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CDA of Speech by Steve Job’s using Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive model -

Gurman Kaur

21044528014
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Abstract

This study focuses on analysing leadership discourse within organisational context,

with a particular emphasis on speeches delivered by influential leaders like Steve jobs CEO
of Apple. The study also explored the applications of disclosure analysis and examined the
socialcognitive structures embedded within Steve Jobs’s speech to Stanford University
graduates through critical discourse analysis using Van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach. The
qualitative research design employed Van Dijk's model as a systematic framework for
analysis. Purposive sampling was used to select Jobs's speech delivered at a university
commencement ceremony in 2005, lasting approximately 15 minutes. The transcribed speech
underwent multiple readings, and codes were derived to interpret macro, super, and
microstructures. Individual analysis preceded collaborative discussions to synthesize findings
across researchers. The study provided insights into Jobs’s discourse, revealing his innovative
problem-solving abilities, practical adaptability to user feedback, long-term vision focused on
existential risks and opportunities, and relentless persistence in realizing ground-breaking
ambitions . Notably, it highlighted the significance of creating tangible prototypes to shift
mindsets, aligning solutions, and managing civilizational risks through rational decision-
making. By analysing Jobs's speech through Van Dijk's socio-cognitive lens, the research
contributed to understanding the socialcognitive underpinnings of discourse within the
technology sector and the role of influential leaders in shaping narratives that inspire
innovation and progress.
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Leadership

Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of people to influence and guide

followers or members of an organization, society or team. Leadership often is an attribute tied
to a person's title, seniority or ranking in a hierarchy. However, it's an attribute anyone can
have or attain, even those without leadership positions. It's a developable skill that can be
improved over time.

Leaders are found and required in most aspects of society, including business, politics,
religion and social- and community-based organizations. Leaders are seen as people who
make sound and sometimes difficult decisions. They articulate a clear vision, establish
achievable goals and provide followers with the knowledge and tools necessary to achieve
those goals.

In business, individuals who exhibit leadership traits can ascend to executive

management or C-level positions, such as chief executive officer (CEO), chief information
officer (CIO) and president. Individuals who have exhibited strong leadership in the
technology industry include Apple founder Steve Jobs, Microsoft founder Bill Gates and
Amazon CEO Jeff bezos’s.

Koontz and O’Donnel has defined as, “the art of process of influencing people so that
they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals”.

George R. Terry has defined, “Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive
willingly for group objectives”.

According to Peter Drucker, Leadership is defined as “not making friends and

influencing people i.e., salesmanship. Leadership is the lifting of man's vision to higher
sights, the raising of man's performance to higher standards, the building of man's personality
beyond its normal limitations".

According to Louis A. Allen, Leadership is defined as "a leader is one who guides and
directs other people”.
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Basic Approaches to Leadership

The study of leadership has evolved through various theoretical approaches, beginning
with trait-based theories focused on identifying inherent qualities in leaders, followed by
behavioural theories emphasizing leader actions, and later advancing to contingency theories
that underscore the influence of situational factors on leadership effectiveness: -

Trait Theories of Leadership: The study of leadership initially focused on

identifying universal traits among leaders, with intelligence being the most consistent trait
found. However, research on physical traits also suggested that leaders tended to be slightly
more intelligent and larger than those they led, but not excessively so. Interestingly, the most
intelligent individuals in a group were not always the leaders. When applied to organizational
leadership, the trait approach became even more ambiguous, as there are countless opinions
on what makes a successful leader. Recently, with the recognition of the "Big Five"
personality traits, there has been a resurgence in the trait approach to leadership, showing
strong empirical support for traits like extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to
experience. This suggests that a dispositional approach to leadership, focusing on traits,
remains relevant and holds potential for the future.

Behavioural Theories of Leadership: They are based on the belief that leaders can
be identified by reference to their behaviour in relation to the followers. In other words, it is
suggested that leadership can be described in terms of what leaders do rather than what they
are. Behavioural theories have been presented mostly on the basis of research studies.
According to the studies conducted in the States of Michigan, USA, leaders who treat their
subordinates as human beings, are concerned about their well-being, and encourage and
involve them in goal setting, are more effective. They are described as 'employee-centred'
leaders. On the other hand, leaders who are 'production-centred' emphasise job performance
in conformity with prescribed standards. He exercises close control over the employees as if
they were tools of production. Such a leadership is associated with unsatisfactory work
performance due to the low morale of employees. Studies conducted in Ohio State University
showed two dimensions of leader's behaviour viz., Initiating structure and Consideration.
Initiating structure refers to the leader’s behaviour in delineating the relationship between
himself and members of the work group and in endeavouring to establish well defined pattern
of organisation, channels of communication and methods of procedure. Whereas,
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consideration refers to behaviour indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect and warmth in
the relationship between leader and the members of his staff.

Contingency Theories of Leadership: When focusing solely on leaders proved

insufficient as a comprehensive theory of leadership, attention shifted to not just the group
being led and the relationship between leader and followers, but also to the situational or
contextual factors. Social psychologists began exploring situational variables that influence
leadership roles, skills, behaviour, and followers' performance and satisfaction. While many
situational variables were identified, a cohesive theory didn't emerge until Fred Fiedler
introduced the classic contingency theory, which emphasizes the importance of situational
factors in determining leadership effectiveness.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness: Fred Fiedler developed

the first comprehensive contingency model for leadership, proposing that effective group
performance relies on the alignment between the leader's style and the level of control
granted by the situation. Fiedler introduced the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
to identify an individual's leadership style, distinguishing between task-oriented and
relationship-oriented leaders. The LPC questionnaire evaluates how respondents perceive
their least-preferred co-worker, with high scores indicating a relationship-oriented style and
low scores indicating a task-oriented style. Fiedler suggests that an individual's leadership
style remains fixed, requiring either modifying the situation or replacing the leader for
optimal effectiveness if there's a mismatch. After assessing leadership style, the next step
involves evaluating the situation based on leader-member relations, task structure, and
positional power. Fiedler identified eight possible situations based on these dimensions and
recommended matching leaders' LPC scores with the situational characteristics for maximum
effectiveness. Task-oriented leaders excel in highly favourable or unfavourable situations,
while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderately favourable situations. Fiedler's
approach suggests either adapting the leader to fit the situation or altering the situation to
match the leader's style for improved effectiveness.

Path-goal Theory: The other widely recognized theoretical development from a

contingency approach is the path-goal theory derived from the expectancy framework of
motivation Theories). Although Georgopoulos and his colleagues at the University of
Michigan’s Institute for Social Research used path-goal concepts and terminology many years
ago for analysing the impact of leadership on performance, the recognized development is
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usually attributed to Martin Evans and Robert House, who at about the same time wrote
separate papers on the subject. In essence, the path-goal theory attempts to explain the impact
that leader behaviour has on associate motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The House
version of the theory incorporates four major types, or styles, of leadership. Briefly
summarized, these are:

1. Directive Leadership - This style is similar to that of the Lippitt and White
authoritarian leader. Associates know exactly what is expected of them, and the leader gives
specific directions. There is no participation by subordinates.

2. Supportive Leadership - The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a

genuine concern for associates.

3. Participative Leadership - The leader asks for and uses suggestions from
associates but still makes the decisions.

4. Achievement-oriented Leadership - The leader sets challenging goals for

associates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well.

Unlike Fiedler's contingency model, which suggests a fixed leadership style based on
situational factors, the path-goal theory emphasizes the flexibility of leaders to adapt their style
depending on the circumstances. Two critical situational factors identified in this theory are the
personal characteristics of employees and the environmental pressures they face. Regarding
employee characteristics, the theory posits that leader behaviour will be perceived positively
by employees if it either directly satisfies their needs or contributes to future satisfaction.
Additionally, the theory suggests that leader behaviour will motivate employees to exert effort
if it links the satisfaction of their needs to effective performance and complements their work
environment by providing necessary support and guidance. To facilitate the achievement of
employee goals, leaders employ various strategies, including recognizing and addressing
employee needs, increasing the rewards for goal attainment, offering guidance and coaching,
clarifying expectations, removing barriers, and enhancing opportunities for personal
satisfaction. Research conducted on the path-goal theory has provided insights into how
different leadership styles impact employee satisfaction and performance across various
organizational contexts. For instance, studies have shown that directive leadership is more
effective for tasks with clear objectives, while supportive leadership is beneficial for tasks that
are stressful or dissatisfying. Similarly, participative leadership tends to enhance satisfaction in
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tasks that are nonrepetitive, while achievement-oriented leadership boosts employee

confidence in achieving goals, particularly in ambiguous situations.

Leadership Participation Model: The final contingency theory we cover argues that the
way the leader makes decisions is as important as what she or he decides. Victor Vroom and
Phillip Yetton’s leader-participation model relates leader-ship behaviour and participation in
decision making. Like path–goal theory, it says leader behaviour must adjust to reflect the task
structure. The model is normative—it provides a decision tree of seven contingencies and five
leader-ship styles for determining the form and amount of participation in decision making.

Research testing both the original and revised leader-participation models has not been
encouraging, although the revised model rates higher in effectiveness. Criticism focuses on
the model’s complexity and the variables it omits. Although Vroom and Jago have developed
a computer program to guide managers through all the decision branches in the revised
model, it’s not very realistic to expect practicing managers to consider 12 contingency
variables, eight problem types, and five leadership styles to select the decision process for a
problem.

Contemporary Approaches of Leadership: Despite the widespread acceptance of

traditional leadership theories and the significant amount of research conducted in this field,
many agree that there is still a need for further theory development and research. While
traditional theories have been extensively reviewed, there are concerns about the
appropriateness of some testing methods and the lack of replication of results. Therefore,
there is a call to explore alternative theories, research methodologies, and applications to
advance leadership studies. In addition to well-established theories like trait, group and
exchange, contingency, and path-goal theories, newer theories such as charismatic,
transformational, substitutes, and authentic leadership have gained recognition, offering a
more nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics of leadership.

Charismatic Leadership Theory: Charismatic leadership is described as the ability to

influence others based on supernatural gift and attractive powers. (Webber,1949) described
charisma as a gift, or certain quality possessed by an individual which sets him or her apart
from ordinary people, and is treated as if endowed with exceptional qualities or powers.
According to Webber, the occurrence of a social crisis, opportunity to articulate an ideological
goal, or a perceived need for change, will cause the emergence of a leader with exceptional
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qualities and a radical vision. This radical vision, ideology, goals, and ideas will attract a
followership with a strong belief and a discernment of the leader as extraordinary. On his part,
Robert House (1977) referred to charismatic leaders as those who have charismatic effects on
their followers to an unusually high degree. These followers perceive the leader’s beliefs as
correct, and accept him or her without questions. They are affectionate towards the leader and
are emotionally involved in the group or organisation’s mission.

Charismatic leaders are seen as passionate, driven, and are able to paint a persuasive
vision of the future; they are willing to take personal risks to achieve their vision, are sensitive
to their followers’ needs, and exhibit extraordinary behaviours. Charismatic leaders strive to
instil in their followers both commitment to their ideologies and devotion to themselves. They
are said to exhibit such attributes as ability to articulate and inspire, have a dominating
personality, a need for influence, strong conviction in their own beliefs, self-confidence, high
level of energy and enthusiasm, excellent communication and expressive skills, and ability to
draw affection from followers. They are inclined to engage in behaviours that are designed to
convey an impression of competence to their followers, such as communicating high
expectations about followers while at the same time expressing confidence in them. Their
authority draws from the following perception and characteristics of their followers: belief in
the charismatic leader’s exemplary characteristic, high degree of respect and esteem, high
performance expectations, and deep affection. Some of the well-known charismatic leaders
include Martin Luther king, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan.

Transformational Leadership Theory: The other emerging leadership perspective is

transformational leadership. This style of leadership is defined in many ways, including: as one
which leads to positive change in the followers; a style which causes change in individuals and
social systems a style of leadership in which the leader identifies the needed change, creates a
vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executes the change with the commitment
of the members of the group. Finally, transformational leadership is described as the ability to
inspire and motivate followers to achieve results greater than originally planned for internal
rewards

In transformational leadership, the leader’s vision provides the follower with a

motivation for self-rewarding hard work. They are change agents; men and women who believe
that good is never good enough and that what works could be made to work better.
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Transformational leaders engage with their followers to focus on higher order essential needs,
raise consciousness about the significance of specific outcomes and new ways in which they
could be achieved (Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 2001). They foster capacity development
and stimulate higher levels of personal commitment from followers to organizational
objectives. They help followers satisfy their individual human needs, engender trust,
admiration, and loyalty among their followers (Barbuto, 2005). Transformational leaders
provide vision and a sense of mission, communicate high expectations to their followers, and
encourage them to be more innovative. Some of the names associated with transformational
leadership success include Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, Frederick De Clarke, Charles R.
Walgreen, Indra Nooyi of PepsiCo, and Anne Mulcahy of Xerox.

Leadership Across Cultures

In today's global economy, leadership plays a crucial role, as noted by Warren Bennis.
Understanding and embodying the right leadership qualities are essential for success amidst
constant change and international challenges. Research indicates both similarities and
differences in leadership styles across cultures. For instance, a study by Haire, Ghiselli, and
Porter found that national backgrounds accounted for a significant portion of managerial
attitudes towards leadership styles. Another study highlighted variations in participative
management effectiveness across different countries, such as its ineffectiveness in a Russian
factory. Despite similarities in managerial activities between Russian and U.S. managers,
differences in effectiveness were observed, possibly influenced by factors like personal values,
background, and interpersonal skills.

Personal Values: The personal values held by a manager shape his or her perception
of a situation, influence the analysis of alternative solutions to a problem, and affect the
ultimate decision made by the leader. At the same time, the personal values of followers
influence their leader, and these values are different across cultures. A study of similar
[Link] manufacturing plants located in five different cultures (Italian, Mexican, Spanish,
United States, and British) revealed that the overall leadership approaches of the host-country
nationals reflected the expectations of the local culture and workforce.

Backgrounds of the Managers: U.S. managers come from all economic

backgrounds—lower, middle, and upper class. Although most are college educated, there is
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no guarantee that attending a given school will lead to success, as promotion is often based on
performance. Whereas degrees from prestigious schools may offer a distinct advantage, U.S.
managers come from a wide variety of colleges. The same may not be true in other countries.
For example, in France managers are traditionally chosen from the graduates of the grandes
ecoles.149 In Japan, graduates of prestigious schools have much better chances to become top
managers in the larger corporations, and in Korea many top business leaders are educated in
the United States. Besides educational background, class and family status also can have an
influence. U.S. managers come from all classes, but the same is not true in other countries.
Family name and class are important in France. In India, it is common to accept the authority
of elders, and this is revealed through little delegation of authority in many companies. In
Scandinavian countries, however, differing family patterns are reflected in participatory
decision-making styles and the routine delegation of authority by leaders.

Interpersonal Skills: There is considerable evidence that managers differ across

cultures in their interpersonal styles and skills. Leaders vary in their views of rules and
procedures, deference to authority, levels of dependence and independence, use of objectivity
versus intuition, willingness to compromise, and other interpersonal tactics

Challenges to Leadership

Navigating challenges to leadership requires an exploration of attribution, substitutes,

and neutralizers, which can significantly impact how leaders are perceived and their
effectiveness within organizational contexts.

Leadership as an Attribution

Implicit leadership theory regards leadership as a subjectively perceived construct rather

than an objective construct. Implicit leadership theory is also referred to as the attribution theory
of leadership or social information processing theory (Muchinsky, 2012).

Phillips and Lord (1981) discovered that individuals develop global impressions of
leader effectiveness and then use those global impressions to describe specific dimensions of
leader behaviour. Thus, individuals make confident judgments of behaviour they have had no
opportunity to observe, in much the same way halo error operates in performance appraisal.
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Lord and his colleagues define implicit leadership theory as “Cognitive structures or prototypes
specifying the traits and abilities that characterize leaders.” (Lord, Foti & DeVader, 1984).
Thus, individuals tend to generate and hold schemas concerning what constitutes an effective
leader do not possess the characteristics that we associate with leadership might be overlooked
for promotion or however, research from human decision-making demonstrates that these
judgements are sometimes fallacious (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Individuals who
development into leadership positions. The research conducted by Lord (1984) and his
colleagues demonstrate that the implicit theories of leadership that individuals possess are often
associated with the notion of success.

An implicit theory is unconscious so individuals are probably unaware of their biases

when they evaluate a leader. Lynn Offerman and her colleagues found this to be true in a study
that examined follower perceptions of men and women leaders (Offerman et al., 1994). They
found that masculinity was a stable implicit leadership theory across participants, sex, and
stimuli. Essentially, when followers consider an effective leader, it is typically in masculine
terms.

Attribution theory examines how people try to make sense of cause-and-effect

relationships. The attribution theory of leadership says leadership is merely an attribution
people make about other individuals. Thus, attributes to leader’s intelligence, outgoing
personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness, understanding, and industriousness are
examples. At the organizational level, employees tend to see leaders, rightly or wrongly, as
responsible for extremely negative or extremely positive performance.

Perceptions of leaders by their followers strongly affect leaders’ ability to be effective.

One longitudinal study of 128 major U.S. corporations found that whereas perceptions of CEO
charisma did not lead to objective company performance, company performance did lead to
perceptions of charisma (Agle & Nagaranjan et al., 2006). Employee perceptions of their
leaders’ behaviours are significant predictors of whether they blame the leader for failure,
regardless of how the leader assesses him- or herself (Bligh & Kohles et al.). A study of more
than 3,000 employees from western Europe, the United States, and the Middle East found
people who tended to “romanticize” leadership in general were more likely to believe their own
leaders were transformational (Schyns, Felfe, and Blank, 2005).
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Even demographic assumptions about leaders are made. Respondents in a study

assumed a leader described with no identifying racial information was white at a rate beyond
the base rate of white employees in a company. In scenarios where identical leadership
situations are described but the leaders’ race is manipulated, white leaders are rated as more
effective than leaders of other racial groups (Rosette et al., 2008). A meta- analysis found that
many individuals hold stereotypes of men as having more leader characteristics than women,
although as you might expect, this tendency to equate leadership with masculinity has
decreased over time (Koenig et al, 2011). Other data suggest women’s perceived success as
transformational leaders may be based on demographic characteristics. For example, teams
prefer male leaders when aggressively competing against other teams, but they prefer female
leaders when the competition is within teams and calls for improving positive relationships
within the group (Vugt, 2008). Heilman & Okimoto (2007) argue that women who are
successful in male stereotyped occupations are actually punished for that success, possibly
because they are simultaneously seen as deficient in skills commonly associated with women
(e.g., communal skills like nurturing & behaving in sympathetic manner).

Substitutes & Neutralizers of Leadership

One theory of leadership suggests that in many situations’ leaders’ actions are irrelevant
(Vugt, 2008). Substitutes for leadership behaviour can clarify role expectations, motivate
organizational members, or satisfy members (making it unnecessary for the leader to attempt
to do so). In some cases, these substitutes supplement the behaviour of a leader. Experience and
training are among the substitutes that can replace the need for a leader’s support or ability to
create structure. Organizational characteristics such as explicit formalised goals, rigid rules and
procedures, and cohesive work groups can also replace formal leadership, while indifference
to organizational rewards can neutralise its effects. Neutralizers make it impossible for leader
behaviour to make any difference to follower outcomes.
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Sometimes the difference between substitutes and neutralizers is fuzzy: If I’m working
on a task that’s intrinsically enjoyable, theory predicts leadership will be less important because
the task itself provides enough motivation. But does that mean intrinsically enjoyable tasks
neutralize leadership effects, or substitute for them, or both? Another problem is that while
substitutes for leadership (such as employee characteristics, the nature of the task, etc) matter
to performance, that doesn’t necessarily mean leadership doesn’t (Dionne et al., 2002).

Indian Perspective on Leadership

Before one discusses the leadership styles in India, one needs to look at the business
environment in India. India has today seen a lot of transformation from an unexciting mix of
government owned companies and private family-owned companies, many of which survived
on government licenses to the inflow of multinational companies and lot of Indian companies
being run as professional companies (Thimmappa, 2003). Further, today there is talk of
privatizing public sector companies, however, there are some public sector companies earning
profits. All these changes in the business environment have led to a change in the leadership
styles, in certain cases leadership styles have changed business (Sharma S, 1995).

Even though the above style of leadership still exists in many private sector companies,
there has been a change in the style of leadership in many of the professional run Indian
companies. It has become more democratic (Sharma S,1998). Corporate icons like: Tata, Birla,
Ambani, Baja, Singhania, Narayana Murthy, Azim Premji, etc. are people with extraordinary
drive, determination, dedication and discipline. A role analyst of these icons will present the
following: The above leaders along with other forward-thinking companies have the following
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abilities – instinct, innovation, inspiration and influencing. They are visionary and master
strategists (Sims et al, 2002). They have concepts (business knowledge), competence (abilities)
and Connection (networking): They create environment where learning is continuous. They
have moved from command and control to consult and consensus method of decision-making
(Sinha, 2010). In the Indian scenario, family-run-business has consolidated their position
against multinational companies. They have emerged as the leaders in many areas. Indian
family-run-business is based on tradition which is different from western models of
management. The strong sense of family, caste, community, linguistic and regional identities
greatly influence their business focus (Yukl, 2000).

The proposition that a people’s cultural tradition, comprising beliefs, values, attitudes,
and social practices, strongly influences their behaviour in modern business organizations, thus
leading to diversity in management around the world, has enjoyed considerable theoretical and
empirical support (Haire et al., 1966; Hofstede, 1980). In the last three decades, this ‘culturalist’
thesis has continued to provide the dominant paradigm for the study of management and
leadership styles in Indian business organizations (Chakraborty, 1987; Garg & Parikh, 1995,
Virmani and Gupta, 1981). According to this paradigm, there are certain culture-specific
expectations, shared by leaders and followers alike, that arise from socialization patterns within
the family (Kakar, 1978). These culture-specific expectations are said to play a significant role
in shaping the context of organizational leadership in India.

Kejriwal and Krishnan (2004) found in an experimental study conducted in India that
the worldview of leaders affected their transformational leadership. Culture becomes important
in understanding leadership because leadership is essentially a social phenomenon. Leadership
theories are full of assumptions that might hold primarily in North America, such as being
individualistic rather than collectivistic, hedonistic rather than altruistic, emphasizing rights
rather than duties, rationality rather than tradition, and so on (Beyer, 1999; House et al., 1997).
Cross cultural studies have shown that these assumptions are not shared by all the cultures of
the world (Hofstede, 2001; Pillai et al., 1999; Smith and Peterson, 2002). Though a particular
leadership style might have been effective in the USA, when it was imported in full to different
countries, it was found that it did not deliver to its full potential, and, in fact, sometimes proved
to be counterproductive (Beyer, 1999; Conger, 1999; Dickson et al., 2003; Pillai et al., 1999;
Smith and Peterson, 2002). Robert et al. (2000) found that ratings of supervisors were
negatively related to empowerment in India, while they were positively related in the USA,
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Mexico, and Poland. Therefore, it is worthwhile giving some attention to effective leadership
behaviours in the Indian context.

Uncritical transfer of management theories and techniques based on western ideologies

and value systems has contributed in many ways to organizational inefficiencies and
ineffectiveness in cultures such as India (Kanungo and Jaeger, 1990). Personal relations are
very important in India, and so businesses settling there must learn to adapt to local conditions
(Budhwar, 2001). Unique internal labour markets exist in Indian organizations, based on social
relations, political contacts, caste, religion, and economic power (Budhwar and Boyne, 2004).

Among the patterns that have been identified in the literature, the following are the most
relevant to the present research:

1. Pioneering Leadership - Khandwalla (1988) examined 75 public and private

sector organizations in order to identify the indigenously evolved PL style that he argued, is the
outgrowth of the entrepreneurial tradition in the country - exemplified by Jamsetji Tata,
Hirachand and Birla. Such leaders are essentially entrepreneurs with a blend of
professionalism. They tend to launch pioneering, novel, technologically sophisticated and
highquality products and services in the market. They are willing to take risks and adapt to the
business environment. According to Khandwalla, the PI style is an ambitious style with high
performance aspirations combined with conscientiousness, expertise, teamwork and
achievement orientation.

2. Paternalistic Style - Virmani and Gupta (1991) studied managers from a variety
of Indian organisations ranging from family owned, cooperative and public sector and
multinational organisations. They reported that participative style is “farcical” in Indian
conditions and that the effective top man is paternalistic who centralizes power and takes all
decisions. He is competent and has concern for subordinates and the subordinates have faith in
and respect for him. The paternalistic leader is one who is, firstly, a person of high integrity,
vision, dedication and warmth. Secondly, an effective boundary manager. Thirdly, a successful
resource mobiliser. Fourth, a system builder and fifth, a father figure with a humane face.

Paternalism is an effective leadership style in non- Western cultures (Aycan, 2006;

Martinez, 2005), however in the Western context, paternalistic leadership has been equated with
authoritarianism (Uhl-Bien & Maslyn, 2005) despite the strong negative correlation reported
between paternalism and authoritarianism (cf. Aycan & Kanungo, 1998). Recently, Pearce
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(2005) suggested that the benevolent aspect in paternalistic leadership is underappreciated in

the Western literature.

According to Sinha (1990), the high scores in India may be because of the traditional
family structure where members are expected to comply with the decisions of the father. In her
ethnographic study of families from India, Seymour (1999) reported that children are taught
very early that their needs do not come first and that they must submit to the authority of others
in order to foster family coherence and harmony. In Indian organizations, there are strong norms
that define who is expected to communicate with whom. Junior employees follow these norms
and do not simply approach senior employees (Zaidman & Brock, 2009). Consequently, in the
workplace, leaders maintain strong authority whereas subordinates are expected to accept the
leader’s values as if they were their own (Cheng & Jiang, 2000).

A paternalistic leader is found to be effective in a number of Asian countries (Pye, 1985).

The Asian conceptualisation is not one of an autocratic leader like the west where the
paternalistic style is equated with autocratic leadership. Unlike an autocratic leader, a
paternalistic leader shares, discusses with and consults his subordinates, maintains personalized
relations and listens to their ideas and concerns in private and tends to maintain harmony
(Spencer, 1985). He has a moral obligation to use his power not for exploiting and domineering
but to protect the less powerful ones.

3. Nurturant Task-Participative (nt-p) Model of Leadership - This model draws on

Indian cultural values as well as universal leadership processes (Sinha, 1980). The model
emphasizes the importance of participation style; but only when it is preceded by the nurturant
- participative style. A nurturant leader is one who cares for his subordinates and is committed
to their wellbeing; allows them to depend on him for guidance and direction, establishes
emotional bonds with them, guides and directs them in work as well as in personal matters and
helps them grow and mature. The nurturant style is close to the paternalistic style (Virmani and
Gupta, 1991) and the kartaa (house-head) symbol in the formulation of transformational
leadership (Singh and Bhandarkar, 1990). A nurturing leader is particularly preferred by those
subordinates who have the disposition to accept his superior status, depend on them and
maintain personalised relationships with him. It is ideally a relationship of sneh (affection) for
subordinates who reciprocate by cultivating shradhaa (deference) for the leader.
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The cultural preference for the NT leader is related to a strong desire for power
combined with dependency needs—wishes that are manifested in a search for proximity to the
leader (Nandy and Kakar, 1980; Sinha, 1972). There is thus a pervasive use of ingratiating
behavior towards the leader in Indian organizations, the ingratiators tending to exaggerate the
power distance, showing their dependency and thereby seeking to evoke nurturant behavior
from the leader (Pandey, 1981).

Khandwalla (1990) argued that countries such as India are most conducive for the
emergence of transformational leadership because of realities such as social stratification and
kinship orientation. Only transformational leaders could address these realities and that too only
through addressing the unique cultural requirements. Duty orientation, and not hedonism or
individual rights, is the basic motivational fabric of Indian society. Burns (1978) claimed that
the crux of transformational leadership is addressing the real needs of followers. According to
a study by Singh & Krishnan (2007) on transformational leadership in India. Being sensitive to
followers will help in understanding their real needs. Exhibiting personal touch and being
nurturing are unique behaviours for the Indian context that will enhance transformational
leadership. Transformational leaders serve as role models for their followers. When followers
see their leader being conscientious, they are also likely to become devoted and hence perform
beyond expectations

In their five-nation study, Pillai et al. (1999) found that differences in leadership patterns
across cultures lay in the processes through which the leader operated. Many leadership
characteristics are universally endorsed, whereas many others are culture bound. The
implementation of both types of characteristics also varies across cultures. It is anticipated that
there will be unique dimensions in the operationalization of transformational leadership in
nations that have unique cultures, like for example India. Therefore, a new scale is needed to
measure transformational leadership in India. Authors on Indian culture have noted the diverse
elements that are part of the culture, but have highlighted an underlying unity behind that
diversity (Gupta, 2002; Sinha, 2000). Transformational leadership seeks to elevate followers to
a higher common plane (Burns, 1978).

Discourse Analysis

In its simplest form, discourse is verbal or written communication between people that
goes beyond a single sentence. Importantly, discourse is more than just language. The term
 18

“language” can include all forms of linguistic and symbolic units (even things such as road
signs), and language studies can focus on the individual meanings of words. Discourse goes
beyond this and looks at the overall meanings conveyed by language in context. “Context”
here refers to the social, cultural, political, and historical background of the discourse, and it is
important to take this into account to understand underlying meanings expressed through
language. A popular way of viewing discourse is as language used in specific social contexts,
and as such language serves as a means of prompting some form of social change or meeting
some form of goal. Discourse analysis uses the language presented in a corpus or body of data
to draw meaning. This body of data could include a set of interviews or focus group discussion
transcripts. While some forms of discourse analysis centre in on the specifics of language (such
as sounds or grammar), other forms focus on how this language is used to achieve its aims.
We’ll dig deeper into these two above-mentioned approaches later.

As Wodak and Krzyżanowski (2008) had put it: “discourse analysis provides a general
framework to problem-oriented social research”. Basically, discourse analysis is used to
conduct research on the use of language in context in a wide variety of social problems (i.e.,
issues in society that affect individuals negatively).

For example, discourse analysis could be used to assess how language is used to express
differing viewpoints on financial inequality and would look at how the topic should or shouldn’t
be addressed or resolved, and whether this so-called inequality is perceived as such
by participants.

Discourse can be shared through written or spoken language. In fact, it’s organised into
three categories: -

Written discourse: Composed of written works like essays, blog posts, and books.

Spoken discourse: Shared through speech, like presentations, vlogs, and oral reports.

Civil discourse: Spoken or written words characterised by its inclusion of multiple

participants, all of whom engage on a level playing field.
 19

Types of Discourses

Discourse analysis can be divided into two main types: macro-level and micro-level.
Macro-level discourse analysis: looks at the overall structure of language, such as the way it is
organized into sentences and paragraphs. Micro-level discourse analysis looks at the meaning
of individual words and phrases.

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a type of

discourse analysis that focuses on the way language is used to influence opinions, beliefs, and
actions. It looks at how language is used to construct and maintain power dynamics, to oppress
certain groups, and to shape our understanding of the world. CDA is often used to study how
language is used in political contexts, such as speeches, press releases, and news reports.

Conversation Analysis (CA): Conversation analysis (CA) is a type of discourse

analysis that looks at the structure and content of conversation. It looks at the way language is
used to convey meaning, to establish relationships, and to make sense of the world. CA is often
used to study how language is used in everyday life, such as in conversations between friends,
family members, and colleagues.

Interactional Sociolinguistics (IS): Interactional sociolinguistics (IS) is a type of

discourse analysis that looks at the way language is used in social interactions. It looks at how
language is used to construct identities, to negotiate relationships, and to make sense of the
world. IS is often used to study how language is used in social contexts, such as in online
forums, chat rooms, and social media posts.

Narrative Analysis (NA): Narrative analysis (NA) is a type of discourse analysis that
looks at the way language is used to tell stories. It looks at how language is used to construct
and convey meaning, to establish relationships, and to make sense of the world. NA is often
used to study how language is used in literary texts, such as novels, poems, and plays.

Types of methods

Understanding discourse analysis involves delving into various methodological

approaches crafted by influential scholars such as Van Dijk, Foucault, Fairclough, and Wodak.
 20

Each of these scholars has developed unique models that provide valuable insights into the
study of language, power relations, and societal structures.

Van Dijk’s Model: Van Dijk focuses on scrutinizing news in the press and the
relationship between discourse and media. Language for him is part of the mental
representation. Van Dijk (1991) developed a socio-cognitive account that focuses on “the
discursive nature of the reproduction of racism by the press” (p. 254). On this basis, Van Dijk
(1988a, 1988b, 1991, and 1993) has developed a systematic framework for scrutinizing news
discourse, especially newspaper articles.

Van Dijk (2001) defines CDA as: Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a type of
discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance,
and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political
context. With such dissident research, critical discourse analysts take explicit position, and thus
want to understand, expose, and ultimately resist social inequality.

Van Dijk believes that we can interpret any social phenomenon based on the microlevel
analysis and macro-level analysis.

Micro and Macro Levels of Analysis: Van Dijk (2001), believes that language use,
discourse, verbal interaction, and communication are related to the micro-level of the social
order. Generally speaking, the microstructure level examines the structure of the text in terms
of the rhetorical elements and coherence as well. In the analysis of the text, the microstructure
level of analysis is not enough. The macrostructure level, however, is necessary because it deals
with the issues of power, dominance, and inequality between social groups. To study any social
problem in which some actors are involved, Van Dijk identifies two main groups: ingroup and
outgroup. Each group believes in certain principles that oppose the other and expresses their
beliefs through language.

Ingroup/Outgroup: ‘Ingroup and outgroup’ is a group relation in which two opposing

groups hold different ideologies. Van Dijk (1995), points out that the ingroup (Us) is
represented positively, is given more importance, described in a detailed way, and in need of
sympathy and compassion. The outgroup (Them), on the other hand, is represented negatively,
is given less importance, is described in a general way, and is subject to negative criticism that
makes the audience shape the sense of hatred towards them. CDA analysts can reveal this
contrast from the word choice given for each group. In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, for
 21

example, the supporters of Israel consider the Israeli people as the ingroup and the Palestinians
as the outgroup and vice versa. To conclude, Van Dijk and Fairclough’s frameworks of CDA
are suitable for the analysis of news headlines, political texts, campaigns, and speeches to unveil
the ideological differences and also describe the relationship between CDA and ideology.

Michael Foucault’s Model: Michel Foucault (1926-1984) was a French philosopher,

sociologist, and historian interested in the construction of knowledge and power through
discourse. Foucault believed that discourse is created by those in power for specific reasons
and is often used as a form of social control. He is typically associated with the structuralist
and post-structuralist movements. Foucault was critical of those in power, especially the French
Bourgeoisie, and stated that those with power could create discourses for their own gain yet
were able to conceal (hide) their intentions. I.e., Powerful people in society create knowledge
that is eventually considered the norm, and others are unaware they’ve done so. Foucault's
discourse theories and research into language, power, and social control are some of the most
influential of our time. Foucault's discourse theory encourages us to question what is 'true' and
to ask who in society benefits. This is one of Foucault's main arguments: everything is an
exercise of power, and there is always somebody who benefits. Foucault's discourse theory
examines how people express themselves through language and suggests that the structures of
power shape how people communicate in society. Individuals all draw from a shared ‘pool of
knowledge’ when communicating. This knowledge pool is typically accepted by the wider
society and becomes further legitimised the more people use, share, and distribute it. Over time,
this pool of knowledge slowly changes as people add to it and adapt it, meaning the things
society deem to be ‘true’ can, and do, change over time.

Foucault and power: Foucault didn’t believe there was just one form of power. Instead,

he recognised several different types, they are:

1. Sovereign power - This is the form of power you are probably most familiar
with. It is the power held by those in positions of authority, such as Queen Elizabeth II, the
Prime Minister, or a headteacher.

2. Disciplinary power - Disciplinary power is related to Foucault’s theory of gaze

- the idea that people will regulate their behaviour if they believe they’re being watched. This
 22

is the type of power we exercise over ourselves to fit the norm and be an ‘acceptable’ member
of society. You could say it’s similar to self-restraint.

3. Pastoral power - This term has religious roots but isn’t necessarily confined to
religion. Pastoral power refers to acting in a certain way to ensure the safety and security of all.
For example, it could be said that the police hold pastoral power as they exert power for the
good of the wider community (although not all members of society would necessarily agree
with this).

4. Bio-power - Foucault coined the term bio-power to refer to the government’s

administration and recording of bio issues, such as birth and death rates, race, class, and gender.
Foucault stated that this mode of power impacted how we view ourselves in relation to the
wider community.

Foucault discourse analysis: Foucauldian discourse analysis (FDA), sometimes called

Foucaultian discourse analysis, is a form of discourse analysis with a particular focus on the
relationship between power and language. The method is based on Foucault’s theory of
discourse and social control and aims to expose how those with power control people through
language. Foucauldian discourse analysis is grounded in constructivism and critical theory. It
critiques the power structures in society and aims to understand how language can construct
societal knowledge and uphold existing power structures. Unlike traditional discourse analysis,
FDA is more critical of the political implications of using language to legitimise power.

Normann Fairclough’s Model: Norman Fairclough (1941-present) is a British

professor of linguistics and the English language. Fairclough’s work has been highly influential
in the field of language and power, and he is widely regarded as the pioneer of critical discourse
analysis (CDA). CDA is a method used to analyse the role discourse plays in the construction
of knowledge, ideology, and power. Fairclough believes that language is a form of social
practice. This means language is more than just vocabulary and grammar; it's a vital part of
people’s lives and is habitually performed by most members of society. Because of this belief,
Fairclough’s work has been influenced by linguistic theory (including the works of Michael
Halliday) and social theory (including the works of Michel Foucault). Norman Fairclough is
best known for his theories on the relationship between language, power, and society.
According to Fairclough, power in language is exercised in two ways: power in discourse and
power behind discourse. 'Power in discourse' refers to power relations that are enacted,
 23

performed, or negotiated in discourses. 'Power behind discourse' points to the social and
ideological setup that shapes and influences discourses. For example, a teacher in a classroom
has power in discourse because they control the conversation and subject matter. The broader
educational system, societal norms, and ideologies represent the power behind discourse,
shaping how that conversation happens and what is deemed appropriate or relevant.

Norman Fairclough, Language and Power: In his book Language and Power (1989),

Fairclough explored how language overlaps with social structures of power, suggesting it can
be used to create, change, and maintain power relations in today’s society. Fairclough’s theory
of language and power is based on Michel Foucault’s discourse theory, which suggests that
power is everywhere and is maintained and understood through 'accepted knowledge'.
Fairclough was interested in how language is used to create this knowledge and often used
political speeches to highlight his theory. In Language and Power (1989), he critically analysed
Margaret Thatcher’s (ex-prime minister of the UK 1979-1990) speeches to see how
Thatcherism became a new ‘common sense’ (i.e. the accepted knowledge and ideology) in the
UK. Thatcher wanted to instigate a move away from the socialist ideals of post-war Britain and
towards a capitalist free-market economy.

Norman Fairclough and Synthetic Personalisation: Synthetic personalisation is a term

coined by Norman Fairclough that refers to the way in which advertising and other forms of
mass communication use language to create a sense of personal connection or relationship with
consumers, despite being part of a mass audience. This is achieved through the use of second-
person pronouns like 'you', or through conversational and colloquial language that makes the
consumer feel like they are being individually addressed, even though the message is being
broadcasted to a large audience.

Stages to synthetic personalisation Fairclough suggests there are three stages to the
process he calls synthetic personalisation. Firstly, use personal pronouns, informal language,
and personalised cultural references to build relationships with potential customers. Secondly,
carefully select the vocabulary and visuals used to manipulate the readers’ worldview and
ensure it aligns with the ideology being sold. Thirdly, create a consumer willing to receive the
ideological message being sold to them.

Norman Fairclough, Critical discourse analysis (CDA): Critical discourse analysis is

an interdisciplinary approach (not a theory!) used to analyse the role language (written, spoken,
 24

or visual) plays in the construction of knowledge, ideology, and power. Fairclough's approach
to CDA emphasises the intrinsic connection between language and social practice, viewing
discourse as a form of social action. Fairclough's model of CDA focuses on investigating how
societal power relations are established and reinforced through language use. His work has been
influential in a range of fields, from linguistics and communication studies to sociology and
political science.

Interdisciplinary approach - An approach that draws upon two or more academic

disciplines. Critical discourse analysis recognises language as a social practice and places it
into its social context, paying attention to what is being said by whom and where. CDA aims
to analyse the existence of dominance, power, and control exhibited in language and critically
investigates the role language plays in the creation and maintenance of social inequality.
According to Fairclough, the analysis of power in discourse can be split into two disciplines:

1. Power in discourse - Analysing the lexicon, strategies, and language structures

used to create power. Some common language features used to create a sense of power include:
imperative verbs, rhetorical questions, personal pronouns, emotive language, and alliteration.

2. Power behind discourse - Analysing the sociological and ideological reasons

behind who is asserting power over others and why. For example, the UK mass media (e.g.
newspapers) has power over its readers as the newspaper editors decide which information and
which narratives their readers will see.

Wodak Historical Approach Model: Ruth Wodak is one of the main scholars that has

specialized in CDA, and her work has been highly relevant in the field of discourse studies.

Therefore, this article delves into the main tenets of Wodak’s work and showcases its relevance
in the field of discourse studies. CDA highlights the substantively linguistic and discursive
nature of social relation of power in contemporary societies. This is partly the matter of power
relation are exercised and negotiated in discourse. It is fruitful to look at both "power in
discourse” and power over discursive in these dynamic terms.

‘Criticality’ in CDA: Before starting to unfold the intricacies of Wodak’s work, it is

necessary to establish the main characteristics that define CDA. Firstly, CDA is considered
 25

critical because its focus is not to be merely descriptive, as this is only the initial stage of the
analysis. Instead, its focus is to understand the interconnection between language and society.
Thus, there is an explanatory nature to CDA, which aims to understand social phenomena
through the analysis of discourse (KhosraviNik, 2015). It can be said that [CDA] explains why,
and with what consequences, the producers of a text make such specific linguistic choices (or
avoid doing so), given the various options that are available. Such a framework is then capable
of accounting for absences as well as presences in the data. (KhosraviNik, 2015, p. 52).

Thus, this understanding of discourse analysis highlights the way in which language is
used and why it is used in that specific way, by understanding it not as an isolated phenomenon
but as a manifestation of its own context. Therefore, the ‘criticality’ of the method relies on the
contextualization of the descriptive discourse analysis, as well as in the reflexive observation
found in its methodological approach (KhosraviNik, 2015).

CDA and the Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA): Once having the foundational
knowledge of what is CDA and why it is ‘critical’, one can delve into the central ideas in
Wodak’s version of CDA. Specifically, the DHA in CDA, created by her and colleagues at the
University of Vienna, is an influential approach that highlights the relations between the Self
and the Other (KhosraviNik, 2015). As Wodak puts it (2016), the DHA is “problem-oriented”,
which means that understanding the linguistic dimension only constitutes a part of the research
and it should not be limited to it. This linguistic development must in turn be contrasted with
its context, which involves the linguistic piece to be analysed, its relations to other texts and
discourses, the situational context (for example the space in which a speech took place), and
the historical and socio-political conditions in which the text or speech is embedded. By
analysing the discourse and contextualizing it, the DHA aims to “analyse, understand, and
explain the complexity of the objects under investigation” (Wodak, 2016, p. 3).

Furthermore, DHA considers discourse to be socially constructed and socially

constitutive, which means that it both constructs social practices and is, in return, constructed
by social practices. It is a group of interconnected linguistic practices linked to a broader topic
and related to ‘validity claims’ or normative stances that involve multiple social actors (Reisigl
& Wodak, 2015, p. 89). Similarly, Wodak makes a differentiation between discourse and text,
for text is a constitutive part of discourses and, in a way, makes objects out of linguistic
practices (Reisisgl & Wodak, 2015).
 26

Interdiscursivity and Intertextuality: To contextualize discourses, the DHA employs

two different concepts: interdiscursivity and intertextuality. The former refers to the relation
between different discourses. To exemplify it, Wodak states, “a discourse on climate change
frequently refers to topics or subtopics of other discourses, such as finances or health.
Discourses are open and often hybrid; new sub-topics can be created at many points” (Reisigl
& Wodak, 2015, p. 90). To visualize this example, when political leaders refer to climate
change, they may address that combatting it may bring health benefits to the population and a
better quality of life; however, some leaders could also state that moving from fossil energy to
green energy requires large budgets and therefore some measures may not be considered
possible to implement.

On the other hand, intertextuality points to the connection between texts. On that note,
this relation can be made “through explicit reference to a topic or main actor; through references
to the same events; by allusions or evocations; by the transfer of main arguments from one text
to the next, and so on” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2015, p. 90). These references to other texts often
involve a process of ‘recontextualization’, where the information from other texts is framed
again (Reisigl & Wodak, 2015). For example, a politician can use news articles on a topic to
solidify their arguments, or they can also refer to a previous speech of a political rival to ridicule
them and present their own ideas as superior. Intertextuality and interdiscursivity are two
concepts that provide meaning to the discourse analysis and can help to unravel power relations.

Therefore, throughout the text, the central ideas of CDA, in particular of DHA, were
thoroughly exposed. The work of Ruth Wodak can provide some light on how to analyze
discourse and understand that discourses do not live in a vacuum, but can be connected with
each other. While discourses can spread from one field of action to the other, it is important to
understand the context in which they are found. CDA aims to pinpoint how these discourses
are articulated but at the same time recognizes the importance of its context and the power
relations embedded in it, further explaining their influence in the discourses at play. It is because
of this reason that CDA has increasingly become a widespread tool in the study of social
sciences, for its purpose is to criticize social issues and phenomena, and in return change social
realities for the better (Carta & Wodak, 2015).
 27

Advantages of discourse analysis

One of the critical qualities of DA is that, just the same as numerous other subjective
strategies, legitimacy isn't forfeited in that frame of mind of repeatability and dependability
likewise with much quantitative exploration (Sherrard, 1997). Perusers of good quality talk
investigations frequently remark on their inward intelligence (they recount a decent clear story),
which have face legitimacy (it impacts them), which likewise offer new hypothetical
experiences and produce productive further inquiries.

Social constructionist work is valuable since it doesn't endeavour to set a decent

significance on ideas deduced, nor does it endeavour to contrast ideas and a thought of an
unproblematically freely existing reality. Thus, it turns into a helpful hypothetical asset from
which to dissect the manners by which an idea arises by and large and the various manners by
which it capabilities in various spaces in culture (for example Hepworth, 1999; Parker et al.,
1995). For instance, the investigation of psychotherapy can move from finding out if a specific
mental hypothesis is valid or misleading to 25/2 looking at the way things are utilized in a
specific psychotherapy meeting (Roy-Chowdhury, 2003). DA is generally valuable to clinicians
when they share its epistemological presumptions thus it has been embraced by numerous story
and foundational specialists impacted by friendly constructionism and poststructuralism (for
example 1992; Frosh et al., 1996; Kogan and Storm, 1997; Roy-Chowdhury, 2003; Stancombe
and White, 1997).

Since talk experts don't change their information into mathematical structure (for
example by decreasing it to bunch means or midpoints) or into derived mental builds (for
example 'character', 'convictions' or 'mentalities') and on the grounds that the information is
accounted for so perusers can pass judgment on the understandings for themselves it is, as other
subjective methodologies, one might say more genuinely exact than numerous quantitative
methodologies. Potter (1998) contends that DA gives a 'thorough approach to straightforwardly
concentrating on human practices' (p.139) and in this way it can look at the contrast between
what we, as clinicians do and what we figure we do (Potter, 1998; Roy-Chowdhury, 2003).
 28

Disadvantages Of Discourse Analysis

One of the key limitations of discursive research arises from the continuing dominance
of more traditional, especially naively realist quantitative approaches. This leads to a situation
where research questions may be framed (e.g. by research-funding bodies) and studies judged
(e.g. by journal reviewers and editors) according to the assumptions of the dominant paradigm.
Methods, like DA, which ask those questions in different ways or which ask different kinds of
questions run the risk of being devalued. Those socialised in hypothetico-deductive approaches
often frame questions in terms of comparison, change over time or in relation to inferred
constructs - these kinds of questions are more appropriately addressed by other methods (Barker
et al., 2002). Potter notes that for those beginning to use qualitative methods the failure to
properly conceptualise a research question that fits with the research method is a major source
of confusion' (1988, p.122).

Discourse analysts note that there are a number of difficulties with the method (e.g.
Burman & Parker, 1993; Coyle, 2000). There are a few which are worth noting here. First is
that, because of its questioning of taken-for-granted notions and analysis of speakers' positions,
some approaches to DA can be seen as implying personal criticism of those speakers (Marks,
1993). One way of avoiding this is for analysts to be scrupulous in ensuring that they do not
imply that individual speakers intentionally use discourse in particular ways. Another difficulty
is what has been termed 'ontological gerrymandering' (Gill, 1995) which is the criticism that
critical realist discourse analysts follow a relativist and constructionist style of analysis but then
implicitly claim their account is true and refuse to see some things as equally constructed. One
response to this is to argue not that one's analysis is more real, but rather it is better than others
(Harper, 1999).

Avolio and Gardner's (2005) article on authentic leadership development provides a

comprehensive exploration of the roots of positive leadership. It delves into the concept of
authenticity and its impact on leadership effectiveness, offering insights into how leaders can
cultivate authenticity to foster positive organizational outcomes. By examining the underlying
principles of authentic leadership, the article contributes to a deeper understanding of leadership
development strategies that prioritize genuine and ethical leadership behaviours.

A study by Fairhurst, G. T., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2012) shows traditional reliance on survey
research as the primary method for studying leadership processes has shifted with the
 29

emergence of Observational Data Analysis (ODA) techniques and discourse analysis . ODA,
in its various forms, offers researchers a unique "fly-on-the-wall" perspective, allowing them
to observe and analyze the co-creation of leadership dynamics among individuals in relational
contexts. This approach emphasizes understanding leadership as a process that unfolds through
interactions rather than merely as a quality inherent to individuals. In this summary, we explore
the discursive perspective and ODA methods, which provide researchers with tools to
incorporate relational viewpoints into leadership research. The overview includes a primer on
the discursive perspective and ODA methods, followed by a review of different types of ODA
along with illustrative examples. We conclude by suggesting key questions that leadership
scholars can explore using this expansive set of approaches, thus encouraging a deeper
understanding of leadership as a dynamic and context-dependent phenomenon shaped by
relational dynamics.

Yukl's (2012) book, "Leadership in Organizations," serves as a comprehensive resource

on leadership theory and practice. Covering a wide range of topics, including leadership traits,
behaviours, and situational factors, the book offers a thorough overview of the complexities of
leadership in organizational contexts. By synthesizing research findings and theoretical
perspectives, Yukl provides readers with a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of
leadership, offering practical insights for leadership development and effectiveness.

A study by Kakar, S., Kakar, S., KetsdeVries, M. F. R., & Vrignaud, P. (2002) explores
the `culturalist' thesis in `hybrid' firms in India. The term hybrid refers to companies that
represent (through business education or business association) a mixture of traditional Indian
and Western practices. Such firms currently dominate the Indian industrial economy. The
objective of this study was to identify some of the dimensions on which the top leadership of
hybrid Indian business organizations differs from Western business organizations. To identify
differences, the study used the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) that gives feedback on five
leadership practices (challenging, inspiring, enabling, modelling and encouraging) as reported
by the leaders and their subordinates. The study found that the Indian CEOs rated and were
rated higher than their US counterparts on four dimensions of the LPI (challenging, modelling,
inspiring, enabling) and lower on encouraging. It was argued that this higher rating of the CEO
in Indian organizations is probably due to an idealization of leaders in the Indian cultural
context. Whereas this idealization leads to a greater degree of commitment and satisfaction
 30

among the senior managers, it also has the consequence that the leader is deprived of that
critical feedback which would help him or her develop more effective leadership practices.

Bass and Riggio's (2006) book on transformational leadership offers an extensive

analysis of this influential leadership style. Through a thorough examination of
transformational leadership characteristics, behaviours, and outcomes, the book sheds light on
its profound effects on both individuals and organizations. By elucidating the mechanisms
through which transformational leaders inspire and motivate followers, Bass and Riggio
provide valuable insights into how leaders can catalyse positive change and enhance
organizational performance.

Rationale

The utilization of van Dijk's discourse analysis in studying a leader's speech within an
organizational context holds significant relevance for uncovering the complexities of how
language is used to inspire and mobilize audiences. Van Dijk's framework offers a systematic
method to dissect the linguistic strategies employed by organizational leaders, providing a
deeper understanding of the persuasive techniques and communicative styles that contribute to
effective leadership.

Van Dijk's discourse analysis also allows researchers to identify and analyze specific
linguistic features within the leader's speech, such as narrative structures, metaphorical
expressions, and rhetorical patterns. These linguistic devices are crucial tools that leaders use
to craft compelling narratives, convey organizational vision, and evoke emotional responses
among their audience. By examining these elements, researchers can pinpoint how leaders
strategically use language to inspire commitment, foster solidarity, and drive collective action
within their organizations.

This approach also enables an exploration of power dynamics embedded within the
discourse. Through linguistic analysis, researchers can uncover how leaders position
themselves in relation to their audience and stakeholders, allocate agency and responsibility,
and establish authority and credibility. Understanding these power dynamics is essential for
deciphering leadership strategies and their impact on organizational dynamics and culture.

Furthermore, van Dijk's discourse analysis helps reveal the underlying ideologies and
values that shape the leader's rhetoric. Leaders often use language to reinforce organizational
 31

values, promote shared beliefs, and articulate a sense of purpose. Examining the ideological
underpinnings of leadership discourse provides insights into how leaders seek to align their
messages with the ethos of the organization and garner support from their followers.

Method

Design

The design of the study is qualitative in nature. Qualitative studies are valuable for
exploring complex phenomena, understanding subjective experiences, and providing insights
into social, cultural, or psychological processes. Secondary data consisting of written
transcripts of speech is used. Secondary data is information that researchers use for their own
analysis, which was initially collected by others for different purposes. The concerned speech
is probed and discussed using Van Dijk’s model of critical discourse analysis. It involves the
socio-cognitive approach to discourse analysis, which focuses on the interaction between social
structures and cognitive processes in shaping discourse.

Sample

The leader was selected with the help of purposive sampling i.e. a group of
nonprobability sampling techniques in which units are selected because they have
characteristics that are needed in the sample. The inclusive criteria for selecting the speaker
was that they should be at leading positions of companies. The speaker should belong to the IT
or technology industry. The selection process involved rigorous brainstorming sessions,
adhering to inclusive criteria specifying a speech duration of 8-15 minutes and a leader
belonging to the organizational sector. This study employs discourse analysis to scrutinize a
speech delivered by Steve jobs, CEO of Apple, sourced from YouTube. Operational criteria for
leadership were established, defining a leader as an individual who influences and guides others
toward common goals, demonstrated through observable behaviours such as vision provision,
motivation, decision-making, and fostering a positive organizational culture. Effective leaders
exhibit a blend of traits, skills, and behaviours conducive to inspiring trust, building
relationships, and driving organizational success.
 32

Procedure

In this study, discourse analysis was undertaken to examine how leaders present
themselves in public. Following van Dijk's socio-cognitive model of critical discourse analysis,
eligibility criteria for speech selection was established. Each participant chose a speech and
collectively analysis of these speeches was done over a period of time. Applying van Dijk's
model, social cognition, ideological aspects, macrostructures, and microstructures within the
discourse was delved into. The aim was to provide an explanatory and formal assessment of
how language shapes public perception of leadership.
 33

Analysis Table

Structure Elements Verbatims

Macro Structure Importance of following your “ You have to trust in
passion something-your gut, destiny,
life, karma, whatever.”
“If you haven’t found
it yet, keep looking. Don’t
settle.”

Embracing uncertainty and “You can’t connect

change the dots looking forward, you
can only connect them
looking backward.”
“Don’t be trapped by
dogma- which is living with
the results of other people’s
thinking.”
Super Structure

Introduction
The speaker starts his speech "I am honored to be with you
by expressing his honor to be today at your commencement
present at the from one of the finest
commencement ceremony of universities in the world. I
a prestigious university, never graduated from
despite never having college. Truth be told, this is
graduated from college the closest I’ve ever gotten to
himself. He humbly shares a college graduation. Today I
his intention to narrate three want to tell you three stories
 34

stories from his life, from my life. That’s it. No

highlighting their big deal. Just three stories."
significance.

Middle The middle of the speech “You can’t connect

essentially highlights three the dots looking forward; you
points: connecting the dots, can only connect them
love and loss, and facing looking backward."
death.
"I loved what I did.
Connecting the Dots: Jobs The turn of events at Apple
talks about dropping out of had not changed that one bit.
college, taking a calligraphy I had been rejected, but I was
class, and how that still in love."
seemingly unrelated
experience later influenced "Remembering that
the design of the Macintosh you are going to die is the
computer. best way I know to avoid the
trap of thinking you have
Love and Loss: He recounts something to lose."
getting fired from Apple,
starting over with NeXT and
Pixar, and finding love
during that period. He
 35

End emphasizes the importance

of loving what you do.

Facing Death: Jobs shares his

experience of being
diagnosed with cancer,
facing mortality, and
realizing the importance of
living authentically and
following one's heart.
Each story is
interwoven with lessons
about life, resilience, and
pursuing one's passions.

The speech ends with “Stay Hungry. Stay

inspirational and thought Foolish.":
provoking statements. In
conclusion, as one embarks "Embrace curiosity, pursue
on their journey, remember your passions, and never
these words: Stay Hungry. settle for anything less than
Stay Foolish. Embrace what you love."
curiosity, pursue your
passions, and never settle for "Congratulations, and may
anything less than what you your futures be filled with
love. Congratulations, and success, fulfilment, and the
may your futures be filled courage to follow your
with success, fulfillment, and hearts."
the courage to follow your
hearts. Thank you
 36

Micro Structure
"The minute I dropped out I
Semantic could stop taking the required
The speech given here is classes that didn’t interest
Steve Jobs’ commencement me, and begin dropping in on
address delivered to the the ones that looked
graduates of Stanford interesting."
University in 2005. It’s
divided into three stories: "And we designed it all into
connecting the dots, love and the Mac."
loss, and death. Jobs shares
personal anecdotes and "Sometimes life hits you in
reflections on how pivotal the head with a brick. Don’t
moments in his life shaped lose faith."
his perspective on life, work,
and death. He emphasizes the "If today were the last day of
importance of following my life, would I want to do
one’s intuition, staying what I am about to do today?"
hungry for knowledge and
experiences, and not being “Don’t waste it living
afraid to take risks. The someone else’s life."
speech encourages the
graduates to pursue their "Have the courage to follow
passions, embrace failure, your heart and intuition."
and stay true to themselves.
 37

Syntax The syntax of this speech is "I am honored to be with you

primarily declarative, as it today at your commencement
consists of statements from one of the finest
conveying information, universities in the world."
experiences, and reflections.
Additionally, there are "Truth be told, this is the
imperative sentences, closest I’ve ever gotten to a
especially towards the end college graduation."
where the speaker gives
advice and encouragement to "Today I want to tell you
the audience. There are also a three stories from my life.
few interrogative sentences, That’s it. No big deal. Just
used to pose questions and three stories."
engage the audience in self-
reflection. Overall, the “So why did I drop out? “
syntax serves to convey the “Again, you can’t connect
speaker's message the dots looking forward; you
effectively, combining can only connect them
personal anecdotes with looking backward. So you
universal themes and advice have to trust that the dots will
somehow connect in your
future."
"But something slowly
began to dawn on me — I still
loved what I did."

“I am honored to be with you

today at your commencement
from one of the finest
universities in the world."

"I never graduated from

college."
 38

"Reed College at that time

offered perhaps the best
calligraphy instruction in the
country."

"I was lucky — I found what

I loved to do early in life."

This speech by Steve Jobs "If you live each day as if it

incorporates several was your last, someday
Rhetorics rhetorical devices to you’ll most certainly be
effectively convey his right."
messages.

Anecdote: Jobs shares "I had a scan at 7:30 in the

personal stories from his life morning, and it clearly
to connect with the audience
showed a tumor on my
and illustrate his points.
pancreas."

Repetition: The phrase "Stay "Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish."

Hungry. Stay Foolish." is
repeated throughout the
speech for emphasis and to
leave a lasting impression.

Metaphor: Jobs uses

metaphors such as
"connecting the dots" and
"death as life's change agent"
to provide vivid imagery and
deeper meaning.

Antithesis: He contrasts
ideas, such as "connecting
 39

the dots looking forward"

versus "connecting them
looking backward," to
highlight the importance of
trust and intuition.

Appeal to Emotion: Jobs

shares emotional moments,
such as his firing from Apple
and his cancer diagnosis, to
evoke empathy and resonate
with the audience.

Allusion: He references "The

Whole Earth Catalog" and its
message of "Stay Hungry.
Stay Foolish." to connect his
speech to broader cultural
ideas.

Call to Action: Jobs

concludes with a call to
action, urging the audience to
stay hungry and foolish as
they embark on their
journeys after graduation.
 40

Discussion

To effectively analyse the chosen speech, van Dijk's approach was selected for its
encompassing framework. By employing van Dijk's method, one can systematically dissect the
speech at multiple levels to uncover its underlying meanings. Van Dijk (2008) classified the
structure of the text including, macrostructure (thematic), superstructure (schematic), and
microstructure (semantic, syntax, stylistic, and rhetoric).

Macrostructure, as described by Renkema & Schubert (2018), refers to the overall

meaning or global significance that can be attributed to a piece of text. It serves the purpose of
uncovering the main topic or theme, as discourse goes beyond mere sentence connections to
encompass the broader context and message. The primary focus of macrostructure is on the
thematic aspect, which represents the general subject matter of the discourse.

The macro theme of Steve Jobs' commencement speech is about embracing uncertainty,
following one's passion, and staying true to oneself. Through his personal anecdotes, Jobs
encourages the audience to trust in their intuition, be resilient in the face of setbacks, and
prioritize what truly matters in life. He emphasizes the importance of finding fulfillment in
one's work, pursuing creativity, and being unafraid to take risks. Ultimately, the speech urges
the graduating class to stay curious, ambitious, and authentic as they embark on their journey
beyond graduation.

Superstructure pertains to the aspect of form in a text, serving as the framework

designed to present the organized content. This term can be exemplified by considering a
newspaper article, where elements such as the headline, lead, and the main body of the article
are provided (Renkema & Schubert, 2018). The flow of the text signifies how each part is
meticulously arranged to create a cohesive and coherent meaning (Huda et al., 2020).

The superstructure of Steve Jobs' speech follows a classic three-part structure:

In the introduction, Jobs begins by acknowledging the honor of speaking at the

commencement and sets the stage by stating his intention to share three stories from his life.
he addresses the audience, acknowledging the honor of speaking at their commencement. He
shares his personal connection to the university by revealing that he never graduated from
 41

college and sets the stage for the stories he's about to share, emphasizing their simplicity and
significance. According to a study by Green and Brock (2000), personal stories can enhance
persuasion by creating a sense of identification and empathy between the speaker and the
audience. By sharing his experience, Bezos effectively engages the audience emotionally,
making his subsequent message about the importance of kindness and choices more impactful
and memorable. This approach aligns with research in persuasion and communication,
emphasising the power of personal storytelling in influencing audiences (Petty & Cacioppo,
1986).

The body of the speech comprises three stories from Jobs' life. The first story revolves
around the concept of connecting the dots, highlighting the importance of trusting intuition and
following curiosity. Jobs recounts his personal journey of dropping out of college, highlighting
the importance of trusting one's intuition and following curiosity. He emphasizes the idea that
the dots of life only make sense when looked at in retrospect. The second story delves into love
and loss, emphasizing perseverance and passion in the face of setbacks After sharing the first
story, Jobs seamlessly transitions to the next by mentioning the importance of love and passion
in life. He describes his experience of being fired from Apple, emphasizing the resilience and
passion that kept him going despite setbacks and encourages the audience to find what they
love and to not settle for anything less. Following the theme of resilience and passion, Jobs
moves to the next story, which is about death. He shares his encounter with mortality through
a cancer diagnosis, highlighting the importance of living each day to the fullest and following
one's heart. He reflects on the inevitability of death and its role in shaping life. The third story
explores the theme of death, discussing the transformative power of facing mortality and living
authentically. Each story is rich with personal anecdotes and life lessons, illustrating Jobs'
philosophical beliefs and practical experiences. Throughout the speech, Jobs uses questions to
make the audience think deeply about their own lives. This technique is backed by research
that says asking questions can make people think more carefully about a message (Petty &
Cacioppo, 1986). Research on entrepreneurship shows that passion and motivation are key
factors in starting a successful venture. (Cardon et al., 2009; Shane, 2003). These factors are
emphasised in Job’s speech.

In the conclusion, Jobs concludes the speech by referencing "The Whole Earth Catalog"
and its message to "Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish." He extends this wish to the graduates,
 42

encouraging them to embrace curiosity and remain open-minded as they embark on their
journey. The speech concludes with a heartfelt thank you to the audience.

Overall, the superstructure of the speech involves a progression from personal

anecdotes to universal truths, with each story building upon the previous one to convey a
message of resilience, passion, and authenticity.

In Teun van Dijk's model of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), the concept of
"microstructure" refers to the detailed analysis of linguistic elements within a specific text or
discourse. The microstructure focuses on the surtace-level features of language, including
vocabulary choice sentence structure, rhetorical devices, and overall linguistic strategies used
by speakers or writers to convey their message.

Microstructure analysis (semantics) of the given text using Critical Discourse Analysis
(CDA) approach of Teun Van Dijk involves examining the background, details, and intent of
the text. Steve Jobs' commencement speech at Stanford University is a poignant reflection on
life's journey, encompassing themes of resilience, passion, and authenticity. The
semantic structure of this speech can be broken down into three main sections eaxh with its
own story. He begins by recounting his own experiences, including dropping out of college and
being fired from the company he co-founded, Apple. Through these setbacks, Jobs emphasizes
the importance of trusting one's instincts and following one's curiosity, even when the path
ahead seems unclear. Jobs shares how seemingly unrelated experiences, such as taking a
calligraphy class, can later prove invaluable in unexpected ways. This underscores the
significance of embracing diverse opportunities and trusting that the dots will eventually
connect. Reflecting on his battle with cancer, Jobs discusses the transformative effect of facing
mortality. He urges the audience to live each day with purpose and to prioritize what truly
matters in life, emphasizing the fleeting nature of time. The speech concludes with a message
from The Whole Earth Catalog: "Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish." Jobs encourages the graduates to
maintain a hunger for knowledge and a willingness to take risks, embodying a spirit of curiosity
and openness to new experiences.

Overall, Jobs' speech serves as a testament to the power of resilience, passion, and
authenticity in navigating life's challenges and opportunities, inspiring the audience to pursue
their dreams with courage and conviction.
 43

Syntax involves the examination of patterns utilized to merge words into sentences
effectively. Additionally, it constitutes a significant component of grammar that focuses on the
arrangement and structure of phrases and sentences.

The syntax part of the speech includes the organization of sentences, phrases, and
punctuation used to convey the ideas. It involves the structure of the language and how the
sentences are constructed to form coherent paragraphs. Research by Hample (1980) suggests
that direct address, wherein the speaker directly engages with the audience using terms like
"you," might create a personal connection and increase audience involvement. This technique
might make the speech more relatable and impactful for the listeners. The speech begins with
an introduction, followed by three main stories. Each story is structured with an explanation of
the situation, followed by Steve Jobs' reflections and insights. Punctuation such as commas,
periods, and quotation marks is used to separate ideas and dialogue. Paragraphs are organized
to group related information together, creating a flow of ideas throughout the speech. Sentences
vary in length and complexity, adding rhythm and emphasis to the speech. Overall, the syntax
of the speech contributes to its clarity, coherence, and effectiveness in communicating Steve
Jobs' message to the audience. Moreover, the employment of interrogative sentences might
play a crucial role in promoting self-reflection among the audience. According to research on
interrogative rhetoric (Tuman, 1988), questions stimulate cognitive processing and encourage
active participation from listeners. Bezos's use of questions like "How will you use your gifts?
What choices will you make?" fosters introspection and reinforces the central theme of
personal responsibility and choice.

In the context of van Dijk's model of discourse analysis, "rhetorics" refers to the
various linguistic and communicative strategies emploved ov speakers or writers to achieve
specific persuasive or argumentative goals within discourse.

Steve Jobs employs several rhetorical devices in his speech that might enhance the
impact of his message. Certainly, there's a more narrative explanation of the rhetorical elements
in Steve Jobs' speech.

Steve Jobs' commencement address is a masterclass in rhetoric, weaving together

personal anecdotes, emotional appeals, and vivid imagery to deliver a compelling message to
the graduating class. Through the use of anecdotes, Jobs draws the audience into his own life
story, creating a sense of connection and relatability. He shares intimate details about his
 44

adoption, his decision to drop out of college, and his experiences with success and failure in
the business world.

Repetition plays a key role in Jobs' speech, with the phrase "Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish."
serving as a powerful mantra that echoes throughout his address. This repetition serves to
emphasize the importance of maintaining a sense of curiosity and willingness to take risks,
even in the face of uncertainty.

Throughout the speech, Jobs appeals to the audience's emotions, sharing moments of
vulnerability and reflection. He speaks candidly about the pain of being fired from Apple and
the fear he felt upon receiving a cancer diagnosis. These personal stories evoke empathy and
resonate with the audience on a deeper level, reinforcing the central themes of resilience and
perseverance.

Jobs also employs vivid imagery to bring his words to life, painting pictures in the minds
of the audience. Whether describing the calligraphy class at Reed College or the photograph
on the back cover of The Whole Earth Catalog, his use of imagery engages the senses and
makes his message more memorable.

Additionally, Jobs incorporates quotations and allusions to add depth and context to his
speech. By referencing historical events and figures, such as The Whole Earth Catalog and a
quote about living each day as if it were one's last, he connects his message to broader cultural
and philosophical ideas, reinforcing the universal truths he seeks to convey.

Overall, Steve Jobs' commencement address is a testament to the power of rhetoric in

inspiring and motivating others. Through the strategic use of personal anecdotes, emotional
appeals, vivid imagery, and cultural references, Jobs delivers a timeless message of resilience,
curiosity, and authenticity that resonates with audiences of all ages.

In the end, he concludes his speech by saying, "Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish. Thank you
all very much, and may your journey ahead be filled with boundless curiosity and fearless
pursuit of your dreams."
 45

Limitations

The practical had a few limitations. Firstly, only one speech of the leader was used,
although it was useful in comprehending their mindset for leading, it cannot be considered
enough to completely understand the linguistic understanding of socio-cognitive structure as
certain basic ideas are vulnerable to change depending on the context. Secondly, the transcribed
versions of oral speeches were used to carry out the analysis, this can be difficult in
understanding certain elements that are more evident when spoken out such as the pauses, tone
and expressions. While a few researches were used to verify them with the leader’s ideas, they
can provide only limited information. Finally, since critical discourse analysis as a method was
used for the first time by the student, there is a possibility of a lack of proficiency, it would
have been done more effectively with experience in employing the method used.

Suggestions

In order to strengthen the study and for future research various areas should be
addressed. Instead of relying on a single speech, analysing multiple speeches or interviews
given by the speaker over an extended period of time will provide a deeper comprehensive
understanding of their leadership style and how it evolves in different contexts. Secondly,
combining discourse analysis with other research methods such as interviews with employees
or surveys would provide a holistic understanding of leadership styles. Additionally,
supplementing transcribed/written speeches with verbal video recordings or audio clips to
capture nonverbal indicators including body language, tone of speech, and facial expressions.
This can assist in deciphering the speaker's subtle emotional responses and communication
style. The socio-cognitive structures could be dived deeper into as well. Finally, broadening the
inclusive criteria beyond the IT and technology sector would induce the gathering of richer data
for the analysis.
 46

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