Module for Chapter 8: Logic & Symbolic Arguments

I. OBJECTIVES
After completing this module, the student will be able to:
1. Illustrate and symbolize simple and compound propositions.
2. Illustrate the different types of tautologies and equivalent statements
3. Illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions.
4. Determine the truth values of the propositions

II. INTRODUCTION
Logical reasoning can be applied in various aspects of life. By applying logical principles,
you’ll become more analytical, critical, and effective in various aspects of life. Whether you
are a student or simply looking to improve your thinking, this module serves as material to
develop your invaluable skill in logic which focuses on symbolic logic.
Mathematical logic or symbolic logic is a branch of mathematics with close connections
to computer science. It is commonly referred as the science of correct reasoning, especially
regarding making inferences because mathematical reasoning and arguments are based on
the rules of logic.
Logic is the technique by which we add conviction to truth( Jean de la Bruyere-1645-
1696).

III. DISCUSSION

A. Elementary Logic

Let’s start defining a statement. A proposition or (statement) is a declarative sentence that can
be classified true or false, but not both true and false but not both. If we can determine the truth or
falsity of a statement, then it has a truth value. If the statement is true, then the truth value of the
statement is true. But when it’s false, then the truth value is false also.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth
values of its simple statements.

Example 1: Identifying statements: Determine whether each sentence is a proposition(statement).

1. Calicoan is beautiful place.

2. How is your day?
3. 5 × 2 = 10
4. 3x + 4 = 28.

Solution:

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 1. For most people that knows about the place they might agree on the proposition but not
all will have the same thought specially people who haven’t seen or visited the place.
Therefore, proposition 1 is not a logical statement.
2. The sentence “How is your day?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Hence, it
is not a proposition /statement.
3. Everyone knows that if 5 is multiplied to 2 the answer will always be 10. Then, statement
3 is a logical statement.
4. 3x + 4 = 28 is a statement. It is known as an open statement, a sentence that has a
variable. The truth value of this statement will depend on the value of x. It is true if x =
8, and it is false for any values of x. For any given x, it is true or false but not both.

B. Propositions
There are 2 types of propositions a simple and a compound proposition. A simple statement
is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or
more ideas. Connecting simple statements with words and, or, if ...then, and if and only if creates a
compound statement. Below are the connectives which can be used to form a new statement.

Logic Connectives and Symbols

Symbolic Type of Statement
Statement Connective
Form
not p not ~p negation
p and q and p˄q conjunction
p or q or p˅q disjunction
If p, then q If ... then p→q conditional
p if and only if q If and only if p↔q biconditional

The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or (F). The truth value of a compound
statement depends on the truth value of its simple statements and connectives used.
Example 2: Determine whether each statement is true or false.

1. 19 ≥ 15.
2. 36 is an even number and 36 is a composite number.
3. 13 is a prime number and 13 is an odd number.
4. 12 is an integer or 12 is an odd number.
5. – 7 ≤ - 16

Solution:

1. 19 ≥ 15 means 19 > 15 or 19 = 15. Since 19 > 15 is true, then the statement is true.
2. The statement is true because 36 is an even number at the same time composite number.
3. The statement is true because 13 is a prime and odd number.
4. The statement “12 is an integer” is true and the statement “12 is an odd number” is false.
Applying disjunction rule, the statement is true.

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 5. – 7 ≤ - 16 means - 7 < - 16 or -7 = -16. Since both simple statements are false, the truth
value of the statement is false.

Negation
The negation of a statement is the opposite of a statement. It is denoted with either “not” or the
symbol ~ . For instance, if we like to negate a statement p its either we use the symbol ~p or use
not to indicate the negation. The negation gives the opposite of the truth value.

Truth Table for Negation (p)

p ~p
T F
F T

Example 2: Negation of a Statement

Give the negation of each statement.

1. p: A square is a rectangle.
2. q: Today is Monday.
3. r: Every student has a ballpen.

Solution:

1. ~p: A square is not a rectangle.

2. ~q: Today is not Monday
3. ~r: Not every student has a ballpen

Conjunction

A conjunction is a compound statement that is made by combining two or more statements

with the word “and” or with symbol “˄”. The conjunction (p ˄ q) is true if and only if both p and q
are true.

Truth Table for Conjunction (p ˄ q)

p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Disjunction
A disjunction is a compound statement that is made by combining two or more statements
with the word “or” or with symbol “ v “ . The disjunction (p v q) is false when both p and q are false
and, it is true for other cases.

Truth Table for Disjunction (p v q)

p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

If the compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate which
simple statements are grouped together.

Symbolic Form Meaning

p ˄ ( q ˅ ~ r) q and ~r are grouped together.
(p ˄ q) ˅ r p and q are grouped together.
(p ˄ q) → ( q ˅ ~ r) p and q are grouped together and q
and ~r are also grouped together

If a compound statement is written in words, then a comma is used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together.

English Sentence Meaning

p, and q or not r q and ~r are grouped together because they are both
on the same side of the comma.

p and q, or r p and q are grouped together because they are both

on the same side of the comma. they are both on the
same side of the comma.

If p and r, then q or not r) p and q are grouped together because they are both
on the left side of the comma.
q and ~r are also grouped together because they are
both on the right side of the comma.

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Quantified Statements and their Negations
Statement form Negation form
All A are B. Some A are not B
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B All A are B
Some A are B. No A are B.

Example 3: Let p, q, and r represent the following statements:

p: Kim’s learning style is similar to Yuri. q: Kim’ has an AI tutor.

r: Kim’ is a BSIT student.

1. Write (p ˄ q) → r as an english sentence.

2. Write “If Kim is not a BSIT student, then Kim does not have AI tutor
and Kim’s learning style is not similar to Yuri.” In symbolic form.
Solution:
1. If Kim’s learning style is similar to Yuri a and Kim has a AI tutor, then
Kim is a BSIT student.
2. ~ r → (~ q ˄ ~ p )

Example 4: Consider the following simple statements.

p: Today is Monday.
q: It is not raining.
r: I am going to a shopping.
s: I am not going to play volleyball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

1. Today is Monday and it is raining.

2. It is not raining and I am going to a shopping.
3. I am going to play volleyball game or I am going to a shopping.
4. If it is raining, then I am not going to play volleyball game.
Solution:
1. p ˄ ~q
2. q˄r
3. ~s ˅ r
4. ~q → s

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Example 5: Consider the following simple statements.

a: I am going to study
b: I am going to watch a movie.
c: I will not pass the exam.

Write the following compound statements in words.

1. ~a → c
2. b ˄ ~a
3. ~c ↔ a

Solution:
1. If I am not going to study, then I will not pass the exam.
2. I am going to watch a movie and I am not going to study.
3. I will pass the exam if and only if I am going to study .

[Link] Table, Equivalent Statements And Tautologies

In this section we will construct truth tables for a statement that involves a combination of
negation, conjunctions and disjunctions. If the given statement involves only two simple statements,
then we have to start by constructing a table with four rows, called the standard table form.

Example 6. Construct a table for ~ (p ˅ q) ˄ q

Solution: Start with the standard table form.

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Now, use the truth values of p and q to produce the truth value of p ˅ q

p q (p ˅ q)
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Negate the truth values in the p ˅ q column to produce the truth value of ~ (p ˅ q)
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 P q p˅q ~ (p ˅ q)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T

Lastly, use the values of ~ (p ˅ q) and q to produce the truth values of

~ (p ˅ q) ˄ q applying the truth value of conjunction. The shaded column is the truth
table for ~ (p ˅ q) ˄ q.

P q p˅q ~ (p ˅ q) ~ (p ˅ q) ˄ q
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T F

Truth Table with Three or More Simple Statements

Compound statements that involve three or more simple statements require a standard truth
table form with 2n number of rows. For instance, if the statement involves 3 simple statements, then
the number of rows of truth table is 23 = 8. If 4 simple statements are involved, then 24 = 16 number
of rows must be produced, and so on.

Example 7. Construct a table for (p ˅ q) ˄ r.

Solution: Start with the standard truth table form with 3 simple statements involved.

P q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
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 Now, use the truth values of p and q to produce the truth value of p ˅ q

p q r (p ˅ q)
T T T T
T T F T
T F T T
T F F T
F T T T
F T F T
F F T F
F F F F

Lastly, use the values of (p ˅ q) and r to produce the truth values of

(p ˅ q) ˄ r applying the truth value of conjunction. The shaded column is the truth table
for (p ˅ q) ˄ r.

p q r (p ˅ q) (p ˅ q) ˄ r
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T T T
T F F T F
F T T T T
F T F T F
F F T F F
F F F F F

Example 8. Construct a truth table for (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q).

Solution: Using the procedure developed above, we can produce the following table.
The shaded column is the truth table for p ˅ [~ (p ˄ ~q)]. The number below signifies the
sequence in which columns were constructed.

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Equivalent Statements

Two statements are said to be equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible
truth values of their simple statements. The symbol ≡ is used to indicates equivalents statements.
Example 9. Show that ~ ( p ˅ ~ q) and ~p ˄ q are equivalent statements.

Solution: Construct the truth table of the given statements and compare the results.

For ~ ( p ˅ ~ q) :

P q ~q (p ˅ ~q) ~ (p ˅ ~q)
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F

For ~p ˄ q:

P q ~p ~p˄q
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F

Since the truth values of the given statements are the same, then
~(p ˅ ~ q) ≡ ~p ˄ q.

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Tautologies , Contradiction and Contigency

A tautology is a statement which is “always true” — that is, it is true for every possible truth
value. The opposite of a tautology is a contradiction, a statement which is “always false”. In other
words, a contradiction is false for every possible truth value. While contingency is a compound
statement that can either be true or false, depending on the truth values of the propositional variables
are neither tautology nor contradiction.

Example 10 . Show that (p → q)) ˅ (q → p) is a tautology.

Solution: Construct the truth table for (p → q) ˅ (q → p) and show that the statement is always true.

p q p→q q→p (p → q) ˅ (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

The last column contains only T’s. Therefore , the statement is tautology

Example 11. Show that p ˄ (~p ˄ q) is a contradiction.

Solution: Construct the truth table for p ˄ (~p ˄ q) and show that the statement is always false.

p q ~p ~p ˄ q p ˄ (~p ˄ q)
T T F F F
T F F F F
F T T T F
F F T F F

The last column contains only F’s. Therefore, the statement is a contradiction.

D. The Conditional And The Biconditional

Conditional Statements

A conditional (or implication) of the proposition is a statement written in a form “If ...then”.
The phrase after the word “if” is called antecedent. The phrase after the word “then “is called the
consequent.

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Example 12 . Determine the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.

1. If x + 5 = 8, then x = 3.
2. If a polygon has four sides, then it is a quadrilateral.
3. If you don’t study your lesson, then you will not pass the exam.
4. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.

Solution:

1. Antecedent: x + 5 = 8
Consequent: x = 3

2. Antecedent: A polygon has four sides

Consequent: It is a quadrilateral

3. Antecedent: You don’t study your lesson Consequent: You will not
the pass the exam

4. Antecedent: 2 is an integer Consequent: 2 is a rational number

The Truth Table for Conditional Statement ( p → q)

P q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The conditional statement p → q is false only when p true

and q is false; otherwise p → q is true

Example 13 . Determine the truth value of each statement.

1. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.

2. If a=1, b=2, c=3, then a + b + c > 5
3. If 3 + 5 = 8, then 8 – 3 = 5.

Solution:

1. The consequent is true, then the statement is true.

2. The consequent is false, then the statement is false.
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 3. Because both the antecedent and consequent are true, then the statement is true.

Biconditional Statements

The statement (p → q) ˄ (q → p) is called a biconditional and it is denoted by p ↔ q, which is

read as “p if and only if q”.

The Truth Table for Biconditional Statement ( p ↔ q)

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
If p and q are true or both false, then p ↔ q is
true; if p and q have opposite truth values, then p
↔ q is false
Example 14 . Determine the truth value of each statement.

1. y + 7 = 12 if and only if y = 5
2. x2 = 25 if and only if x = 5
3. x > 4 if and only if x > 3.

Solution:
1. The statement is true since the statement “y + 7 = 12” will be only true if “y = 5”.
Otherwise, the statement will be false.
2. If x = -5, the first equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus, the statement is
false.

E. The Conditional And Related Statements

There are 3 way to express the conditional proposition p→q. They are called the converse,
inverse, and contrapositive.
Name Statement
Conditional p→q
Converse of p→q q→p
Inverse of p→q ~p→~q
Contrapositive of p→q ~q→~p

A converse statement is a conditional statement that is formed by switching the antecedent

and the consequent.

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 An inverse statement is formed by negating both the antecedent and the consequent of the
conditional.
A contrapositive is a conditional statement formed by negating both antecedent and the
consequent, and switching them. Contrapositive statements are inverse and converse at the same
time on a single conditional statement.

Example 14: Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following conditional statements.

1. If I sleep early, then I will wake up on time.

2. If today is Monday, then Kevin will play soccer.
Solution:
1. Converse: If I will wake up on time, then I sleep early.
Inverse: If I will not sleep early, then I will not wake up on time.
Contrapositive: If I will not wake up on time, then I will not sleep early.

2. Converse: If Kevin will play soccer, then today is Monday.

Inverse: If today is not Monday, then Kevin will not play soccer.
Contrapositive: If Kevin will not play soccer, then today is not Monday.

Truth table of the conditional and its related statements

p q Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive
p→q q→p ~p→~q ~q→~p
T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T

Observations:
1. Converse and inverse statements are equivalents because they have the same truth
values.
2. Conditional and contrapositive statements are equivalents because they have the same
truth values.

Example 15: Determine whether related statements are equivalent.

a. If the sum of the digits of a number is a multiple of 3, then the number is divisible 3.
If a number is divisible 3, then the sum of the digits of a number is a multiple of 3.

b. If two lines in a plane do not intersect, then the lines are parallel.
If two lines in a plane are not parallel, then the lines intersect.

Solution:
[Link] second statement is the converse of the first. Thus, the statements are not equivalent.
b. The second statement is the contrapositive of the first. Thus, the statements are equivalent.

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Chapter 8 Activity
Direction: Answer the following as instructed.

1. Determine whether each sentence is a proposition or not.

a. The melting point of silver is 962℃.

b. The sums of the squares of the legs of a right triangle are equal to the square of the
hypotenuse.
c. a + b = b + c if c = a.
d. A heptagon is a six-sided polygon.
e. Give me back my ballpen.
f. Do you like to watch movie?
g. The normal body temperature of human is 37℃ .

2. Write the negation of the following propositions

a. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
b. All squares are rectangles.
c. Pentium III is a processor .
d. The measure of an acute angle is greater than 90°.
e. Some human organs regulate oxygen intake in the body.

3. Write each symbolic statement in words. Use p, q, r, s, t, and u as defined below.

p: The tour goes to Italy.
r: We go to Venice.
s: We go to Florence.
t: The hotel fees are included.
u: The meals are not included
a. s ↔ ~r
b. p → r
c. r ↔ ~ (t ˄ ~u)
d. (t ˅ ~u) →p

4. Write each sentence in symbolic form then determine its truth value. Use p, q, r, and s as
defined below.
p: 32 is divisible by 4.
q: 12 is an even number.
r: 16 is a perfect number.
s: 28 is a multiple of 7.
a. If 32 is divisible by 4 then 12 is an even number.
b. If 12 is not an even number then 16 is a perfect number.
c. 28 is not a multiple of 7or 12 is not even number.
d. 16 is a perfect number and 28 is a multiple of 7.
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 5. Construct a truth table for each compound statement then identify if it is a tautology ,
contradiction and contigency .
a. (q ˄ ~p) ˅ ~ r
b. (~p ˄ q) →q
c. [p ˄ (p→ q)] → q
6. Determine whether (p ˄ q) and ~ (~p ˅ ~q) are logically equivalent using truth tables

7. Identify the antecedent and consequent:

a. A daily exercise is necessary condition for a healthy life.
b. If two lines are parallel, then they will not intersect.
c. The internet access is slow whenever there are lot of people on line.

8. Determine the truth value of the following conditional and biconditional statements.
a. If two lines intersect, then it must create a right angle
b. If a polygon has 3 sides, then it is a triangle.
c. x = 5 if and only if x + 7 = 12.
d. If x > 5 if and only if x > 2.

9. Given the statements, write the inverse, converse, and contrapositive:

a. Two intersecting lines create an angle.
b. If 5 + 4 = 9, then 52 + 42 = 92
10. Write an equivalent statement for the following;
[Link] Pluto is a not planet, then the sun is the center of the solar system.
[Link] Microsoft is partly owned by Bill- Gates, then Elon Musk is the CEO of the spaceX.

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IV.

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