Cryptography and Network Security
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Objectives
❑ To define three security goals
❑ To define security attacks that threaten security
goals
❑ To define security services and how they are
related to the three security goals
❑ To define security mechanisms to provide security
services
❑ To introduce two techniques, cryptography and
steganography, to implement security mechanisms.
CIA Triad
Figure Taxonomy of security goals
Possible additional concepts:
Authenticity Accountability
• Verifying that users • The security goal that
are who they say they generates the
are and that each requirement for
input arriving at the actions of an entity to
system came from a be traced uniquely to
trusted source that entity
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is probably the most common aspect of
information security. We need to protect our confidential
information. An organization needs to guard against those
malicious actions that endanger the confidentiality of its
information.
• Yahoo announced that the actual figure of user accounts exposed was 3
billion. took place in 2013 – in December 2016
• Alibaba November 2019-Over an eight-month period, a developer working for
an affiliate marketer scraped customer data, including usernames and
mobile numbers, from the Alibaba Chinese shopping website, for their own
use and did not sell it on the black market, although both were sentenced to
three years in prison.
• LinkedIn June 2021-Professional networking giant LinkedIn saw data
associated with 700 million of its users posted on a dark web forum in June
2021,
Integrity
Information needs to be changed constantly. Integrity
means that changes need to be done only by authorized
entities and through authorized mechanisms.
Zero Day Attack
One of the most famous data integrity attack has been the use of Stuxnet worm
allegedly used by US and Israel to sabotage the nuclear programme of Iran. These
attacks are one of the worst modes of cyber attacks because a manipulated and
modified data can have unintended consequences.
The target can be any organization which is connected to the internet and tweaking
of whose data can lead to consequences as intended by the attacker.
Availability
The information created and stored by an organization
needs to be available to authorized entities. Information
needs to be constantly changed, which means it must be
accessible to authorized entities.
1. The Google Attack, 2020
in 2020, our Security Reliability Engineering team measured a record-breaking UDP amplification attack
sourced out of several Chinese ISPs (ASNs 4134, 4837, 58453, and 9394), which remains the largest
bandwidth attack of which we are aware.
2. The AWS DDoS Attack in 2020
Amazon Web Services, the 800-pound gorilla of everything cloud computing, was hit by a gigantic DDoS
attack in February 2020. This was the most extreme recent DDoS attack ever and it targeted an
unidentified AWS customer using a technique called Connectionless Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
(CLDAP) reflection. This technique relies on vulnerable third-party CLDAP servers and amplifies the amount
of data sent to the victim’s IP address by 56 to 70 times.
3. The GitHub Attack in 2018
On Feb. 28, 2018, GitHub, a platform for software developers, was hit with a DDoS attack that clocked in at
1.35 terabits per second and lasted for roughly 20 minutes. According to GitHub, the traffic was traced
back to “over a thousand different autonomous systems (ASNs) across tens of thousands of unique
endpoints.” 1.11
OSI Security Architecture
• Security attack
• Any action that compromises the security of information owned by an organization
• Security mechanism
• A process (or a device incorporating such a process) that is designed to detect,
prevent, or recover from a security attack
• Security service
• A processing or communication service that enhances the security of the data
processing systems and the information transfers of an organization
• Intended to counter security attacks, and they make use of one or more security
mechanisms to provide the service
ATTACKS
The three goals of security⎯confidentiality, integrity,
and availability⎯can be threatened by security attacks.
Threats and Attacks
Taxonomy of attacks with relation to security goals
1.16
Security Attacks
•A means of classifying security
attacks, used both in X.800 and RFC
4949, is in terms of passive attacks
and active attacks
•A passive attack attempts to learn
or make use of information from the
system but does not affect system
resources
•An active attack attempts to alter
system resources or affect their
operation
Passive Attacks
• Are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of,
transmissions
• Goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being
transmitted
• Two types of passive attacks are:
• The release of message contents
• Traffic analysis
Active Attacks
• Takes place when one entity
pretends to be a different entity
Masquerade
• Involve some modification of the • Usually includes one of the other
data stream or the creation of a forms of active attack
false stream
• Difficult to prevent because of the
wide variety of potential physical, • Involves the passive capture of a
software, and network Replay data unit and its subsequent
vulnerabilities retransmission to produce an
unauthorized effect
• Goal is to detect attacks and to
recover from any disruption or
delays caused by them
• Some portion of a legitimate
Modification message is altered, or messages
of messages are delayed or reordered to
produce an unauthorized effect
Denial of • Prevents or inhibits the normal
use or management of
service communications facilities
Replay
Attacks Threatening Confidentiality
Snooping refers to unauthorized access to or interception
of data.
Traffic analysis refers to obtaining some other type of
information by monitoring online traffic.
Attacks Threatening Integrity
Modification means that the attacker intercepts the
message and changes it.
Masquerading or spoofing happens when the attacker
impersonates somebody else.
Replaying means the attacker obtains a copy
of a message sent by a user and later tries to replay it.
Repudiation means that sender of the message might later
deny that she has sent the message; the receiver of the
message might later deny that he has received the message.
Attacks Threatening Availability
Denial of service (DoS) is a very common attack. It may
slow down or totally interrupt the service of a system.
Passive Versus Active Attacks
Categorization of passive and active attacks
SERVICES AND MECHANISMS
ITU-T provides some security services and some
mechanisms to implement those services. Security
services and mechanisms are closely related because a
mechanism or combination of mechanisms are used to
provide a service..
Topics
1.3.1 Security Services
1.3.2 Security Mechanism
1.3.3 Relation between Services and Mechanisms
Security Service
• Enhance the security of data processing systems and information transfers in an
organization
• Intended to counter security attacks
• Using one or more security mechanisms
• Often replicates functions normally associated with physical documents
• which, for example, have signatures, and dates; need protection from disclosure, tampering, or
destruction; be notarized or witnessed; be recorded or licensed
Security Services
Security services
1.33
Security Services
• Authentication - assurance that the communicating
entity is the one claimed
• Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use of a
resource
• Data Confidentiality –protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
• Data Integrity - assurance that data received is as sent
by an authorized entity
• Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one of
the parties in a communication
Security Mechanism
• feature designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack
• no single mechanism that will support all services required
• however one particular element underlies many of the security mechanisms
in use:
• cryptographic techniques
• hence our focus on this topic
Security Mechanism
Security mechanisms
1.36
1.37
1.3.3 Relation between Services and Mechanisms
Relation between security services and mechanisms
Cryptography
Cryptography, a word with Greek origins, means “secret
writing.” However, we use the term to refer to the science
and art of transforming messages to make them secure and
immune to attacks.
Steganography
The word steganography, with origin in Greek, means
“covered writing,” in contrast with cryptography, which
means “secret writing.”