Module 1. Introduction to Geodesy Lesson 1.2.

Branches of Geodesy

Lesson 1.1. Definition of Geodesy 1. Geometrical geodesy

 encompasses the three-dimension (3D)
Geodesy geometrical elements of the ellipsoidal
model of the Earth and the location of
 “Geodesy came from the Greek words
“geo” “desa” means…. “earth” and “to points relative to a specific model.
divide”. (Horizontal datums and Vertical Datums)
 is devoted to determining the earth’s size,  utilizes geometric methods in studying the
shape, and gravity field shape and size of the Earth.
 means dividing the Earth, or the inquiry of  Geometric positions of terrestrial geodetic
the size and shape of the Earth during the control points are calculated using regular
early times. reference ellipsoid where those points are
 includes the scope of science as well as the projected.
art of surveying.  First, A.M. Legendre from France first
 the science includes 1. Determining the published the theory of the least squares
Earth’s size and its shape; 2. Defining the method in 1806, to derive the asteroid
Earth’s gravity field and its magnitude; and orbit.
3. Reference systems and frames.  Second, both the solution of a spheroidal
 As for the art, it encompasses the use of triangle and the deduction of geodetic
scientific data and various technologies in coordinates have to be done on the
obtaining the location of points in ellipsoid surface. Gauss proposed the
reference to a defined geodetic network. 1.) solution to spheroidal triangles in his
Obtain latitude, longitude and elevation of Theorema Egregium in 1828.
points 2.) Compute lengths and directions  Gauss conformal projection - is the best
of lines on the earth’s surface 3.) Describe method to convert the geodetic
the trajectory of missiles, satellites or other coordinates into plane coordinates.
spacecraft  Area method - in order to use the results
from astrogeodetic surveying to calculate
Geomatics – includes surveying, mapping, the semimajor axis and the flattening of
geodesy, photogrammetry, remote sensing, and the Earth ellipsoid; for solving the fittest
information science. ellipsoid parameters for the geoid of the
survey area under the condition that the
Objectives of Geodesy sum of squares of the vertical deflection of
all astronomical points is the least in an
 Determine the accurate positions of points
on the Earth’s surface and their astro-geodetic network.
variations;
 Study the gravity field of the Earth; 2. Physical geodesy
 Define the shape and size of the Earth  relates the earth’s geophysical internal
 Geodynamic phenomena constitution to its corresponding external
gravity field.
Applications of Geodesy  covers the study of gravity and considers
i. Topographic mapping issues such as the distribution of mass
ii. engineering construction within the Earth, its external gravity field,
iii. transportation equipotential surfaces, level surface, and
iv. space technology the cause-and-effect relationship between
v. geoscience research them.
vi. resource development  geoid is one of the outputs of gravity
vii. environmental monitoring observation utilizing Stoke’s integral of
viii. protection, disaster prevention, resistance, formula and examples of the equipotential
and mitigation surface where the height datum is referred.
 Since Clairaut published Theorie de la
figure de la Terre in 1743, the most
important development in physical
geodesy has been the Stokes theorem
developed in 1849 by Sir. G.G. Stokes from
 the UK. According to this theorem, the ii. The “Geoid” – equipotential surface
shape of the geoid can be studied by iii. The Reference ellipsoid/surface
terrestrial gravimetric results.
 In 1945, Mikhail Sergeevich Molodensky How do we devise a reference frame?
from the former Soviet Union advanced i. Earth
the Molodensky theorem,which enabled ii. Choose a system or define a reference
rigorous calculation of the distance ellipsoid (Clark, GRS, WGS)
between surface points and the reference iii. Define origin (Geocentric, Geodetic)
ellipsoid (i.e., geodetic height) directly iv. Establish control network
from terrestrial gravimetric results without v. Determination of positions of control
any reduction. Using geodetic heights, the points, define geoid model, define the
observed values on the Earth’s surface can geoid-ellipsoid separation
be accurately reduced to the ellipsoid,
which enables processing of astro-geodetic What do we need to devise a reference frame?
surveying data to avoid errors caused by  Reference ellipsoid
inaccurate [Link] the Molodensky  Coordinate systems
theorem, the method of astro-gravimetric  Control network
leveling and the normal height system  Geoid model
emerged.  Positions
 Positioning methods
3. Satellite geodesy
 deals with satellite orbits, tracking existing Lesson 1.3: History of Geodesy
satellites and predicting the trajectory of a
given missile, satellite, or spacecraft. Degree measurement (angle)
 covers the processing of signals received
from the satellites in order to produce a Earth disk
solution or location and movement of the Homer’s Iliad (800 BC)
receiver. Thales of Miletus (about 600 BC)
 astro-geodetic surveying can only be
conducted on land, not across the oceans. Pythagoras (582 BC)
 Up to the middle of the twentieth century, Declared the Earth to be a globe
geometric geodesy and physical geodesy
were well developed. Aristarchus of Samos
 In 1957 is the first artificial satellite that An astronomer who worked out a
satellite geodesy began to emerge. geometric method to determine ratios of the
 satellite method - used to measure the distance between the Sun and the Earth with
flattening of the Earth ellipsoid precisely. the distance between the Moon and the Earth,
 satellite radar altimetry technique - used a method that required knowing that all three
to measure geoid undulation of the bodies were round.
seawater has also yielded good results.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
4. Geodetic Astronomy  concluded the Earth must be a spherical
 it has been used extensively to compute  Upon viewing the shadow of the Earth cast
positions and directions on the Earth upon the moon during an eclipse
based upon optical (and radio)
observations of stars in the sky. Eratosthenes (276-195 BC)
 Alexandrine scientist
Geometric Geodesy
deals with referencing and reference
systems for mapping and surveying (mapping a
certain “parcel of the surface of the earth”)

Reference System
A defined surface in which we “refer”
(positions) all our surveys or mapping activities.
i. Topographic surface – where our surveys
  given credit for first determining the size of  The total arc was about 8° 20' but the arc
the Earth (230 BC) was computed in two segments- -the parts
Poseidonius (135-51 BC) north and south of Paris.
 Greek astronomer  Cassini's concluded the earth is elongated
 Determined the size of the Earth using at the poles.
degree measurements
Bouger and Maupertius (1735-1736 )
Klaudios Ptolemaios (100-170)  Two geodetic surveying expeditions were
 Mathematician, astronomer, geographer sent by the French Academy of Science to
 Finally established the geocentric world Peru (Bouguer) and Lapland (Maupertuis)
system of Aristotle to make precise measurements to settle
 Almagest the dispute.
 Geographike hyphegesis  Results showed quite conclusively the
earth is flattened at the poles.
Caliph Abdullah al Mamun (786-833)
 Greek astronomer Meter
 Arabian efforts included a measurement  Idea promoted by Picard
on the plains near Baghdad about AD 827  5,130,740 toises = 10,000,000 meters
that yielded an answer only about 3.6
percent too big. The idea of a decimal length standard

Later developments in Middle Ages The work was completed during the
 Theory of gravity 1790s by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre
 Differential and integral calculus (1749–1822) and Pierre Méchain (1744–1804).
 Standardization of length Introduction of • Their resulting distance from the equator to
least squares adjustment the pole was 5,130,740 toises and was set to be
exactly 10,000,000 meters. Given further that 1
Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) toise = 864 Paris lines, one can compute 1
 Flemish cartographer meter = 443.296 Paris lines.
 Published a map of the world (1569) “The Measure of All Things” (Alder
 Having parallels of latitude 2002) is a postscript to this section and includes
 Later, his map is now called a conformal a fascinating account of the measurement-of-
projection themeter by Delambre and Méchain.

Willebrord Snellius (1580-1626) Lesson 1.4: Geodetic Data Collection

 Dutchman Techniques
 Measured an arc more than 80 miles long
using a series of 33 triangles
1.) Terrestrial Triangulation
 3.4% too small
1. Angular measurement
Jean Picard (1620-1682 ) 2. Distance measurement
 French astronomer 3. Astronomical measurement
 Measured an arc of triangulation from
Paris to Amiens (1669-1670) 2.) Angular measurement
 Used telescope with cross hairs Horizontal and vertical angles
 Computation shows the meridian arc - Theodolite or total station is used in
length was smaller towards the poles observing horizontal and vertical angle

Isaac Newton (1643-1727) 3.) Distance measurement

 British mathematician, physicist  is generally regarded as the most
 Principia Mathematica (1687) fundamental of all surveying observations.
 Convinced the Earth is flattened at the  In plane surveying, the distance between
poles two points means the horizontal distance.
 If the points are at different elevations, the
Jean-Dominique and Jacques Cassin distance is the horizontal length between
 (1735-1736 ) vertical lines at the points.
  Astronomical longitude (λ) of point P is the
Equipment used in distance measurement angle between the initial astronomical
 Measuring ropes meridian plane and the local astronomical
 Chain meridian plane of this point
 Tape measures  Astronomical latitude (ϕ) of point P is the
 Steel tapes angle between the Earth’s equatorial plane
and the plumb line of this point
Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (EDM)  Astronomical azimuth (α) of point Q
EDM is based on the rate and manner observed at point P is the astronomical
that electromagnetic energy propagates azimuth of direction PQ is the angle between
through the atmosphere. The rate of the astronomical meridian plane of point P
propagation can be expressed with the and the vertical plane of point Q.
following equation
Reference meridian
 is the plane that contains point G –
observatory at Greenwich, England. This is
known as the prime meridian or zero
meridian.
 The International Meridian Conference
decided to adopt the meridian passing
through the point mentioned above (1884)

5.) Height measurement

EDM classification 1. Leveling
- The process of determining the
1. Microwave EDM Instrument - The carrier difference in elevation of stations on the
wavelength ranges from 8 mm to 10 cm in earth’s surface
the microwave band.  Measurement of vertical distances
2. Laser EDM Instrument - The carrier is usually  Elevation of points
red visible light of 0.6328 μm wavelength and  Engineering design
it is stimulated emission of radiation (i.e.,  Construction
laser emission).  Topographic maps
3. Infrared EDM Instrument - The carrier
wavelength usually ranges from 0.75 to 0.95 2. Trigonometric leveling
μm and it is stimulated emission of radiation is a method for determining the
(i.e., laser emission) or spontaneous radiation difference in height between two ground
(fluorescent light). control points by using the distance and
vertical angle observed between the two
4.) Astronomical measurement points and then transferring the heights of
 This is a technique used to determine ground control points.
position of a point by observing celestial
bodies. 6.) Space geodetic surveying
 It is an ancient technology
GNSS surveying
 A satellite-based navigation satellite system
 Easily operational in observation, precise
positioning, and beneficial economically
 GNSS structure:
 Space segment – satellites
 Control segment – monitoring system,
tracking station around the globe
 User segment – GNSS receivers, data
processing software, other equipment
 [Link] to the receiver’s state of motion
 The satellites transmit carrier signals for during positioning:
civilian use:  Kinematic positioning
 L1 – 1,575.42 MHz (λ = 19.03 cm) Position of the receiver is changing
 L2 – 1,227.60 MHz (λ = 24.42 cm) with the time
 L5 – 1,176.45 MHz (λ = 25.48 cm)  Static positioning
 Codes modulated on carrier waves: Position remains the same throughout
 C/A – coarse acquisition ranging code, is a the observation
pseudorandom noise code (PRN code)
 P – precision ranging code Gravimetry
 D – navigation message 1. Absolute gravimetry – technique utilized to
determine gravity value at a defined
GNSS positioning method geometric point.
i. According to observed values adopted by 2. Relative gravimetry - determine the gravity
positioning: difference between two points, and then
 Pseudo-range positioning to obtain the gravity value of each point in
 Simple data processing a pointwise manner through at least one
 C/A (3 m accuracy) or P code (30 cm point of known gravity value.
accuracy) 3. Airborne gravimetry - to determine the near-
 Low demand positioning condition Earth gravitational acceleration using an
 No integer ambiguity integrated airborne gravity remote sensing
 Real-time location determination system, which consists of an aircraft as
 Low accuracy carrier, airborne gravimeter, GPS,
altimeter, and attitude determination
 Carrier phase positioning devices, etc.
 High accuracy 4. Satellite gravimetry - ground tracking
 2 mm or better accuracy satellite, satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST),
 L1 and L2 satellite gravity gradiometry (SGG), and
 Complicated data processing and has satellite altimetry (SA
integer ambiguity
Lesson 1.5: Astronomical Geodesy
ii. According modes of positioning:
 Absolute positioning Astronomy
 Precise Point Positioning (PPP) – one The scientific study of the universe
receiver is used beyond the earth, especially the observation,
 Absolute coordinates of the receiver calculation, and theoretical interpretation of the
antenna positions, dimensions, distribution, motion,
 Relative positioning composition, and evolution of celestial bodies
 Differential positioning and phenomena.
 Employs more than two receivers
observing simultaneously Geodetic Astronomy
 The art and science for determining, by
iii. According to the time used for obtaining astronomical observations, the positions of
the results of positioning: points on the earth and the azimuths of the
 Real-time positioning geodetic lines connecting such points.
 Calculates position of receiver in real-  Practical or Positional astronomy
time  2nd century AD by Greeks
 Based on observational data of the
receiver Reasons to study Geodetic Astronomy
 Base station sends correction to the i. A knowledge of celestial coordinate
receiver (rover) systems, transformations amongst them,
 Non-real-time positioning and variations in each of them
 Post-processed positioning ii. Celestial coordinate systems define the
 Determines position of the receiver in "link” between satellite and terrestrial
post-process coordinate systems
 iii. The concepts of time for geodetic  Astronomic longitude – angle between the
purposes are developed Greenwich Mean Astronomic Meridian and
iv. Tidal studies require a knowledge of the astronomic meridian plane measured in
geodetic astronomy the plane of the instantaneous equator.
v. When dealing with new technologies (e.g.
inertial survey systems) an understanding  Orthometric height – height of the point of
of the local astronomic coordinate system interest above the geoid, measured along the
is essential plumbline.
vi. Astronomic coordinates of terrain points,
which are expressed in a "natural" Relationship between the geodetic and
coordinate system, are important when astronomic coordinates
studying 3-D terrestrial networks The astro-geodetic (relative) deflection
vii. Astronomically determined azimuths of the vertical (θ) at a point is the angle
provide orientation for terrestrial between the astronomic normal at that point
networks and the normal to the reference ellipsoid at the
viii. The determination of astrogeodetic corresponding point (the point may be on the
deflections of the vertical are useful for terrain (θt) or on the geoid (θg).
geoid determination, which in turn may be
required for the rigorous treatment of Split into two components:
terrestrial observations such as distances, 1. ξ = meridian (NS component) = ΦA - φG
directions, and angles 2. η = prime vertical (EW component) = (ΛA –
ix. Geodetic astronomy is useful for the λG) cos φG
determination of the origin and Which yields the geodetic-
orientation of independent surveys in astronomic coordinate relationships. Geoidal
remote regions height (N) = h - H
x. Geodetic astronomy is essential for the
demarcation of astronomically defined Celestial coordinate systems
boundaries.  Used to define the coordinates of
celestial bodies
Geodetic Astronomy (Bodies considered)  CCS: the ecliptic, right ascension, hour
 Stars angle, and horizon
 Sun  There are two fundamental differences
 Planets between celestial coordinate systems
and terrestrial and orbital coordinate
Astronomic latitude (φ), astronomic longitude systems.
(λ), and orthometric height (H) – “natural”
coordinates, given in terms of the “real” Celestial sphere
(physical) properties of the earth. an imaginary sphere whose center is
the earth/observer & having a radius that is
infinite.

 Astronomic latitude – angle between the

astronomic normal (gravity vertical, tangent
to the plumb line at the point of interest) and
the plane of the instantaneous equator  The distance from the earth to the nearest
measured in the astronomic meridian plane. star is mode than 109 earth radii
 Closest star (α centauri, 40 x 1012 km)
 α Usae Minoris (Polaris), at 50 light years
 Sun – 8.25 light minutes (155 x 10^6 km) THE HORIZON SYSTEM
 Therefore, the relationship between the  PRIMARY REFERENCE: THE HORIZON
earth and stars can be closely approximated  SECONDARY REFERENCE: VERTICAL CIRCLES
by considering the stars all to be equidistant  PARAMETERS:
from the earth and lying on the surface of a  ALTITUDE – angle from the horizon to star
celestial sphere, the dimension of which is so  AZIMUTH – the angular distance measured
large that the earth, and indeed the solar along the horizon from the observer’s
system, can be considered to be a meridian to the vertical circle through
dimensionless point at its centre. the body.

 ZENITH – POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

DIRECTLY ABOVE THE OBSERVER.
 NADIR – POINT ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE
DIRECTLY BELOW THE OBSERVER.
 VERTICAL CIRCLE – GREAT CIRCLE ON THE
SPHERE PASSING THROUGH THE NADIR AND
ZENITH.
 CELESTIAL POLES – INTERSECTION OF THE
EARTH’S ROTATIONAL AXIS AND THE
CELESTIAL SPHERE (NORTH AND SOUTH)
 CELESTIAL MERIDIAN – THE VERTICAL CIRCLE
PASSING THROUGH THE CELESTIAL POLES.
ALMUCANTAR or PARALLEL OF ALTITUDE
 PRIME VERTICAL – THE VERTICAL CIRCLE
a small circle of constant altitude parallel to the
PERPENDICULAR TO THE PLANE OF THE
horizon
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN.
 CELESTIAL HORIZON – GREAT CIRCLE
PERPENDICULAR TO THE PLANE OF THE
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN AND THE PRIME
VERTICAL.
 NORTH AND SOUTH POINTS – INTERSECTION
OF THE CELESTIAL MERIDIAN AND THE
HORIZON.
 EAST AND WEST POINTS – INTERSECTION OF
THE PRIME VERTICAL AND THE HORIZON.
 HOUR CIRCLE – A GREAT CIRCLE PASSING
THROUGH THE CELESTIAL POLES AND
PERPENDICULAR TO THE PLANE OF THE
CELESTIAL EQUATOR.

Spherical coordinates
The position of any celestial body may
be defined by angular measurement from two
planes at right angle to each other and passing
through the center of the sphere.

Celestial Coordinate System

1. Horizon System (Altazimuth Coordinates)
2. Right Ascension Equator System (RaDec)
3. Hour angle Equator System 4. Ecliptic
System

Horizon system
 Heliocentric not topocentric
 Used to describe the position of a celestial
body in a system peculiar to a
typographically located observer.
Facts
WHAT ABOUT THE SECOND COORDINATE?
 CELESTIAL POLE - The point in which the sky THE SECOND COORDINATE IS DEFINED
appears to rotate BY THE HOUR ANGLE TAKEN FROM A FIXED
 If an observer is in the northern hemisphere POINT ON THE CELESTIAL EQUATOR. (WHICH IS
the sky appears to rotate in a THE VERNAL EQUINOX)
counterclockwise direction.
 NORTH CELESTIAL POLE - The point which the
sky appears to rotate in a counter clockwise
direction.
 Stars are not stationary points on CS but are
really moving (proper motion)
 Earth’s rotation axis (not stationary with
respect to the stars, precesion, nutation)
 Earth is displaced from the centre of the CS
(Sun is the center)
 Observer is displaced from the center, due to
mass (parallax)
 The earth is in motion around the centre of
the celestial sphere (aberration)
 Directions measured through the earth’s
atmosphere are bent by refraction.

Right ascension system

is the most important celestial system
as it is in this system that star coordinates are
published.
 Primary: Celestial Equator
 Secondary: Equinoctial Colure
 Serves as the connection between
terrestrial, celestial, and orbital coordinate
systems

CELESTIAL EQUATOR - the great circle that is

90⁰ from either celestial pole THE RIGHT ASCENSION EQUATORIAL SYSTEM

 REFERENCES: EQUATOR, HOUR CIRCLES

 PARAMETERS:
 DECLINATION – angle from the equator to
star
 RIGHT ASCENSION – The angle taken
counter clockwise along the celestial
equator from the First Point of Aries to the
hour circle of the star.

Facts:
 For an observer on the earth, the sun moves
counter clockwise relative to the stars during
the course of a year. Thus, its RA is
continuously increasing.
 The sun moves along a great circle that is
inclined to the equator by an angle of 23-27.
Ecliptic Directions defining ha system
 The earth revolves annually around the The direction to the celestial body S on
Sun the CS is given by declination (δ) and hour angle
 The Sun appears to moves from west to (h).
east on the celestial sphere
 The path of the sun is called ecliptic.

 The instance of time when the sun crosses

the First Point of Aries (which is actually on
the constellation Pisces) and marks the first
day of spring (Latin verna = “spring”) in the
northern hemisphere is also called Vernal
Equinox
 During this date, days and nights are of equal
length all over the world (“EQUINOX” =
“EQUAL NIGHTS”)
 Three months after the vernal equinox, the
LOCAL HOUR ANGLE ( LHA ) – The angle
declination of the sun is at its highest. At that
measured clockwise from the upper branch of
instant, the rate of change of the sun’s
the meridian of observation to the meridian of
declination is zero.
the celestial body.
 Which implies that the sun is momentarily
SIDE REAL HOUR ANGLE ( SHA ) – The angle
standing still.(“solstice”) NOTE: declination of
measured clockwise from the meridian of the
the sun is at its highest
vernal equinox to the meridian of the body.
GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE ( GHA ) – The angle
measured clockwise from the Greenwich
meridian to meridian of the celestial body.

RELATIONS AMONG LATITUDE, ALTITUDE (h),

AND DECLINATION

Hour angle system

In the hour angle system, the position
of the celestial body is based on the location of
the observer.

Primary - Celestial equator

Secondary - Hour circle containing zenith
 β – ecliptic latitude, angle measured in the
ecliptic meridian plane between the ecliptic
and the normal.
λ – ecliptic longitude, measured eastward in
the ecliptic plane between the ecliptic
meridian of the vernal equinox and the ecliptic
meridian of the star.

Heliocentric origin
A celestial coordinate system that is
closest to being inertial, motionless with
respect to the stars

 For stars to be circumpolar, the declination

must be greater than 90 deg. Such stars will
never reach the horizon and therefore will
never set.
 Fixed stars alter their position from the
celestial sphere very slightly. The variation
due to the change in the earth’s axis (due to
attraction of the sun, moon, and other
planets) is called precession.
 Fixed stars alter their position from the
celestial sphere very slightly. The variation
due to the small inequalities in the motion of
precession is called nutation.

Ecliptic system
Primary - Ecliptic
Secondary - Ecliptic meridian of the vernal
equinox