic, covalent,
metallic).
Secondary: Weak intermolecular forces (dispersion, dipole,
hydrogen bonds).
9. Ionic Bond Formation
Complete transfer of valence electrons from metal to nonmetal;
electrostatic attraction holds ions.
10. Covalent Bond Formation
Mutual sharing of valence electrons between nonmetal atoms.

5 MARKS
1. Three Primary Crystal Structures for Metals
 FCC: Atoms at corners + face centers (e.g., Al).
o
BCC: Atoms at corners + body center (e.g., Fe).
o
HCP: Hexagonal layers (e.g., Zn).
o
2. Three Types of Primary Bonds
Ionic: Electron transfer → electrostatic attraction (e.g., NaCl).
o
Covalent: Electron sharing (e.g., diamond).
o
Metallic: Delocalized electron sea (e.g., Cu, Fe).
o
3. Comparison of BCC & FCC
Atoms/cell: BCC=2, FCC=4
o
Coordination No.: BCC=8, FCC=12
o
APF: BCC=0.68, FCC=0.74
o
4. Types of Secondary Bonds
Dispersion (London): Temporary dipoles (e.g., Ar).
o
Dipole–Dipole: Permanent dipoles (e.g., HCl).
o
Hydrogen Bond: H bonded to N/O/F (e.g., H₂O).
o
5. Seven Crystal Systems
Cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, trigonal
(rhombohedral), monoclinic, triclinic—classified by axis lengths and
angles.

10 MARKS
1. Seven Crystal Systems (Detailed)

System Axis Lengths Axial Angles

Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90°

Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90°

Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90°

Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90°

Hexagonal a=b≠c α = β = 90°, γ = 120°

Monoclinic a≠b≠c α = γ = 90°, β ≠ 90°

Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ

CHAPTER 2: Phase Diagrams, Ferrous Metals &
Alloys

2 MARKS
1. Phase Diagram
Map showing phases of a material under varying T, P, composition.
2. Eutectic vs. Eutectoid
o Eutectic: Liquid → 2 solids on cooling.
o Eutectoid: Solid → 2 different solids on cooling.
3. Key Phases in Fe–C Diagram
Ferrite (α), Austenite (γ), Cementite (Fe₃C)
4. Eutectoid Point in Fe–C
727°C, 0.76% C → austenite → pearlite.
5. Pig Iron
Blast furnace product, high C (3.5–4.5%), brittle.
6. Effect of High C in Cast Iron
Brittle, low tensile strength, high compressive strength.
7. Fibrous Structure of Wrought Iron
Due to entrained slag inclusions stretched during rolling.
8. Properties & Uses of Wrought Iron
Tough, ductile, corrosion-resistant; used in ornamental ironwork,
fences.
9. Mild vs. High-Carbon Steel
Mild steel: low C (0.15–0.25%), ductile, weldable.
High-C: higher C (0.61–1.50%), strong, hard, less ductile.
10. Purpose of Alloying Steel
Improve strength, hardness, toughness, corrosion resistance.
11. Effect of Cr in Steel
Improves hardenability, wear & corrosion resistance; ≥10.5% Cr for
stainless.
12. Silicon in Silicon Steel
Increases electrical resistivity, reduces eddy current/hysteresis
losses.
13. High-Speed Steel (HSS)
Contains W/Mo; retains hardness at high T, used for cutting tools.
14. Applications of Heat-Resisting Steel
Furnace parts, boiler components, turbine blades.
15. Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steel
From passive Cr-oxide layer (≥11% Cr).
16. Types of Stainless Steel
Austenitic, ferritic, martensitic.
 17. Magnet Steels
Alloy steels with high coercivity & remanence for permanent
magnets.
18. Role of Mn in Steel
Increases strength, hardness; deoxidizer, combines with S to
prevent brittleness.
19. Limestone in Blast Furnace
Flux: combines with gangue to form removable slag.
20. BIS & AISI Steel Examples
BIS: IS 2062 (structural steel)
AISI: AISI 304 (stainless steel)

5 MARKS
1. Fe–C Phase Diagram Significance
Shows phases (ferrite, austenite, cementite) and transformations
(eutectoid/eutectic). Critical for heat treatment of steel (up to 2.11%
C) and microstructure control in cast iron (>2.11% C).
2. Cast Iron vs. Wrought Iron

Feature Cast Iron Wrought Iron

C content 2–4% <0.08%

Malleability Not malleable, brittle Highly malleable, ductile

Strength High compressive, low tensile High tensile & compressive

Uses Engine blocks, pipes Ornamental work, fences

3. Eutectic vs. Eutectoid System
oEutectic: Liquid → 2 solids at lowest melting point.
oEutectoid: Solid → 2 solids at specific temperature.
4. Alloying Purpose & HSS
Purpose: Enhance strength, hardness, toughness, corrosion
o
resistance.
o HSS Composition: C (0.7–1.5%), W/Mo, Cr, V, Co.
o Uses: Cutting tools, drills, milling cutters.
5. Spring Steel & Stainless Steel
o Spring Steel: C=0.5–1.0%, Si, Mn; used in springs,
automotive suspensions.
 o Stainless Steel: ≥10.5% Cr, Ni, Mn; used in cookware,
medical instruments, chemical tanks.

10 MARKS
1. Fe–C Diagram Explained
Graph of T vs. %C showing phases:
o Ferrite (α): BCC, soft, ductile, low C solubility.
o Austenite (γ): FCC, high C solubility at high T.
o Cementite: Hard, brittle Fe₃C.
Key points: Eutectoid (727°C, 0.76% C), Eutectic (1130°C,
4.3% C).

CHAPTER 3: Non-Ferrous Metals & Alloys

2 MARKS
1. Non-Ferrous Metals
Metals without significant Fe (e.g., Al, Cu, Zn).
2. Aluminum Properties & Use
Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, good conductor; used in aerospace,
packaging.
3. Brass Composition & Properties
Cu–Zn alloy; strong, ductile, corrosion-resistant, yellow-gold color.
4. Brass vs. Bronze Composition
Brass: Cu + Zn
Bronze: Cu + Sn
5. Duralumin Composition & Use
Al–Cu–Mg–Mn alloy; high strength; used in aircraft frames.
6. Monel Properties & Suitability
Ni–Cu alloy; excellent corrosion resistance; suited for
marine/chemical environments.
7. Nichrome for Heating Elements
Ni–Cr alloy; high resistivity, high melting point, oxidation-resistant.
8. Bearing Bronzes & Lead Effect
Cu alloys for bearings; Pb improves lubricity, suits poor-lubrication
conditions.
 9. Magnesium Properties & Use
Lightweight, high strength-to-weight ratio; used in aerospace/auto
alloys.
10. Inconel as Superalloy & Uses
Retains strength at high T, corrosion-resistant; used in jet engines,
gas turbines.

5 MARKS
1. Copper, Brass, Bronze
oCu: High conductivity, used in wiring, heat exchangers.
oBrass (Cu–Zn): Malleable, decorative, valves.
oBronze (Cu–Sn): Harder, stronger, marine hardware.
Main difference: Brass uses Zn, bronze uses Sn.
2. Aluminum Alloys: Duralumin, Hindalium, Magnelium
o Duralumin: Strong, age-hardenable; aircraft frames.
o Hindalium: Corrosion-resistant; kitchen utensils.
o Magnelium: Lightweight; auto/aircraft parts, boats.
3. Nickel Alloys: Inconel, Monel, Nichrome
o Inconel: High-T strength, corrosion-resistant; jet engines.
o Monel: Marine corrosion resistance; chemical plant
equipment.
o Nichrome: High resistivity; heating elements.
4. Anti-Friction Alloys & Leaded Bronze
o Function: Low friction, wear resistance in bearings.
o Lead role: Solid lubricant if oil fails; higher Pb = better
lubricity but lower strength.
5. Tin, Lead, Zinc Properties & Uses
o Tin: Corrosion-resistant; tin plating for food cans.
o Lead: Dense, soft; radiation shielding.
o Zinc: Corrosion-resistant; galvanizing steel.

10 MARKS
1. Brasses vs. Bronzes
Property Brass (Cu–Zn) Bronze (Cu–Sn)

Hardness Lower Higher

Corrosion Res. Good Excellent (saltwater)

Color Yellow-gold Reddish-brown

Uses Musical instruments, valves Sculptures, marine hardware

2. Duralumin vs. Inconel
o Duralumin: Lightweight, high strength-to-weight; aerospace
structures.
o Inconel: High-T strength, creep/corrosion-resistant; jet engine
parts.
Comparison: Duralumin for lightweight structures, Inconel for
extreme T/corrosion.

CHAPTER 4: Failure Analysis & Testing

2 MARKS
1. Ductile Fracture
Occurs after plastic deformation; cup-and-cone appearance.
2. Brittle Fracture
Little/no plastic deformation; rapid propagation.
3. Cleavage Fracture
Brittle fracture along specific crystallographic planes.
4. Notch Sensitivity
Reduction in strength due to stress concentrators (notches).
5. Fatigue
Progressive damage under cyclic stress.
6. Endurance Limit
Max stress amplitude for infinite cycles without failure (ferrous
metals).
7. Fatigue Fracture Characteristics
Beach marks (macro), striations (micro).
8. Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Stress level, surface finish, temperature, environment, residual
stresses.
 9. Creep
Time-dependent deformation under constant stress at high T.
10. Creep Curve Stages
Primary (decreasing rate), Secondary (steady), Tertiary
(accelerating).
11. Creep Fracture
Intergranular failure after long-term high T/stress.
12. Tensile Testing
Determines yield strength, UTS, elongation.
13. Compression Testing
Measures behavior under compressive load (e.g., concrete, cast
iron).
14. Brinell Hardness Test
Hard ball indenter; hardness from indentation diameter.
15. Rockwell Hardness Test
Depth of penetration under load; direct dial reading.
16. Bend Test
Evaluates ductility/soundness of welds.
17. Torsion Test
Measures shear modulus, torsional strength.
18. Fatigue Test
Determines resistance to cyclic stress; S–N curve.
19. Creep Test
Measures time-dependent deformation under constant stress/T.
20. NDT Methods
Visual, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic, radiography.

5 MARKS
1. Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture

Aspect Ductile Brittle

Deformation Significant plastic Little/none

Surface Rough, fibrous Smooth, shiny

Energy Absorption High Low

Crack Propagation Slow, stable Rapid, unstable

Examples Mild steel, Cu, Al Cast iron, glass

 2. Cleavage Fracture & Influencing Factors
Brittle fracture along cleavage planes (e.g., {100} in BCC).
Factors: Low T, high strain rate, BCC/HCP structure, coarse grains,
inclusions.
3. Notch Sensitivity
Tendency for strength reduction due to notches.
Notch Sensitivity Factor q=(K t−1)/( K f −1) .
Brittle materials (cast iron) are highly notch-sensitive; ductile
materials (mild steel) are less so.
4. Fatigue & Endurance Limit
Fatigue: Progressive damage under cyclic stress (< yield strength).
Endurance limit: Max stress for infinite cycles (exists for ferrous
metals).
5. Fatigue Fracture Characteristics
Stages: Initiation (stress concentrators), Propagation (beach
marks/striations), Final fracture (sudden).
Appearance: Smooth area from rubbing, beach marks, little plastic
deformation.
6. Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Stress level, mean stress, stress concentrations, surface finish,
environment, material properties, T, residual stresses.
7. Destructive vs. Non-Destructive Testing

Aspect DT (e.g., tensile, hardness) NDT (e.g., UT, MPI)

Specimen Destroyed Reusable

Purpose Mechanical properties Detect defects

Cost/Time Higher Lower

8. Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
Uses high-frequency sound waves to detect internal flaws.
Equipment: Transducer, couplant, flaw detector.
Applications: Weld inspection, thickness measurement.
9. Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT)
Detects surface-breaking defects via capillary action.
Steps: Clean, apply penetrant, remove excess, apply developer,
inspect.

10 MARKS
1. Brinell & Rockwell Hardness Tests
 o Brinell: Spherical indenter, measures indentation diameter;
2P
BHN = .
πD (D−√ D2−d 2 )
o Rockwell: Depth of penetration under load; direct dial
reading; uses ball or diamond indenter.
2. Creep Curve Stages
o Primary: Decreasing strain rate (strain hardening).
o Secondary: Constant strain rate (steady-state).
o Tertiary: Increasing strain rate (voids, cracking, necking) →
fracture.
3. Two NDT Methods
o Visual Inspection: Simplest; detects surface defects;
requires good lighting/access.
o Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT): For ferromagnetic
materials; detects surface/near-surface flaws via flux leakage.

CHAPTER 5: Corrosion & Surface Engineering

2 MARKS
1. Corrosion & Causes
Deterioration of metal via chemical/electrochemical reaction with
environment (O₂, moisture, chemicals).
2. Electrolyte & Corrosion Factors
Electrolyte: Ion-conducting solution.
Factors: Environment, material properties, physical conditions.
3. Galvanic Corrosion
Occurs when dissimilar metals are connected in an electrolyte.
4. Corrosion Control by Environment
Reduce humidity, control T, remove corrosive agents.
5. Surface Engineering & Coating
Surface modification for improved performance.
Coating: Protective layer against corrosion/wear.
6. Mechanical Finishing & Organic Coatings
Grinding/polishing for surface smoothness.
Organic coatings: Paints, varnishes as moisture barriers.
7. Electroplating & Special Metallic Plating
Metal deposition via electrolysis.
Special plating: Ni, Cr, Zn for decoration/protection.
8. Electropolishing & Photo-Etching
Electrochemical surface smoothing.
Photo-etching: Selective material removal using light/chemicals.
 9. Conversion Coating Examples
Anodizing (oxide), phosphating, chromating.
10. PVD & CVD Coating
PVD: Physical vapor deposition (evaporation/sputtering).
CVD: Chemical vapor deposition (gas-phase reaction).
11. Hard-Facing & Thermal Spraying
Hard-facing: Wear-resistant layer deposition.
Thermal spraying: Molten material sprayed onto surface.
12. High-Energy Surface Processes
Laser cladding, electron beam welding, ion implantation.
13. Pollution Norms for Effluents & Need for Treatment
Standards for pH, heavy metals, chemicals; necessary to prevent
environmental pollution.

5 MARKS
1. Nature & Causes of Corrosion
Redox process: Metal oxidation + reduction (e.g., O₂ reduction).
Causes: Electrochemical cells, moisture, O₂, impurities, salts, T, pH.
2. Factors Affecting Corrosion
oMetal: Purity, microstructure, reactivity.
oEnvironment: Moisture, T, pH, O₂, pollutants.
oDesign: Crevices, stress, dissimilar metal contact.
3. Types of Corrosion
o Uniform, Galvanic, Pitting, Crevice, Stress Corrosion Cracking,
Erosion Corrosion.
4. Surface Engineering Processes & Importance
Processes: Mechanical, thermal, thermochemical, chemical,
electrochemical, physical coating.
Importance: Improves wear/corrosion/fatigue resistance,
appearance, cost efficiency.
5. Electroplating & Applications
Principle: Electrolysis; metal ions deposit on cathode.
Applications: Corrosion protection (Zn plating), decoration (Au
plating), wear resistance (Cr plating), electrical contacts.

10 MARKS
1. Comparison of Oxide, Phosphate, Chromate Coatings
 Oxide (e.g., Phosphate (e.g.,
Feature Chromate
anodizing) zinc phosphate)

Base Metal Al, steel Steel, Zn Al, Zn, Cd

Moderate Moderate, aids Excellent, self-

Protection
barrier paint adhesion healing

Appearance Dull gray Gray/black Yellow/green/blue

Environmen
Low concern Low-moderate High (Cr⁶⁺ toxic)
tal

Anodized Al, Automotive parts, Aerospace,

Uses
passivation fasteners electronics
2. PVD vs. CVD
o PVD: Physical process (evaporation/sputtering); hard, wear-
resistant coatings (TiN); vacuum required.
o CVD: Chemical reaction of gases on hot surface; high-purity
films (SiC, SiO₂); high T required.
3. Hard-Facing & Thermal Spraying
o Hard-Facing: Weld-based deposition of hard alloys (Stellite,
WC) on wear-prone parts (excavator teeth).
o Thermal Spraying: Molten/semi-molten material sprayed to
form coating (plasma, HVOF); used for TBCs, corrosion
protection.
4. Pollution Norms for Effluent Treatment
General standards (e.g., CPCB, India):
o pH: 5.5–9.0
o BOD: ≤30 mg/L
o COD: ≤250 mg/L
o Heavy metals: Pb ≤0.1 mg/L, Cr ≤0.1 mg/L, etc.
Treatment methods: Primary (screening), Secondary
(biological), Tertiary (filtration, RO).