Module 3

MAGNETISM

Lesson 1 Magnetic Field and Magnetic Forces

Lesson 2 Sources of Magnetic Field

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MODULE III

MAGNETISM

 INTRODUCTION

When you were a child, have you played with iron fillings and magnets?
First iron fillings are collected in the sand using a magnet (the problem here
is that the iron fillings are difficult to be removed when they are attached to
the magnet – have you experienced this too?). The technique is to cover the
magnet with a paper before you dip it in the sand. Place the collected iron
fillings in another clean sheet of paper, then the bar magnet is placed below
the paper. When the iron fillings are dropped on the clean sheet of paper,
what you can see is a beautiful pattern just like in Figure 1. Try it sometimes
if you haven’t tried it.

Photo Source:
[Link]

Figure 1. Bar Magnet and Iron Fillings

The discovery of the property of objects to be magnetic has now

become indispensable as it poses many industrial and mechanical
applications. But how come not all objects (especially metallic objects) are
not all magnetic? Silver, copper and gold are very good conductors of
electricity but they are not considered magnets. How then is magnetism
produced? If good conductors of electricity are not magnetic, can electricity
be connected to magnetism and vice versa? In addition, how come that
compass needle always points to the north? These questions will be answered
as you read this module.

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OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. be oriented on the nature and production of magnetism;

2. compare existence of magnetic field and forces to that of electric
field and forces; and
3. identify the different sources of magnetic field.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

This module consists of two (2) lessons. First lesson describes the
history and production of magnetism. In addition, introduction of the concept
of magnetic field and magnetic forces, magnetic field lines, magnetic flux
and Gauss Law for magnetism will be discussed. Second lesson will be on the
discussion of the different sources of magnetic field. Ampere’s Law will alse
be included in this lesson.

As a student, you are expected to read very well each lesson to fully
understand each concept presented. In addition, you are also expected to
submit comprehensive answers to the exercises provided at the end of each
lesson and do the activities assigned in the discussion part (if there are any).

Be your learning like iron fillings, as iron fillings cling to the magnets,
may your learning cling to your mind!

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Lesson 1

 MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FORCES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explore on the properties of magnetic objects;

2. draw the magnetic lines as evidence that magnetic field exists;
3. explain the behavior of charged particles in the presence of
magnetic field; and
4. explore on the possible application of motion of particles given a
magnetic field

MAGNETISM

Magnetism can be fully understood when we know its history. Let’s

explore first its roots.

History of Magnetism

The history of magnetism dates back to the 600 BCE, where we find
mention of Lodestone in the work of Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus.
Early lodestone (magnetized iron ore) found in the Greek region of
Magnesia, Anatolia (now Manisa, in Western Turkey) is where the modern
name “magnet” is derived.
The earliest Chinese reference to “Lodestone” occurs in the 400
BCE in “The Book of the Devil Valley Master.” In this writing, Lushi
Chunqiu, from the second century BC stated that Lodestone makes iron
come to it or it “attracts” it. By the 12th century, the Chinese were using
Lodestone compasses to navigate.
In 1600 English Scientist William Gilbert was the first to investigate
magnetism using scientific methods. Gilbert conducted many experiments
with his model of the Earth (called the terrella). From his experiments,
he argued that the center of the Earth was iron and that the Earth was,
in fact, a magnet and this was the reason that compasses point north, and
not due to Polaris (the pole star) or a large magnetic island.
Early theoretical investigations into the Earth’s magnetism were
studied by Carl Friedrich Gauss.
The modern understanding of the relationship between magnets
and electricity began with Hans Christian Oersted in 1819. Oersted, a
Professor at the University of Copenhagen, discovered by accident that an
electric current could influence a compass needle.
In the late 19th century Pierre Curie discovered that magnets loose
their magnetism above a certain temperature that later became known
as the Curie point.

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By the 1930s scientists had produced the first Alnico magnet. By

1966 the first Samarium-Cobalt magnets were produced with an energy
capable of 18 MGOe and were refined to be able to achieve 30 MGOe by
1972.
In 1983 joint research between General Motors, Sumitomo Special
Metals and the Chinese Academy of Sciences developed the first 35 MGOe
magnet out of Neodymium, Iron and Boron which also comprise the body
of today’s 52 MGOe magnets.
Today’s rare earth magnets are used in almost every
technologically advanced device.

Information adopted from [Link]

history-of-the-magnet/#:~:text=Strongest%20Magnetic%20Tube-
,Magnetism%3A%20History%20of%20the%20Magnet,name%20%E2%80%9Cmagnet%E2%80%9
D%20is%20derived.

In the history of magnetism, it was mentioned that the magnetized iron

ore which are iron (II,III) oxide (Fe3O4), which are also called magnetite or
magnetic oxide, are considered to be the origin of magnets. This are called
permanent magnets. Permanent magnets are the strongest types of magnets
since it has a natural magnetic field inside them and will never lose its
magnetic properties in any circumstance. We will be studying the different
types of magnetic materials later in this lesson.

Magnetic Interaction

In magnetism, interaction is through magnetic poles. Magnetic poles

are described to be North pole (N-pole) and South pole (S-pole). Figure 1.1
illustrates the polarity of magnets.

a. Bar magnet b. Horshoe magnet c. Disc Magnet

Photo Source:
a. [Link]
b. [Link]
c. [Link]

Figure 1.1 Magnet Polarity

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Electric charge can be separated into positive and negative charges,

thus electric monopoles exist, that is electric charge interaction can be either
positive or negative. In contrast, according to experiments, separation of the
polarity of magnets is impossible. Magnetic monopole does not exist. If say
a bar magnet is cut into two, there will be two magnets each having north
and south poles.

What happens when magnets are hung freely? Magnets will align
themselves following the Law of Magnetism. Law of Magnetism says that
opposite poles attract and like poles repel each other. This is similar to the
Law of charges, that opposite charges attract, and like charges repel.

The magnetic interaction is possible because of the presence of

magnetic field around the polarity of the magnet. Recall that electric field is
a region in space where electric force can be felt. Similarly, magnetic field
is a region in space where magnetic force is present.

In compass, the compass needle is a magnet which is suspended freely.

Then why is it that the compass north pole always points to the north? Is this
a violation of the Law of Magnetism? The answer is no. The Earth is a giant
magnet as discovered by William Gilbert. The Earth’s north geographic pole
is actually the South magnetic pole of the Earth as seen in Figure 1.2. This is
the reason why the north pole of the compass needle aligns itself to the north
geographic pole of the Earth.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.2 Earth as a Magnet

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The Earth’s magnetic axis if off by 11.5°to the Earth’s geographic axis.
This deviation is called magnetic declination or magnetic variation.

Magnetism Production

Magnets are produced through two methods: (1) moving charges, and
(2) motion of electron.
In electricity, when charges move, current is produced. This changing
electric field induces the production of magnetic field. This is explained by
the fourth equation in Maxwell’s Equations specifically the Ampere’s Law,
which we will be discussing on Module 4.
Why is it that most materials are not magnetic even if they are mostly
conductors? This can be explained by the second method how magnets are
produced, that is motion of electrons in the atom. Electrons act as tiny
magnets. The magnetic property of electrons is caused by the spin magnetic
dipole moment produced when the electron rotates on its place, and orbital
magnetic dipole moment which is produced when the electrons revolve
about the nucleus as illustrated in Figure 1.3.

Photo Source: [Link]

Figure 1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment in Electrons

These spin and orbital magnetic dipole moments are vector quantities
and often cancel out (Figure 1.3). The resultant vector for each atom
oftentimes is zero, that is the net dipole moment for each atom is zero. This
causes materials to be non-magnetic. Second reason is associated with the
orientation of atoms. Even though the net dipole moment is not zero (thus
there is a possibility of the material to be a magnet), if the atoms are
randomly aligned, then the material still becomes non-magnetic in general.
This is the reason why most conductors are not magnets just like gold, silver,
and copper. So, if your jewelries can be magnetized, then definitely they are
neither gold nor silver!

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Magnetic Materials

The ability of the material to be magnetized (with the presence of

external field) classifies them into ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and
diamagnetic. This is measured by magnetic permeability. Magnetic
permeability, a dimensionless quantity describing the relative increase or
decrease in the resultant magnetic moment in the material compared to the
strength of the external magnetizing field. The higher the magnetic
permeability means that the material has the higher probability to be
magnetized.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials that have strong interactions
on their magnetic moments causing their atoms to be aligned parallel to each
other in their magnetic domains. These materials have magnetic permeability
of 1000 to 100,000 thus they are strongly magnetized by an external magnetic
field. Examples of ferromagnetic materials are iron, nickel, cobalt and many
alloys with these elements.
Paramagnetic materials are materials with thermal randomization of
the atomic magnetic moments thus they have very weak attraction to
external magnetic field. They are slightly magnetic. This is the reason why
aluminum can’t be magnetized by a permanent magnet. Paramagnetic
materials have magnetic permeability of 1.00001 to 1.003. Examples include
uranium, platinum, aluminum, sodium and oxygen gas.
Diamagnetic materials are materials with total magnetic moment to
be zero but when external field is present, current is induced producing
magnetic field. The effect is slight magnetization in the opposite direction to
that of the external magnetic field, repelling the external field. Materials
that are diamagnetic have magnetic permeability of 0.99990 to 0.99999 for
solids and liquids. Examples are bismuth, mercury, silver, carbon (diamond),
lead, sodium chloride, copper, and gold.

MAGNETIC FIELD

Recall that a magnetic field is an imaginary region in space where

magnetic force is felt, just like the concept of electric field. The creation of
this magnetic field is to be associated with the motion or flow of charges (the
first source of magnetism as previously discussed). When the magnetic field
is produced due to the motion of charges, the magnetic field exerts a
magnetic force, 𝐹⃑ on the moving charges. This magnetic field is also a vector
quantity just like the electric field.
Before we are going to quantify magnetic field, we are going to
describe first the magnetic force on the moving charges which produces the
magnetic field. Magnetic force has the following characteristics based on
experiments:
1. Magnitude of magnetic force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the charge. This means that when there are more
charges moving then magnetic force is larger.
2. Magnitude of the magnetic force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the magnetic field. The larger the magnetic force the
greater the magnetic field.

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3. Magnetic force depends on the particle velocity. If there is no

motion, then there is no magnetic force. The faster the motion of
charges, the larger the magnitude of magnetic force.
4. Magnetic force is directed always perpendicular to the magnetic
field and the direction of the motion of the charges (or its velocity)

In equation, magnetic force is expressed as

𝐹 = |𝑞|𝑣 ⊥ 𝐵
= |𝑞|𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜙

where |𝑞| is the magnitude of the charge

v velocity of the charges
B is the magnitude of the magnetic field; and
𝜙 is the angle measured between 𝑣⃑ and 𝐵 ⃑⃑

In general, magnetic force is expressed as

𝐹⃑ = 𝑞 𝑣⃑ × 𝐵
⃑⃑

The direction of the magnetic force is given by the right-hand rule as

seen in Figure 1.4.

a. Right Hand Rule for Positive Charge

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b. Right-Hand Rule for Negative Charge

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.4 Illustration of Right-Hand Rule

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Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

⃑⃑ can be derived.
From the equation of magnetic force, magnetic field, 𝐵
In equation,
𝐹
𝐵=
|𝑞|𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙

The unit of magnetic field is

𝑁 𝑁𝑠
=
𝐶. 𝑚/𝑠 𝐶. 𝑚
Note that 1A= 1 C/s,
𝑁𝑠 𝑁
= = 1 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1 𝑇
𝐶. 𝑚 𝐴𝑚

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This unit is in honor of Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), a Serbian-American

scientist who made a great contribution in the study of magnetic fields.

Magnetic field is also expressed in a unit called gauss.

1 gauss = 1 G = 10-4 Tesla

Note that the magnetic field of the earth is of the order of 10-4 T or 1
G. The interior of atoms is of 10T, while magnitude of 45 T can be produced
inside a laboratory.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES AND MAGNETIC FLUX

Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field can be represented by imaginary lines called magnetic

field lines. These lines should always be perpendicular to the magnetic field
vector. Unlike electric field lines, magnetic field lines do not point in the
direction of the force on a charge. It is harder to visualize the direction at its
location, thus a compass is needed to determine the direction of the magnetic
field. But in general, magnetic field lines point away from N poles and
toward S poles, in the condition that, unlike electric field lines (which
terminate on electric charges), magnetic field lines never terminate. They
form closed loops, or sometimes may form a pattern that continues
indefinitely without repeating or terminating as seen in Figure 1.5. Lastly,
magnetic field lines are not lines of force. The force on a charged particle is
not along the direction of a field line. The direction of the magnetic force
depends on the velocity of the moving charge.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.5 Visualization of Magnetic Field Lines

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Magnetic Flux and Gauss Law

Magnetic flux, Φ𝐵 , is the amount of magnetic field passing in an area

just like the concept of electric flux.
To find for an expression of magnetic flux, consider a surface divided
into an infinitesimal area or a vector area dA as seen in Figure 1.6

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.6 Magnetic Flux Trough and Area Element dA

Note in here that the perpendicular component of magnetic field, B⊥

is perpendicular to the surface and is parallel to the area vector dA while the
parallel component of magnetic field B∥ is parallel to the surface. Using
trigonometric functions,

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝐵⊥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 =
𝐵
Thus,
𝐵⊥ = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙

Note that the infinitesimal magnetic flux, dΦ𝐵 , is contributed by the product
of the perpendicular component of magnetic field to the surface, 𝐵⊥ , and the
vector area dA, that is

dΦ𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴
Since 𝐵⊥ = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙,
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝐴
dΦ𝐵 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵

Integrating both sides to get for the magnetic flux,

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝐴
Φ𝐵 = ∫ 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐵

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Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity with unit Weber (Wb) from the
German physicist Wilhelm Weber (1804-1891).

1 Wb = 1 T. m2
Since 1T = 1 N/Am
1Wb= 1N. m2/Am = 1 Nm/A

The total magnetic flux should be proportional to the magnetic charge

enclosed. But since no magnetic monopoles exist, then the magnetic flux in a
closed surface is always zero, that is
∮𝐵 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 0 (𝑮𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒎)
⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝐴

Recall that dΦ𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴. If the vector area element dA is at right angle
⃑⃑
to 𝐵, that is 𝑑𝐴⊥ , then 𝐵⊥ = 𝐵, thus

dΦ𝐵
𝐵= = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
𝑑𝐴⊥

This is called magnetic flux density.

Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

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MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Motion o fa charged particle under the action of a magnetic field is

always motion with constant speed.
Consider a particle with a positive charge q at point O, moving with a
velocity 𝑣⃑ in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃑⃑ directed into the plane as seen in
Figure 1.7.

⃑⃑ is directed into the

Remarks: cross (x) represents that magnetic field 𝐵
plane
Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.7 Moving Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

Note that the charge moves in a circle to keep its perpendicular

direction to magnetic force 𝐹⃑ and magnetic field 𝐵⃑⃑.
Recall that in circular motion, acceleration is given by
𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑅
Thus for Second Law, F= ma
𝑣2
𝐹=𝑚𝑅
But the magnetic force is given by 𝐹 = |𝑞|𝑣𝐵 (maximum magnetic force),
then
𝑣2
|𝑞|𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚
𝑅
Solving for R,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅=
|𝑞|𝑣𝐵

From rotational mechanics, arc length, s is given by, 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃, where 𝜃 is the
angular displacement. Differentiating the equation,

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𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
| | = 𝑟| |
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
Note that 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) and 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜔 (𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑), thus the
equation becomes,
𝑣=𝑟𝜔

Thus, the angular speed, 𝜔 of the particle is

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 |𝑞|𝐵
𝜔= = = 2 =
𝑟 𝑅 𝑚𝑣 𝑚
|𝑞|𝑣𝐵
𝑓
Note that the angular speed can be expressed as 𝜔 = 2𝜋, thus,

𝜔 |𝑞|𝐵
𝑓= =
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚

This is called the cyclotron frequency in a particle accelerator called

a cyclotron. The equation says that the frequency becomes larger as the
magnetic field increases. Similarly, one type of magnetron, a common source
of microwave radiation for microwave ovens and radar systems, emits
radiation with a frequency equal to the frequency of circular motion of
electrons in a vacuum chamber between the poles of a magnet.

When a charge moves in a uniform magnetic field, particle will move

in helix. But motion of particles in a non-uniform filed is more complex. As
an example, the earth’s nonuniform magnetic field traps charged particles
coming from the sun in doughnut-shaped regions around the earth, known as
Van Allen radiation belts, which were discovered in 1958 by James Van Allen
while trying to measure the flux of cosmic rays on Earth. Near the poles,
charged particles from these belts can enter the atmosphere, producing the
aurora borealis (“northern lights”) and aurora australis (“southern lights”).
The Van Allen radiation belt and the beautiful aurora borealis can be seen in
Figure 1.8a and 1.8b, respectively.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.8 Non-Uniform Field Examples

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Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Several applications of motion of charged particles include velocity

selector, Thompson e/m apparatus, and mass spectrometers. Try to watch
you tube videos on these applications.

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

Consider a portion of a current carrying conductor with cross-sectional

area A and length l in the influence of a magnetic field B as seen in Figure
1.9a.

a. b.
Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.9. Current-Carrying Conductor

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We can define the drift velocity, ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑,

𝑣𝑑 thus the magnetic force can be
described as
𝐹⃑ = 𝑞 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 ⃑⃑
with a magnitude of
𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣𝑑 𝐵

The total force can be calculated by multiplying this force to the

number of charges per unit volume (Al), thus

𝐹 = (𝑛𝐴𝑙)(𝑞 𝑣𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴(𝑙𝐵)

Recall that current I = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴 and the current density J= I/A= 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 , thus

𝐹 = 𝐽𝐴(𝑙𝐵)

And J=I/A, thus I=JA. Substituting to F

𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑙𝐵)

If we consider the perpendicular component of the magnetic field as seen in

Figure 1.9b, it can be seen that 𝐵⊥ = 𝐵 sin 𝜙, thus

𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑙𝐵⊥ ) = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜙

or
𝐹⃑ = 𝐼 𝑙⃑ × 𝐵
⃑⃑

This is the magnetic force of a current carrying conductor.

An application of this is the operation of a loudspeaker. The voice coil

is affected by the magnetic force due to the magnetic field as caused by the
permanent magnet. This force is directly proportional to the present current
in the coil with direction dependent on the direction of the current. Current
oscillates because of the amplifier. As a consequence, the coil and the
speaker cone oscillate too with an amplitude proportional to the amplitude
of the current in the coil. When the volume knob on the amplifier is turned
up, the current amplitude increases, increasing also the amplitude of the
cone’s oscillation and the sound wave.

FORCE AND TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP

Consider a rectangular current carrying loop in a uniform magnetic

field with side lengths a and b as seen in Figure 1.10. A line perpendicular to
the plane of the loop makes an angle 𝜙 with the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃑⃑ . Two forces
act on the loop. First is on the right side of the loop (with length a). This is
directed to the positive x direction thus has a positive value. The second side
has the same magnitude but in the opposite direction. Each force has the
value

F=IaB

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Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.10. Current Carrying Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field

On the sides with length b, two forces denoted by F’ also act in

opposite direction. This side makes an angle equivalent to (90- 𝜙) with the
magnetic field B. Both have magnitudes of

F’=IbBsin (90- 𝜙)=IbBcos 𝜙

The net force in the loop is zero since for the two sides, the magnitudes
cancel out (due to the opposite directions). But the net torque, 𝜏 in the loop
is not zero. This is attributed to the two forces 𝐹⃑ and −𝐹⃑ since they lie along
different lines giving a net torque along the y-axis. Since 𝐹⃑ ′ and −𝐹⃑ ′ lie along
the same line then net torque on these two sides with length b. Recall that
torque is given by
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑙

Where l is the moment of arm. Moment of arm, l of one of these two forces
is equal to the distance from axis to F or to -F, that is

𝑙 = (𝑏/2)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙

Substituting to the equation of torque,

𝜏1 = 𝐹𝑙 = (𝐼𝑎𝐵)(𝑏/2)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 (torque due to F)

𝜏2 = 𝐹𝑙 = (𝐼𝑎𝐵)(𝑏/2)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 (torque due to -F)

Then the net torque is

𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = (2)(𝐼𝑎𝐵)(𝑏/2)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝜏 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵 (𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)

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The area, A of the loop is ab. Substituting to the equation of torque,

𝜏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴 sin 𝜙

Note that IA is the magnetic dipole moment 𝜇, thus the equation is expressed
as
𝜏 = 𝜇𝐵 sin 𝜙
In vector form,
⃑⃑
𝜏⃑ = 𝜇⃑ × 𝐵

This is the torque in a current carrying loop.

For a solenoid with N turns in a magnetic field B,

𝜇 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴
Thus, its torque is given as,
𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜙

Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

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DIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR

An application of the torque on a current carrying loop is the motor

operation. Motors are devices which converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
The moving part of the motor is the rotor, a length of wire formed into
an open-ended loop and free to rotate about an axis. The ends of the rotor
wires are attached to circular conducting segments that form a commutator.
Each of the two commutator segments makes contact with one of the
terminals, or brushes, of an external circuit that includes a source of emf.
This causes a current to flow into the rotor on one side, shown in red and out
of the rotor on the other side, shown in blue as shown in Figure 1.11. Hence
the rotor is a current loop with a magnetic moment 𝜇⃑.
The operation of a direct current motor is explained in Figure 1.11.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.11 Direct-Current Motor Operation

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Activity 7
Do as indicated.

1. How might a loop of wire carrying a current be used as a compass? Could

such a compass distinguish between north and south? Why or why not?

2. An electromagnet produces a magnetic field of 0.550 T in a cylindrical

region of radius 2.50 cm between its poles. A straight wire carrying a
current of 10.8 A passes through the center of this region and is
perpendicular to both the axis of the cylindrical region and the magnetic
field. What magnitude of force does this field exert on the wire?

3. A rectangular coil of wire, 22.0 cm by 35.0 cm and carrying a current of

1.95 A, is oriented with the plane of its loop perpendicular to a uniform
1.50-T magnetic field as shown in the Figure 1.12 Calculate the net force
and torque that the magnetic field exerts on the coil.

Figure 1.12

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Lesson 2

 SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

1. calculate the magnetic field strength of a moving charge, current

element, straight current-carrying conductor, and a circular
current loop;
2. calculate the magnetic force between parallel conductors; and
3. explain Ampere’s Law and its possible applications

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING CHARGE

Electric filed is dependent on the charge q and the square of the

distance from the point charge to the origin, that is

𝑘𝑞
𝐸=
𝑟2
1
and since 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜖 , then
𝑜
𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2

Experiments have shown that magnetic field 𝐵 ⃑⃑ is also proportional to

1
|𝑞| and 2 just like electric field. The direction is not just like for the case of
𝑟
electric field that it is directed away or towards the point charge, but should
always be perpendicular to the direction of the velocity of the charge.
In magnitude,

𝜇0 |𝑞|𝑣 sin 𝜙
𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑟2

where 𝜇0 is the magnetic constant

−7
𝑁𝑠 2 −7
𝑁
= 4𝜋 𝑥 10 = 4𝜋 𝑥 10
𝐶2 𝐴2
𝑊 𝑇𝑚
= 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 = 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7
𝐴𝑚 𝐴

In general, the magnetic field of a moving charge is expressed as

𝜇0 |𝑞|𝑣⃑ × 𝑟⃑
⃑⃑ =
𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟2

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MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CURRENT ELEMENT

According to the Principle of Superposition of Magnetic Fields, the

total magnetic field caused by several moving charges is the vector sum of
the fields caused by the individual charges.
Consider a short segment dl of a current-carrying conductor as seen in
Figure 2.1

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.1 Current-Carrying Element

Given the volume of the segment to be A dl where A is the cross-

sectional area of the conductor; n to be the number of moving charges per
unit volume, the total moving charge 𝑑𝑄 is given by

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑛𝑞𝐴 𝑑𝑙

with a drift velocity ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑.

𝑣𝑑 From the magnetic field equation of a moving charge,

𝜇0 |𝑞|𝑣 sin 𝜙
𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑟2

The infinitesimal magnetic field of a current element is given by,

𝜇0 |𝑑𝑄|𝑣𝑑 sin 𝜙 𝜇0 𝑛|𝑞|𝑣𝑑 𝐴 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜙

𝑑𝐵 = =
4𝜋 𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑟2

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Note that 𝑛|𝑞|𝑣𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐼, thus the equation becomes

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜙
𝑑𝐵 = (𝑩𝒊𝒐𝒕 𝑳𝒂𝒘)
4𝜋 𝑟2

In vector form, the equation becomes

𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃑ × 𝑟⃑
𝑑𝐵⃑⃑ = 0 (𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑳𝒂𝒘)
4𝜋 𝑟2

Integrating to find the total magnetic field due to the current element,

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃑ × 𝑟⃑
⃑⃑ =
𝐵 ∫
4𝜋 𝑟2

Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

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MAGNETIC FIELD OF A STRAIGHT-CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTOR

Consider a conductor with length 2a carrying a current I. We will find

⃑⃑
𝐵 at a point a distance x from the conductor on its perpendicular bisector.
First we need to find for the infinitesimal magnetic element dB due to the
element of conductor of length dl=dy as shown in Figure 2.2 using the Biot
and Savart Law. As seen in the figure, 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = sin(𝜋 − 𝜙) =
𝑥
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.2 Segment of a Straight-Current Carrying Conductor

From Biot and Savart Law, the magnitude of the magnetic field vector 𝐵 ⃑⃑ is
given by
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝜇0 𝐼𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
𝐵= ∫ 2 2
= ∫ 3 = ∫ 3
4𝜋 −𝑎 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 4𝜋 −𝑎 2 4𝜋 −𝑎 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )2 (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )2

𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Using integral table: ∫ 3 = , then
(𝑎2 +𝑥 2 )2 𝑎2 √𝑎2 +𝑥 2

𝑎
𝜇0 𝐼𝑥 𝑦
𝐵= [ ]
4𝜋 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
−𝑎
Evaluating from -a to a,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑥 2𝑎
𝐵= [ ]
4𝜋 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

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When a is much greater than x, √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ≈ 𝑎, thus the equation becomes

𝜇0 𝐼𝑥 2𝑎 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= [ 2 ]=
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑎 2𝜋𝑥

At all points on a circle of radius r around the conductor,

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP

In here we are going to find out te amount of magnetic field present in

coils as found mostly in electromagnets, transformers and motors.
Consider a circular conductor with radius a with current I flowing in
opposite direction into and out through a two long, straight wires side by side
as seen in Figure 2.3.
If x is the distance along x-axis from center of the loop, in the figure
we can find that
𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝑑𝐵𝑥
cos 𝜃 =
𝑑𝐵
𝑎 𝑎
cos 𝜃 = =
𝑟 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝑥 𝑥
sin 𝜃 = =
𝑟 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

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Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.3 Circular Current Loop

From Biot and Savart Law,

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = [ 2 ]
4𝜋 𝑥 + 𝑎2

The components of the magnetic field vector 𝐵⃑⃑ are

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑎
𝑑𝐵𝑥 = 𝑑𝐵 cos 𝜃 = ( ) ( )
4𝜋 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑥
𝑑𝐵𝑦 = 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜃 = ( 2 2
)( )
4𝜋 𝑥 + 𝑎 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

The only perpendicular component will matter, and that is the x-component.
Integrating to find the total x-component,

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎𝑑𝑙 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎
𝐵𝑥 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2 4𝜋 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2

Evaluating, dl=2𝜋𝑎 since it is the circumference of the circle,

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎
𝐵𝑥 =
4𝜋 2 3 (2𝜋𝑎)
(𝑥 + 𝑎2 )2
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒂𝟐
𝑩𝒙 =
𝟐(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
This is the total magnetic field in a circular current loop.

Furthermore, the magnetic field on the axis of the coil with N loops
is,
𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰𝒂𝟐
𝑩𝒙 =
𝟐(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐

The use of this is to create strong magnetic field. As an application,

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses high current to produce about 1.5Tso

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the coils are bathed in liquid helium at T=4.2K to prevent the coils from
overheating.

Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

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AMPERE’S LAW AND ITS APPLICATION

In the previous discussion, we had used the infinitesimal field dB to

approximate the total magnetic field. Just like the Gauss Law foe electric
fields, we had used it to easily find the electric field. If there is highly
symmetric current distribution, we can use also the Ampere’s Law to
calculate for the magnetic fields.
Recall that Gauss’s Law for electric field states that the electric flux
is equal to the total charged enclosed. Gauss’s Law for magnetism, on the
other hand, states that the magnetic flux through any closed surface is always
zero.
Ampere’s Law is not expressed in terms of magnetic flux but rather
⃑⃑ around a closed path as,
expressed as a line integral of 𝐵

⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃑
∮𝐵

Ampere’s Law for a Long, Straight Conductor

Recall that magnetic field B for a long, straight conductor carrying a

current I with a distance r from the conductor is given by
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Take note that the magnetic field lines are circles centered at the
conductor as seen in Figure 2.4.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.4 Magnetic Field Lines in a Long, Straight Conductor

At every point in the circle, 𝐵 ⃑⃑ and 𝑑𝑙⃑ are parallel and so, 𝐵
⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃑ = 𝐵𝑑𝑙.
Since r is constant around the circle, B is constant and is equal to 𝐵∥ . Thus,
𝜇 𝐼
∮𝐵⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃑ = ∮ 𝐵∥ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 0 (2𝜋𝑟)
2𝜋𝑟

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⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝒅𝒍⃑ = 𝝁𝟎 𝑰 (𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆′ 𝒔𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈, 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓)

∮ ⃑𝑩
This expression is when the direction of the current is positive perpendicular
to the integration path (using the right hand rule). When the direction of
current is negative, then
∮𝑩⃑⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝒅𝒍⃑ = −𝝁𝟎 𝑰
⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃑ for a long, straight conductor depends on whether the
Thus, sign for ∮ 𝐵
direction of the current is positive or negative.

Generally, Ampere’s Law can be expressed as

When, ∮ 𝐵⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃑=0, it does not mean that 𝐵

⃑⃑ = 0, it means that the total
current bound by the area is zero.

Application of the Ampere’s Law is on the calculation of different

magnitude of magnetic fields. The table below is the result of the application
of Ampere’s Law in the calculation of magnetic fields of different conductors.

Type of Conductor Magnetic Field

Long, straight, current- 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐼
carrying conductor
Long cylindrical 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑟
𝐵= (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,
conductor 2𝜋 𝑅2
𝑟<𝑅

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,
2𝜋𝑟
𝑟>𝑅

Solenoid 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
Toroidal solenoid 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
2𝜋𝑟
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Activity 8
Do as indicated.

1. Pairs of conductors carrying current into or out of the power-supply

components of electronic equipment are sometimes twisted together to
reduce magnetic-field effects. Why does this help?

2. Currents in dc transmission lines can be 100 A or higher. Some people are

concerned that the electromagnetic fields from such lines near their homes
could pose health dangers. For a line that has current 150 A and a height of
8.0 m above the ground, what magnetic field does the line produce at
ground level? Express your answer in teslas and as a percentage of the
earth’s magnetic field, which is 0.50 G. Is this value cause for worry?

3. As a new electrical technician, you are designing a large solenoid to

produce a uniform 0.150-T magnetic field near the center of the solenoid.
You have enough wire for 4000 circular turns. This solenoid must be 55.0
cm long and 2.80 cm in diameter. What current will you need to produce
the necessary field?

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Magnetism is due to the motion of electron and the motion of charges.

Magnetic interaction follows the Law of Magnetism – like poles repel

and unlike poles attract.

Magnetic monopoles do not exist. Magnetic material can be

ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic.

Magnetic field is the region where magnetic force is felt. Magnetic

force depends on the velocity of charges and the magnetic field strength.

Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines for magnetic field visualization.

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field passing in an area.

Gauss Law for Magnetism states that the magnetic flux in a closed
surface area is always zero.

Direct current motor operation is an application of the magnetic force

and torque on a current loop.

Magnetic field calculation becomes easier using the Ampere’s Law.

Congratulations! You have just finished Module III. Almost done!

Module III