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Computer maintenance - notes

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PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER SUPPORT & MAINTENANCE

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CHAPTER ONE;

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SUPPORT & MAINTENANCE

What is computer support?

Computer support is the process of providing diagnostic, troubleshooting, maintenance and
repair services to a computer or similar device.
It allows end users to seek and receive specialized computer maintenance and management
services, either locally from their home/office or remotely via the Internet.

What is computer maintenance?

Computer maintenance is the practice of keeping computers in a good state of repair.
Computer maintenance or repair is the process of identifying, troubleshooting and resolving problems and
issues in a faulty computer. Computer repair is a broad field encompassing many tools, techniques and
procedures used to repair computer hardware, software or network/Internet problems. It involves
1. Back up your data.
2. Clean dust from your computer.
3. Clean up your cabling, and repairing networks too.
4. Organize and checking your installation disks.
5. Run antivirus and spyware scans regularly.
6. Clean up your software and repairing softwares.
7. Clean up your OS.
8. Update everything.

Reasons as to why computer maintenance is important:

• Prevent unexpected down times by rectifying problems before they occur
• Prolong the life of computers systems
• Results in increase of computer speed.
• It prevents errors
• It secures data and information  It saves time.

Maintenance Tools & equipments:

Tools that can be used to maintain and repair a computer system include.

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 Nut drivers: Removes the hexagonal-headed screws that secure the system
unit covers, adapter boards, disk drives, power supplies, and speakers in most
systems. They work much better than conventional screwdrivers.
 Torx driver: A special, star-shaped driver that matches the special screws
found in most Compaq systems and in many other systems as well.
 Chip-extraction and insertion tools: Used to install or remove memory
chips (or other smaller chips) without bending any pins on the chip.
 Tweezers and parts grabber: Can be used to hold any small screws or
jumper blocks that are difficult to hold in your hand. The parts grabber is
especially useful when you drop a small part into the interior of a system.
 Pliers: Straightens pins on chips, applying or removing jumpers, crimping
cables, or grabbing small parts.

What is system documentation?

System documentation: The collection of documents that describes the
requirements, capabilities, limitations, design, operation, and maintenance of a
system, documentation is the information that describes the product to its users

Importance of system documentation

• Teaches users how to install and maintain an application
• Provides a representation on how the system works
• Provides ideas for other people to refer to
Types of system documentation
a) Component and Peripheral Documentation
The specific OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) manuals for each
major component such as the motherboard, video card, hard disk, floppy
drive, CD-ROM drive, modem, network card, SCSI adapter, and so on.
b) Chip and Chipset Documentation
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The most specific and technical manuals which cover items such as the
processor, motherboard chipset, super I/O chip, BIOS, memory modules,
video chipset, and various disk controller, SCSI bus interface, network
interface
c) Manufacturer-Specific Documentation
If your system is from a name-brand manufacturer--such as IBM,
Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, and others--then there may be a
wealth of information available in manufacturer-specific manuals and
documentation.
d) System-level documentation.
The system-specific manual(s) put together by the system manufacturer or
assembler. Some companies break this down further into Operations,
Technical Reference, and Service manuals.
e) Warranties and Service Contracts
Extended warranties are a more recent trend in the computer industry. With
the current fierce competition among hardware vendors, a good warranty is
one way for a specific manufacturer to stand out from the crowd.

CHAPTER TWO;
THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT – PSU

WHAT IS A PSU?
This is the device that supplies power to various components of a
computer. It pulls the required amount of electricity and converts the AC
current to DC current, and regulates the voltage to eliminate spikes and
surges

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The exact contents of any supply vary depending on both the supply's
form factor and its individual design, but most of them have the same
general components.

THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A POWER SUPPLY

It involves converting the 240v AC to 12v DC and 5v DC. this process requires the voltage to be
reduced from 240v AC to DC and to control and prevent unwanted variations.

The 240v AC from the main supply gets into to the PSU and is received by the transformer which
is used to step down the incoming supply to 5v and 12v AC needed on the component.

This is followed by a rectifier which converts the 12v and 5v AC to 12v DC and 5v Dc respectively.
It then gets to a filter, a capacitor and other components whose components is to smoothen the
current.

Finally, it gets to a regulator which is an electric circuit that can adjust the computer voltage to a
precise level and support and prevent unwanted variations.

One regulator handles +12v DC and the other handles +5v DC hence the voltage produced on the
power connectors is +12v DC, -12v DC, +5v DC and -5v DC.

 Transformer - steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smoothens the DC from varying greatly to a
small ripple.

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 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed

voltage.

Signs of a faulty Power Supply

Here is a list of common power supply failure symptoms:

 There are strange noises coming from the back side of the computer where
the power cord plugs into the power supply.
 Nothing happens when the computer power button is pressed. Sometimes a
light may flash or flash continuously in the front of the computer or on the
back of the power supply.

 The computer turns on for a few seconds and then turns off. (Sometimes this is
unfortunately associated with motherboard failures.

 Computer turns on for a while, but when games or other applications are using
the computer steadily, it will turn off or I get a blue screen.

The following is a list of PC problems that often are related to the power supply:

• Any power-on or system startup failures or lockups.

• Spontaneous rebooting or intermittent lockups during normal operation.
• Intermittent parity check or other memory-type errors.
• Hard disk and fan simultaneously failing to spin (no +12v).
• Overheating due to fan failure.
• Small brownouts cause the system to reset.
• Electric shocks felt on the system case or connectors.
• Slight static discharges disrupt system operation.

The following fairly obvious symptoms point right to the power supply as a
possible cause:
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• System is completely dead (no fan, no cursor)

• Smoke.
• Blown circuit breakers

Power Supply Troubleshooting

The first place to start is always confirming that the power supply is operating
properly. When you start troubleshooting a dead computer, never ignore the
possibility that the AC power to the PC's power supply is at fault. Power supplies
often fail gradually, giving rise to symptoms that appear to be caused by
individual component failure. Many cheaper PC's ship with power supplies I
would basically describe as "disposable." If I had to choose one part to blame the
majority of intermittent failures in cheap PC's on, it would be the power supply.

Symptoms of an overloaded power supply

• Overheating
• Spontaneous rebooting

Power problems you may expect and need to protect your devices from
• Overvoltages (spikes and surges)
• Undervoltages (brownouts)
• Power failure (blackouts)
• Noisy power (interference)

PSU FORM FACTORS:

QUIZ:

a) With the help of a diagram, Discuss the various PSU form factors stating
clearly the key features of each.
CHAPTER THREE:
THE MOTHERBOARDS;

A motherboard is the main board of a computer, usually containing the circuitry

for the central processing unit, keyboard, and monitor and often having slots for
accepting additional circuitry.

Types of Motherboards
There are two major types of system boards namely:

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Integrated system board

They are called so because the components that would otherwise be installed as
expansion cards are integrated into motherboard circuitry. They were designed
because of their simplicity. They have a disadvantage that when one component
breaks you can’t replace the components, you must replace the whole
motherboard.

Non-integrated system board.

They have each major assembly installed in computers as expansion cards. These
major assemblies include the disk controllers, video display controller and their
accessories etc. They can be easily identified because each expansion slot is
usually occupied by the mentioned components.

Motherboards

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Motherboard components:

1. Mouse & keyboard: Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have
a Key board port connected directly to the motherboard.
2. USB (Universal serial bus):
USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can find USB versions of
many different devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and even
printers. a USB connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily
recognizable.

3. Parallel port: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port.
Parallel port carry data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port,
which uses only one wire. Parallel ports use a 25-pin female DB connector.

4. CPU Chip : The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs
all the calculations that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes
and sizes.
5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently
being used by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes.

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6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin
ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is
one that is used to control the floppy drive.
7. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol.
The PCI bus is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to
the main logic of the computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.
8. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the
Expansion bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible
cards.
9. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned
off all motherboards comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the
motherboard in one of three ways: the obsolete external battery, the most
common onboard battery, and built-in battery.
10. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a
single connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually
brown. You also probably have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an
Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot
11. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special
notches in the slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember
if it does not go easily, it is probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU
fan's power.
12. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the
necessary electrical power to make the pc operate. the power supply takes
standard 110-V AC power and converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt
DC power.

 Northbridge - Definition: Refers to the System Controller

component of a Pentium chipset, responsible for integrating the cache and
main memory DRAM control functions and for managing the host and PCI
buses.
 South bridge - Refers to the Peripheral Bus Controller
component of a Pentium chipset, responsible for
implementing a PCI-to-ISA bridge function and for managing
the ISA bus and all the ports.

The slots and ports found on a motherboard include:

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 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)- connections

for video, sound and video capture cards, as well as network
cards
 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - dedicated port for
video cards.
 Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) - interfaces for the
hard drives Universal Serial Bus or FireWire - external
peripherals Memory slots
MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTORS
Motherboard form factors: Determines general layout, size and feature placement on the
motherboard.
Form factors such as physical size, shape, component placement, power supply connectors etc.
Various

Determines general layout, size and feature placement on the [Link]

factors such as physical size, shape, component placement, power supply
connectors etc.

Various form factors of motherboards are AT, Baby AT, ATX, Mini-ATX, Micro-
ATX, Flex ATX, LPX and Mini LPX and NLX.

1) AT (Full and Baby)

The AT motherboard actually comes in two different types: Full and Baby. The
primary difference between the two types is a matter of size, with the Full form at
approximately 12" wide and the Baby at about 8.5" wide. The Full form is usually
found with 386 or earlier computers and fits in a wider case. However, most AT-
type motherboards in today’s computer systems are usually Baby ATs.

Regardless of which type of AT motherboard you are working with, the

characteristics are basically the same. The processor is normally located in the front
of the board, which has been an annoyance to many technicians attempting to
install a new expansion card. The serial and parallel ports are actually located on
the back of the case, and attach to the motherboard by headers.

AT (Advanced Technology):

• Oldest and biggest form factor and popular until Baby AT.
• Capable of using 386 processor.
• 12' inch size and was difficult to install, service and upgrade.

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Baby AT:
A Baby AT motherboard is 8.5″ wide and 13″ long. The reduced width means much less overlap
in most cases with the drive bays, although there usually is still some overlap at the front of the
case.

• Standard in computer industries and still being used in Pentium class

products.
• CPU socket is placed in such a way that it can interfere with longer bus cards.
• Limitation over peripheral card installation.
• I/O ports are connected to pin-outs near the floppy drive which results in
jumbling of ribbon cables.

Advantages of the Baby AT Motherboard Design

The size of 8.5” by 10” makes it easier to design smaller desktop PCs
Most of the board is easily accessible for upgrades and expansion

Disadvantages of the Baby AT design

CPU location – with the processor and heat sink in place, it is difficult to fit a long
expansion card into one of the expansion slots. This is the main problem
encountered with the AT-style motherboard-the CPU can get in the way of the
expansion cards.

Motherboard mounting – some system cases are not drilled or punched to support
all the mounting holes on a Baby AT mother-board.
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Therefore, the front edge of the system board tends to be left unsupported and over
time this edge can warp (bend) leading to loose components and expansion cards
causing intermittent problems.
2) ATX

The ATX motherboard specification was introduced by Intel and has become an
industryaccepted standard. While the ATX system board is smaller than a Full AT,
it is approximately the same size as the Baby AT. However, the processor has been
moved to the back of the board and out of the way of expansion cards. In addition,
the ATX form integrates the serial and parallel ports on the motherboard.

ATX (Advanced Technology Extended):

• Improvement done in easy to use, support for current and future I/O, and also
to current and future technology.
• New mounting configuration for power supply.
• Processor relocated away from expansion slots to allow full length add-in
cards.  Provides air-flow through chassis and across the processor.

Some Improvements of the ATX Motherboard Form Factor

• Integrated I/O Port Connectors: Baby AT motherboards use headers which
stick up from the board, and a cable that goes from them to the physical serial

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and parallel port connectors mounted on to the case. The ATX has these
connectors soldered directly onto the motherboard.
• Integrated PS/2 Mouse Connector: ATX motherboards have the PS/2 port
built into the motherboard.
• Reduced Drive Bay Interference: Since the board is essentially “rotated” 90
degrees from the baby AT style, there is much less “overlap” between where
the board is and where the drives are thus making it easy to access the board,
and fewer cooling problems.
• Reduced Expansion Card Interference: The processor socket/slot and
memory sockets are moved from the front of the board to the back right side,
near the power supply. This eliminates the clearance problem with baby AT
style motherboards and allows full length cards to be used in most (if not all) of
the system bus slots.
• Better Power Supply Connector: The ATX motherboard uses a single 20-pin
connector instead of the confusing pair of near-identical 6-pin connectors on the
baby AT form factor.
• “Soft Power” Support:The ATX power supply is turned on and off using
signaling from the motherboard, not a physical toggle switch. This allows the
PC to be turned on and off under software control, allowing much improved
power management.
• 3.3V Power Support: The ATX style motherboard has support for 3.3V power
from the ATX power supply.
• Improved Design for Upgradability: In part because it is the newest design,
the ATX is the choice “for the future”. More than that, its design makes
upgrading easier because of more efficient access to the components on the
motherboard.

4) Mini ATX:

• Commonly same as ATX.

• Just change in size from ATX= 12" x 9.6" to Mini ATX= 11.2" x 8.2".

5) Micro ATX:

• Supports current and new processor technologies.

• AGP (Accelerated graphics port) to have high performance graphics. 
Smaller in size and less power supply.

6) Flex ATX:

• A subset of micro ATX.

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• Gives chance to system developers to create new personal computer design.

• Enhanced flexibility to allow custom case and board design to be
manufactured.  Small motherboard size and supports current processor
technology.

7) LPX (Low Profile Extension) and Mini LPX:

• Based on design by western digital.

• Usually found in desktop pc's.
• Case are slim-line, low profile case with riser card arrangement for expansion
cards.
• Riser card arrangement means expansion boards are parallel rather than
perpendicular.
• This make smaller case but limits number of expansion slots to two or three.
 High quality product at low cost but makes difficult to upgrade and repair.

8) NLX (New Low Profile Extended):

• Supports current and future processor technologies.

• Also supports new AGP and tall memory technology.
• Installing and upgrading the system is easy.

Motherboard installation procedure

1. Orient Case or Mounting Panel: Arrange the case (or removable motherboard
mounting panel) so that the expansion card slots and keyboard and other
connectors are farthest away from you.
2. Find Motherboard Mounting Holes: Examine the motherboard and locate its
mounting holes.
3. Find System Case or Mounting Panel Holes: Examine the system case and see
what types of mounting holes it uses.
4. Orient Motherboard and Match Motherboard Mounting Holes to Case
Mounting Holes: Take the motherboard and physically locate it in space a few
inches over the case (or removable case panel). Orient the motherboard so that
it is approximately where it will be when installed. Any integrated connectors
on the back of the motherboard should line up with the holes in the case
designed for them, especially the keyboard connector.
5. Install Standoffs: Attach the mounting hardware, following these specific
instructions for each of the different case hole types.
6. Slide Motherboard Into Place: Follow the appropriate directions depending,
again, on the type of holes being used.
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7. Determine If Washers Are Required: Examine the heads of the screws that you
will use to secure the motherboard to the metal standoffs under the screw-in
mounting holes. If the head of the screw is large enough that after tightening
the screw the head might make contact with the circuitry on the motherboard,
you must use a plastic or paper washer under the screw head to prevent
accidentally shorting out the motherboard.
8. Screw Motherboard Into Place: Using washers (if necessary), screw the
motherboard into the metal standoffs underneath it. First insert all the
screws and hand-tighten them, then tighten them all using a screwdriver (not
too tight).
9. Replace Removable Panel: If your case uses a removable motherboard
mounting panel, replace it into the case now.
10. Test Motherboard Installation: An incorrectly-installed motherboard can be
the bane of any homebuilt PC; strange and unpredictable behavior will result
that can be very hard to diagnose.
Procedure of troubleshooting a motherboard
• Turn Off PC, unplug power cord and all input and output devices connected on
the back panel of the unit

• Take the unit out of its original location and place it in a clean surface

• Prepare all the tools you will need(screwdriver, a non-conductive & dry surface
like a carton, book, styro-insulator that came with the motherboard box, paint
brush, eraser, vacuum/blower(optional)

• Be sure your feet is insulated like your wearing a rubber shoes to avoid static
discharge from your body damaging the motherboard
• Unscrew the motherboard, power supply, video card & other screwed cards
inside the protective casing

• Each piece taken out like the memory, video card, etc should be brushed clean
and/or vacuumed and placed on a dry non-conductive surface

• Placed the motherboard on the non-conductive surface you prepared earlier with
the memory, processor, processor fan and power supply(these were the standard
devices we needed to test motherboard for possible failure assuming the
motherboard have a built-in/onboard videocard else you need to connect the
videocard as well)

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• Attached all devices mentioned on procedure 7 properly. Please please please,

always double check your connections to avoid further accidental damage
• Check motherboard manual for the front panel power on orientation

• Plug-in power supply power cord on an outlet/automatic voltage regulator.

Using a standard flat screwdriver, short the power on jumper pin on the front
panel

• When the power Supply, Processor fan turned on, listen carefully for the
initialization beep that indicates that the motherboard is possibly okay.
• If you hear the initialization beep, try to reconfirm by turning off the
motherboard by steadily pressing the power on jumper pin of its front panel until
you see that the processor fan totally turns off. Then repeat turning on
motherboard.

• Once beep initialization is confirmed, turn-off motherboard, unplug power

supply power cord and connect the monitor on the isolated motherboard. This is
to see if the motherboard boots properly which will display the bios start-up up
to hard disk boot disk error display(no hard disk connected so this will be the
last thing you'll see on the monitor)

• After attaching the monitor on the isolated motherboard, plug-in power supply
cord and turn motherboard on
• If everything works as expected on procedure 13, then the problem of possible
motherboard failure was a dirty motherboard & its parts, solved by cleaning
maintenance

• What if symptoms persist? Turn-off motherboard, unplug power cord and try
inserting the memory module on the other memory slot, then replaced memory if
nothing happens. Try changing the Power Supply Unit. Try changing the
processor. if no onboard video card is available try changing it as well. The
replacement of parts is done one at a time so don't hurry and relax. Be patient.

• What if no replacement parts were available? You could still do the memory slot
testing. And if you have a multimeter/multi-tester, you could actually test the
power supply output voltage and you'll need the motherboard manual to verify
the expected voltage input in the motherboard. To turn-on power supply unit
manually, insert a jumper wire on the green colored wire and the other end
inserted on any of the black colored wire of the 20 pin motherboard connector.
• You could also check the motherboard for any capacitor leaks, corrosion and
moisture indications
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• You could clear the bios settings as well by removing the cmos battery for 5-10
seconds or using the motherboard manual locate the cmos reset jumper and reset
it using a flat screwdriver.
• Bios update is sometimes necessary, but only if the bios update procedure is
properly tested proven and is really the solution to the problem. Avoid as much
as possible. Might turn your motherboard into a vegetable.

• If all else fails, try to find a working motherboard to test the other pc parts
(memory, videocard and etc) for performance and stability. Sorry to say, you'll
need a new motherboard. If you’re lucky you could buy it cheap or in a good
price without upgrading other pc parts which is due to technological fast
advancement.

Factors one should consider when selecting

motherboard for replacement.
 Should support the CPU, RAM, video adapter,
and other adapter cards.
 The socket and chip set on the motherboard
must be compatible with the CPU.
 The motherboard must accommodate the
existing heat sink/fan assembly.
 The existing power supply must have
connections that fit the new motherboard.
TOPIC FOUR

THE PROCESSOR -: CPU

The central processing unit (CPU), or simply the processor, is the operations center
of a computer. Its job is to provide the devices attached to the computer with
directives that retrieve, display, manipulate, and store information. Therefore, the
rate at which the CPU can process electronic signals is a determinant factor in the
speed of the computer.

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Refers to a system that accepts a program as input, prepares it for execution and
executes the process defined with data to produce results. Also a short term for a
microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU) in computers.

THE INTEL FAMILY OF PROCESSORS:

• 8086 Processors-has 16bit external database
• 80286processors-first to implement pin grid array, has a speed of (6-20)MHz
,could address up to 1.6 MB RAM
• 80386processors- used both 32bit data bus and 32bit address bus, has a range
speed of 32mhz, used up to 4GB of memory.
• 80486processors-had a32 bit data bus, and operated at a minimum of 33mhz
• Pentium and Pentium pro- had 3.1 million transistors, used 64 bit data bus
and 32bit address bus, had a speed of between (60-200) MHZ Pentium Pro -
1995-1997 (150-200 MHz)
Typically used in high-end desktops and servers, the Pentium Pro increased
memory from 4GB to 64GB. The Pentium Pro had L2 cache from 512KB to 1MB,
used a 60 or 66 MHz system bus, contained from 5.5 to 62 million transistors. It
was made with 0.35 process and housed in a dual cavity PGA package. When
introduced, it was touted as being superior to the Pentium for 32-bit applications.
• MMX and over drive-included 57new instruction for better video audio and
graphic capability
 -used a single instruction multiple data
technology(CMIMD)
 -cache memory was double(32kb)
Pentium MMX - 1997-1999 (233-300
MHz)
Added MMX multimedia instructions to Pentium CPU and increased transistors to
4.5 million. Desktop units used PGA package and 0.35 process while mobile units
used TCP and 0.25 process.
• Pentium 11 - had arange speed of 233-400mhz
 -used asingle edge contact processor connected to
motherboard.

 Pentium II - 1997-1999 (233-450 MHz)

Added MMX multimedia instructions to Pentium Pro and introduced the
Single Edge Connector Cartridge (SECC) for Slot 1. The Pentium II used a 66 or
100 MHz system bus. Desktop models had 7.5 million transistors, 512KB L2
cache and were housed in SECC packages. Mobile models had 27.4 million
transistors, 256KB L2 cache and were housed in either BGA or Mobile Mini-
Cartridge (MMC) packages.
• Celeron1 –costed less
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 Celeron - Introduced in 1998 (266 MHz-2.8

GHz)
Less expensive Pentium chips due to smaller L2 caches. First Celerons had no L2
cache, but 128KB on-die cache was added in 1999. Celerons started out with 66
and 100 MHz system buses that migrated to 400 MHz.
• Pentium 111- had speed of (400-933)mhz
 Had 70 new instructions
 Had aaprocessor serial number Pentium III - 1999-
2001 (500 MHz-1.13 GHz)
The Pentium III added 70 additional instructions to the Pentium II. The
Pentium III used a 100 or 133 MHz system bus and either a 512KB L2 cache or
a 256KB L2 Advanced Transfer Cache. Depending on the model, it contained
from 9.5 to 28 million transistors, used the 0.25 or 0.18 micron process and
came in SECC and SECC2 packages. Mobile units came in BGA and micro-PGA
(µPGA) packages.
• Pentium 1V –had a range speed over 1000mhz and speed expressed in GHZ.
 Pentium 4 - Introduced in 2000 (1.4-3.4
GHz)
Latest Pentium architecture started out with a 400 MHz system bus and 256KB L2
cache (later increased to 800 MHz and 2MB). The first models contained 42
million transistors, used the 0.18 micron process and came in 423-pin and 478-pin
PGA packages. Intel's first Pentium 4 chipset was the 850 and supported only
Rambus memory (RDRAM), but subsequent chipsets switched to DDR SDRAM.
• Pentium 4 Dual Cores - Introduced in 2005
The Pentium D and Pentium Processor Extreme Edition were the first dual-core Pentium
chips from Intel. Although both chips included Intel's 64-bit EM64T technology (later
named "Intel 64"), the Pentium D did not include Hyper-Threading, but the Extreme
Edition did.

PROCEDURE OF INSTALLING APROCESSOR

• Prepare a static save area
• Power down the system and disconnect all the power codes
• Remove the system case and install the screws carefully
• Wear an antistatic wrist band and locate the old processor and ensure its
package
• If the heat sink include the fan ,disconnect the power code
• Remove the heat sink if possible taking care not to damage any component
near by
• Always use a PGA remove tool to level the old cpu out of the socket

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• Don’t use the screw driver as it can damage the near by components and the
chips

SIGNS OF AN AILLING PROCESSOR

 Unstable operation
 System hanging Speed problem
 slow processing on the system/ wrong CPU speed at boot time.
 Incorrect configuration
 Failed components
 Power supply problems

How to Troubleshoot a Processor

1. Unplug the computer. Open the computer case. Ground yourself by holding
the metal part of the case. Unplug the power source for the fan sitting atop
the processor. Remove any screws that hold the heatsink and fan. Unlatch the
clips on the side of the heatsink and fan and remove.
2. Touch the processor. If it is too hot for you to keep your finger on the
processor, the processor may be overheating.
3. Check to see that the processor is properly faceted to the socket. If any of the
hundreds of pins that fit into a socket on the motherboard are bent or not
seated properly, the computer will not function.
4. Check the BIOS for proper processor settings. If the BIOS is set to the wrong
processor speed, the hardware can overheat and cause problems with the
computer. Check that the BIOS displays the right processor speed and type
when booting the computer.
5. Swap out a good processor with the one having issues, if you have a spare
processor that is compatible with the motherboard. If the computer runs fine
with the other processor, then replace the processor.
6. Check with the motherboard manufacturer to ensure that a new processor you
have bought or may buy is compatible. Most motherboard manufacturers list
compatibility specifications on the corporate website.

Motherboard and CPU Troubleshooting

There are very few instances when you'd turn on a PC, have it either power up or
not, and be able to say, "Oh, that's a motherboard problem." Motherboard failures
usually show up as second level problems, like "I've replaced the video card and
the screen is still dead." If you want to learn how to repair PC's without swapping
every part, it's critical to know what to look for on a powered up system, like a
CPU fan that isn't running, or RAM that stays cold.
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Sometimes you can spot a blown capacitor on a motherboard, but it's not a
common problem.

TOPIC FIVE

THE MEMORY: ADAPTER MEMORY CONFIGURATION AND OPTIMIZATION

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Main Memory:
The cycle (input - processing - output) would not be possible
without a holding place for the instructions and data that the
processors (CPU) can easily reach. This holding place is known as
memory also called main storage and is internal to the computer
consisting of RAM and possibly ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Is the basic kind of internal memory that holds data and

instructions while the computer is in use.
• It can be read from and written to.
• It is called random access because the processor or
computer can access any location in memory in any order
as contrasted with sequential access devices which must be
accessed in order.
• RAM is volatile; losing the stored information in an event of
power loss, and quite expensive.

There are two basic types of RAM.

Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it

faster; but it is also more expensive than dynamic RAM.
Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per
second. Both types of RAM are volatile, meaning that they lose
their contents when the power is turned off.
Over the years, newer computers have been introduced that
contain faster microprocessors. To accommodate the increased
speed, chip manufacturers have designed and built faster RAM
chips. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) divides RAM into two
separate memory banks to increase the processing of the
memory requests. To overcome the performance limitations of
SDRAM, two competing technologies have been developed.
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RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) involves a new memory design that

achieves a higher data transfer speeds but it is expensive to
manufacture. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM) can
transfer data twice as fast as SDRAM because it reads data twice
during each clock cycle. Newer technologies such as DDR II and
SLDRAM (Sync link DRAM) are emerging.

ROM (Read only memory)

• Is also random access but only for reads, once data has
been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and
can only be read.
• It refers to special memory used to store programs that
boot the computer and perform diagnostics. Most personal
computers have a small amount of ROM
(a few thousand bytes).
• Retains its contents even when the computer is turned off
and is therefore referred to as being nonvolatile.
Types of ROM

ROM: A mask programmed read only memory that can be only

be produced by the manufacturer. It is designed to perform a
specific function and cannot be changed. This is inflexible and so
regular ROMs are only used generally for programs that are static
(not changing often) and mass-produced. This product is
analogous to a commercial software CD-ROM that you purchase
in a store.

1. Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that

can be programmed using special equipment (a PROM
programmer.); it can be written to, but only once. This is
useful for companies that make their own ROMs from
software they write, because when they change their code
they can create new PROMs without requiring expensive
equipment. This is similar to the way a CD-ROM recorder
works by letting you "burn" programs onto blanks once and
then letting you read from them many times. In fact,
programming a PROM is also called burning, just like
burning a CD-R, and it is comparable in terms of its
flexibility.

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2. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a

ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed. A little glass
window is installed in the top of the ROM package, through
which you can actually see the chip that holds the memory.
Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined
through this window for a specified period of time, which will
erase the EPROM and allow it to be reprogrammed again.
Obviously this is much more useful than a regular PROM,
but it does require the erasing light. Continuing the "CD"
analogy, this technology is analogous to a reusable CD-RW.

3. Electrically Alterable Read-Only Memory(EAROMs)

can be modified a bit at a time, but writing is a slow process
and uses non-standard voltages (usually higher voltages
around 12 volts). Rewriting an EAROM is intended to be an
infrequent operation - most of the time the memory is used
as a ROM. EAROM may be used to store critical system
setup information in a non-volatile way. For many
applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM
backed-up by a lithium battery.

4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM):

The next level of erasability is the EEPROM, which can be
erased under software control. This is the most flexible type
of ROM, and is now commonly used for holding BIOS
programs. When you hear reference to a "flash BIOS" or
doing a BIOS upgrade by "flashing", this refers to
reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM with a special software
program. Here we are blurring the line a bit between what
"read-only" really means, but remember that this rewriting
is done maybe once a year or so, compared to real read-
write memory (RAM) where rewriting is done often many
times per second!

Cache memory After Random Access Memory (RAM)

Cache memory is a type of very fast memory that is used to improve the speed of
a computer doubling it in some cases. It acts as an intermediate store between the
CPU and the maim memory, and works by storing the most frequently or recently
used instructions and data so that it will be very fast to retrieve them again.

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Processor

Cache Memory

Main Memory

TOPIC SIX

THE BUS SLOTS AND I/O CARDS:

COMPUTER BUSES

A Bus is a set of parallel wires connecting two or more

components in a computer. The CPU is connected to the main
memory by three separate buses. When the CPU wishes to
access a particular memory location, it sends this address to
memory on the address bus. The data in that memory location
is then returned to the CPU on via the data bus.
Control signals are sent along the control bus.

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a) Control Bus

This bus is bi-directional meaning that signals can be carried in

both directions. All the components in the computer share the
data and address buses. Control lines are used to ensure that
access to and use of the data and address buses by the
different components of the system does not lead to conflict.
The purpose of the control bus is to transmit command , timing
and specific status information between system components
such as the memory, processor, keyboard input controller VDU
output controller and the Disk I/O controller.

b) Data bus
A data bus provides a bi-directional path for moving data and
instructions between system components. A typical data bus
consists of 8, 16, or separate lines. The width of the data bus is
a key factor in determining overall system performance. For
example, if the data bus is 8 bits wide, and each instruction is
16 bits long, then the processor must access the main memory
twice during each instruction cycle.

c) Address bus

When the processor wishes to read a word (say 8, 16, 32 bits)

of data from memory, it first puts the address of the desired
word of the address bus. The address bus is used for
communicating the physical addresses of computer memory
elements/locations that the requesting unit wants to access
(read/write).

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NB: The width of an address bus, along with the size of

addressable memory elements, determines how much
memory can be accessed.

Common Bus Interfaces:

a) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) EISA is the

second most commonly used interface for disk drives. Unlike

competing standards, SCSI is capable of supporting eight
devices, or sixteen devices with Wide SCSI.

b) Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) also

known as Extended ISA, EISA is a standard first announced

in September of 1988 for IBM and IBM compatible computers
to compete with the IBM MCA bus. The EISA bus is found on
Intel 80386, 80486 and early Pentium computers. The EISA
bus provided 32bit slots at an 8.33 MHz cycle rate for the use
with 386DX or higher processors. In addition, the EISA can
accommodate a 16-bit ISA card in the first row.

NB: Although the EISA bus is backwards compatible and

not a
proprietary bus it never became widely used and is no
longer found in computers today.
c) Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) was introduced by IBM

in 1987. MCA, or the Micro Channel bus, was a competition

for ISA bus. The MCA bus offered several additional features
over the ISA such as a 32-bit bus (although there was also a
16-bit bus), ran at 10MHz, automatically configure cards
(similar to what Plug and Play is today), and bus mastering
for greater efficiency.
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Word size
Word size means the number of Bits that the processor can
process simultaneously. Typical processors can have 8-, 16-,
32-, 64- or even larger word sizes. Word size also determines
the speed of the computer. Bus size means the number of bits
that can be transmitted together. Most mainframe computers
have 32-bit words.

I/O Controllers.
Each peripheral device operates in a different way and hence
these devices cannot be connected directly to the processor.
The processor communicates and controls a peripheral device
through an I/O or device controller. I/O controllers are available
which can operate both input and output transfers of bits, e.g.
floppy disk controller. Other controllers operate in one direction
only, either as an input controller, e.g. keyboard controller or as
output controller, e.g. VDU controller.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES AND INTERRUPTS

5.1 Input Devices
An input device lets you communicate with a computer. They are used to enter
information and issue commands to the computer. Commands tell the computer to
do something, like save the file. A keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch
pads and joystick are examples of input devices.
5.2 Output device
An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies or
generates sound.
A monitor, printer, and speakers are examples of output devices.
The input and output devices are discussed in details in chapter 2 of the module.

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5.3 Interrupts
An interrupt is a signal from some device or source seeking the attention of the
processor. The interrupt signal is sent along a control line to the processor, and
the currently executing program is suspended while control is passed to an
interrupt service routine.
5.3.1 Types of interrupt
The following are the different types of interrupt that could occur;
 Interrupts generated by the running process; the process might need to
perform
I/O, obtain more storage or communicate with the operator
• I/O interrupts; these are initiated by the I/O hardware and signal to the
CPU that the status of a channel or device has changed. An I/O interrupt
will occur when an I/O operation is complete, when an error occurs, or
when device is made ready.
• Timer interrupts; these are generated by a timer within the processor, and
allow the operating system to perform certain functions at regular
intervals. For example, each user in a multi-user system may be allocated
Program check interrupts; these are caused by various types of error such
as division by zero.
• Machine check interrupts; these are caused by malfunctioning hardware

5.3.2 Interrupt priorities

There is a special register in the CPU called the interrupt register. At the
beginning of each fetch-execute cycle, the interrupt register is checked.
Each bit of the register represents a different type of interrupt, and if a bit
is set, the state of the current process is saved and the operating system
routes control to the appropriate interrupt handler.

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Some interrupts, such as those generate by hardware failure, may need to be

dealt with immediately, whereas such as an I/O device signaling that it is
ready for I/O, can be temporarily ignored. Interrupts are therefore assigned
priorities so that when two interrupts are received simultaneously, the one
with the highest priority is dealt with first. Only an interrupt with a higher
priority is allowed to interrupt the servicing of another.

Class of Source of Interrupt Priority

Interrupt
Hardware Power failure-initiated when a decline in 1
failure the internal voltages is detected, giving
the OS a few milliseconds to close down
as gracefully as possible.
Program Arithmetic overflow 2
Division by zero 2
Attempt to execute an illegal machine 2
instruction
Timer Generated by internal clock within the 3
processor
I/O I/O device signals normal completion or the 4

occurrence of an error condition

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5.3.3 The Interrupt Handler

What happens when, for example, a key on the keyboard is pressed, thus
generating an interrupt? A small program called an interrupt service
routine (ISR) or interrupt handler is executed to transfer the character
value f the key pressed into main memory. A different ISR is provided
for each different source of interrupt. A typical sequence of actions
when an interrupt occurs would be:
1. The current fetch-execute cycle is completed
2. program to be executed, must be stored away safely so it can be restored

after servicing the interrupt.

3. The contents of other registers used by the user program are stored away
4. safely for later restoration
5. The source of the interrupt is identified
6. Interrupts of a lower priority are disabled
7. The program counter is loaded with the start address of the relevant
8. interrupt service routine.
9. The interrupt service routine is executed
10. The saved values belonging to the user program for registers other than

the program counter are restored to the processor’s registers

11. The contents of the program counter, which points to the next instruction

of the
12. Interrupts are re-enabled
13. The program counter is restored to point to the next instruction
to be fetched and executed in user program

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TOPIC SEVEN

INPUT DEVICES

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a
computer:

• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps
in inputting data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that
of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys
provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards
with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

[Link] Keys Description
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys
(0-9) which generally give same layout as that of
typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement.
Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid
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out in the same configuration used by most adding

machines and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard
which are arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and
is used for some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It
includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include
Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys
Keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar,
Tab, and Print Screen.

TYPES OF COMPUTER KEYBOARDS:

Laptop Keyboards

The laptop computer keyboard is a small version of the typical QWERTY

keyboard. A typical laptop has the same keyboard type as a normal
keyboard, except for the fact that most laptop keyboards condense the
symbols into fewer buttons to accommodate less space.
Gaming Keyboards

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Gaming keyboards are similar to normal keyboards except they generally

contain extra features such as illuminated keys, multimedia keys, an
additional LCD screen, palm rest and other features.
Ergonomic Computer Keyboards

Ergonomic computer keyboards is a computer keyboard designed with

ergonomic considerations to minimize muscle strain and a host of related
problems. An ergomic keyboard is designed to make typing easier and
lessen the strain that your hands may suffer, such as “Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome”.
Laser / Infrared Keyboards

The laser keyboard is a recent gadget to the computing world. This

device projects the keyboard on to a flat surface, such as a table or desk.
This then allows you to type directly onto the table. However, this
invention still needs to be improved and can be frustrating to use at the
moment.
Rollup Keyboards

Rollup computer keyboards are extremely good for travelling. Simply

roll them up and then unroll them when you need them again. Typically
the material is either silicone or polyurethane. These devices are meant to
be rolled up, rather than folded, as folding can damage the circuitry.

Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control

device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which
senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU
when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is
present between the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of
cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
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Advantages

• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Types Of Mouse
a) Mechanical Mouse

A mechanical mouse is considered as the traditional mouse and is

now replaced by optical mouse. A mechanical mouse has a ball on
the bottom, which is attached to the system unit through a cord. A
mechanical mouse requires periodic cleaning.

b) Optical mouse

Optical Mouse is widely used these days. Like the mechanical

mouse, it does not have any moving parts. It emits & senses light
to detect mouse movements. Optical mouse can be used on any
surface with great precision as compared to Mechanical mouse.

c) Wireless Mouse

A wireless mouse or cordless mouse uses infrared or radio wares

to communicate with the system units. A wireless mouse is battery
powered and can be connected to a laptop or tablet computer.

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Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position

on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower
and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick
can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

TOPIC EIGHT

DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES – THE MONITOR

TERMS USED IN DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES:

a) Response Time
 Referring to LCD monitors, this is the time it takes for the liquid crystal
inside a screen panel to respond to applied current. Measured in
milliseconds, the lower the value, the better the screen can fool the naked
eye into seeing fluid movement. Quoted response times may include an
element of latency, when a pixel remains lit for a short time after the
current has been removed.

b) Raster
 A raster is a rectangular grid of picture elements representing graphical data
for display. Raster operations (ROPs) can be performed on some portion
or all of the raster.

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c) Pixel
 An abbreviation for picture element. In a raster grid, the pixel is the
smallest unit that can be addressed and given a colour or intensity. The
pixel is represented by some number of bits (usually 8, 16 or 24) in the
frame buffer, and is illuminated by a collection of phosphor dots in the
CRT that are struck by the beams of the electron gun.

d) Phosphor
 A luminescent substance, used to coat the inside of the cathode-ray tube
display, that is illuminated by the electron gun in the pattern of graphical
images as the display is scanned.

e) Dot Pitch
 A measurement of distance between the centres of two same-colour
phosphor dots on the screen. The closer the dots, the smaller the dot pitch,
and the sharper the image. See also Stripe Pitch.

f) Convergence
 The term used to describe how accurately the three (red, green, and blue)
electron beams converge to illuminate their respective phosphors in a
colour monitor. The better the guns converge, the sharper the image. If a
monitor shows poor convergence, edges of objects will have a red, blue or
green tinge.

1. CRT DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES:

• A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are
produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. Most
desktop computer displays make use of CRTs. The CRT in a computer
display is similar to the "picture tube" in a television receiver.
• A cathode ray tube consists of several basic components, as illustrated below.
The electron gun generates a narrow beam of electrons. The anodes
accelerate the electrons. Deflecting coils produce an extremely low frequency
electromagnetic field that allows for constant adjustment of the direction of
the electron beam. There are two sets of deflecting coils: horizontal and

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vertical.(In the illustration, only one set of coils is shown for simplicity.) The
intensity of the beam can be varied. The electron beam produces a tiny, bright
visible spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen.

• To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the

deflecting coils, and also to the apparatus that controls the intensity of the
electron beam. This causes the spot to race across the screen from right to
left, and from top to bottom, in a sequence of horizontal lines called the
raster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the spot moves in a pattern
similar to the way your eyes move when you read a single-column page of
text.
But the scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that your eye sees a constant
image over the entire screen.

Advantages of CRT

1. Resolution and Aspect Ratio

They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without the need for
rescaling the image.

2. Highest Resolutions
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CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.

3. Black-Level and Contrast

Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels normally available.
Suitable for use even in dimly lit or dark environments.

4. Color and Gray-Scale Accuracy

CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale and are the reference standard for
all professional calibrations. They have a perfectly smooth gray-scale with an
infinite number of intensity levels. Other display technologies are expected to
reproduce the natural power-law Gamma curve of a CRT, but can only do so
approximately.

5. Motion Artifacts
CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best for rapidly moving or
changing images.

6. Cost
CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using other display technologies.

Disadvantages of CRT

1. Sharpness
The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with softer edges that are not as
sharp as an LCD at its native resolution. Imperfect focus and color registration also
reduce sharpness.
Generally sharper than LCDs at other than native resolutions.

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2. Interference
All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns. Many monitors include Moiré
reduction, which normally doesn't eliminate the Moiré interference patterns
entirely.

3. Geometric Distortion
Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation problems. Also affected by
magnetic fields from other equipment including other CRTs.

4. Brightness
Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit
environments.

5. Screen Shape
Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape screen. Newer CRTs are
flat.

6. Emissions
CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields. There is considerable
controversy as to whether any of these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic
fields. The most authoritative scientific studies conclude that they are not harmful
but some people remain unconvinced.

7. Physical
They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of electricity and produce a
lot of heat.

FLAT-PANEL DISPLAY MONITOR

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on

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walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

• Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting
Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to
convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.
Example is LCD(LiquidCrystal Device)

2. LCD DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES

What is a LCD?
LCD (liquid crystal display) is the technology used for displays in notebook and
other smaller computers. Like light-emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma

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technologies, LCDs allow displays to be much thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT)
technology.

LCD (liquid crystal display) is the technology used for displays in notebook and
other smaller computers. Like light-emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma
technologies, LCDs allow displays to be much thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT)
technology. LCDs consume much less power than LED and gas-display displays
because they work on the principle of blocking light rather than emitting it.
An LCD is made with either a passive matrix or an active matrix display display
grid. The active matrix LCD is also known as a thin film transistor (TFT) display.
The passive matrix LCD has a grid of conductors with pixels located at each
intersection in the grid. A current is sent across two conductors on the grid to
control the light for any pixel. An active matrix has a transistor located at each pixel
intersection, requiring less current to control the luminance of a pixel. For this
reason, the current in an active matrix display can be switched on and off more
frequently, improving the screen refresh time (your mouse will appear to move
more smoothly across the screen, for example).

LCD Display Technology: Basic Operational Principles

LCD displays consist primarily of two sheets of polarized glass plates with some
liquid crystal solution trapped between them. The type of liquid crystals used in
LCD panels have got very specific properties that enable them to serve as effective
'shutters' that close or open to block in a varying degree, the passage of light. This
blocking—or partial blocking—action takes place in a perpendicular manner to the
passage of light once an electric current flows through the liquid crystal solution.

This current through the liquid crystals is controlled by a voltage applied between
the glass plates through the use of transparent electrodes that form a grid—with

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rows on one side of the panel and columns on the other—representing the picture
elements or pixels.

Principal LCD Advantages

1. Sharpness
Image is perfectly sharp at the native resolution of the panel. LCDs using an analog
input require careful adjustment of pixel tracking/phase (see Interference, below).

2. Geometric Distortion
Zero geometric distortion at the native resolution of the panel. Minor distortion for
other resolutions because the images must be rescaled.

3. Brightness
High peak intensity produces very bright images. Best for brightly lit environments.

4. Screen Shape
Screens are perfectly flat.

5. Physical
Thin, with a small footprint. Consume little electricity and produce little heat.

Principal LCD Disadvantages

1. Resolution
Each panel has a fixed pixel resolution format determined at the time of
manufacture that can not be changed. All other image resolutions require rescaling,
which generally results in significant image degradation, particularly for fine text
and graphics. For most applications should only be used at the native resolution of

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the panel. If you need fine text and graphics at more than one resolution do not get
an LCD display.

2. Interference
LCDs using an analog input require careful adjustment of pixel tracking/phase in
order to reduce or eliminate digital noise in the image. Automatic pixel
tracking/phase controls seldom produce the optimum setting. Timing drift and jitter
may require frequent readjustments during the day. For some displays and video
boards you may not be able to entirely eliminate the digital noise.

3. Viewing Angle
Limited viewing angle. Brightness, contrast, gamma and color mixtures vary with
the viewing angle. Can lead to contrast and color reversal at large angles. Need to
be viewed as close to straight ahead as possible.

4. Black-Level, Contrast and Color Saturation

LCDs have difficulty producing black and very dark grays. As a result they
generally have lower contrast than CRTs and the color saturation for low intensity
colors is also reduced. Not suitable for use in dimly lit and dark environments.

5. White Saturation
The bright-end of the LCD intensity scale is easily overloaded, which leads to
saturation and compression. When this happens the maximum brightness occurs
before reaching the peak of the gray-scale or the brightness increases slowly near
the maximum. Requires careful adjustment of the Contrast control.

6. Color and Gray-Scale Accuracy

The internal Gamma and gray-scale of an LCD is very irregular. Special circuitry
attempts to fix it, often with only limited success. LCDs typically produce fewer
than 256 discrete intensity levels. For some LCDs portions of the gray-scale may be
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dithered. Images are pleasing but not accurate because of problems with black-
level, gray-scale and Gamma, which affects the accuracy of the gray-scale and
color mixtures. Generally not suitable for professional image color balancing.

7. Bad Pixels and Screen Uniformity

LCDs can have many weak or stuck pixels, which are permanently on or off. Some
pixels may be improperly connected to adjoining pixels, rows or columns. Also, the
panel may not be uniformly illuminated by the backlight resulting in uneven
intensity and shading over the screen.

8. Motion Artifacts
Slow response times and scan rate conversion result in severe motion artifacts and
image degradation for moving or rapidly changing images.

9. Aspect Ratio
LCDs have a fixed resolution and aspect ratio. For panels with a resolution of
1280x1024 the aspect ratio is 5:4=1.25, which is noticeably smaller than the
4:3=1.33 aspect ratio for almost all other standard display modes. For some
applications may require switching to a letterboxed 1280x960, which has a 4:3
aspect ratio.

10. Cost
Considerably more expensive than comparable CRTs.

3. LED DISPLAY

An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes
as pixels for a video display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors in
store signs and billboards, and in recent years they have also become commonly
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used in destination signs on public transport vehicles. LED displays are capable of
providing general illumination in addition to visual display, as when used for stage
lighting or other decorative (as opposed to informational) purposes.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A COMPUTER MONITOR

1. Size

By size, we mean the diagonal measurement of the screen itself. Back in the day,
meaning the 90s, bulky CRT monitors in the 14- and 15-inch range were the norm.
But oh how times have changed. With flat LCD monitors becoming more
commonplace, it’s pretty common to find a 24-, 27-, or even a 30-inch monitor for a
reasonable price.

Having a bigger screen allows you to view more data without having to close or
shuffle windows. But be sure you carefully measure your workspace to ensure the
monitor will comfortably fit on your desk.

2. Resolution

By resolution, we mean the number of pixels a monitor has to display an image. A

monitor’s pixel count consists of two numbers (e.g. 2560-by-1440), with the first
one being the number of horizontal pixels and the second being the vertical pixel
count. A smaller count, like a 1920-by1080 (common on 24” monitors), means the
pixels are more spread out. Therefore, every icon, letter and window appears larger
on the screen.

If you’re buying a monitor for maximum display capacity, be sure you choose one
with a larger pixel count.

3. Aspect Ratio

The monitor’s aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between the display area’s width
and height. The most common aspect ratios are either a 16:9 or 16:10. A 16:9
screen for example is good for playing widescreen, high-def content. The 16:10 has
more vertical pixels, which makes it ideal for looking at large spreadsheets and the
like.

4. Backlighting

LED backlighting has become more commonplace with today’s computer monitors.
Unlike cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs), the LED screens are thinner,
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generate less heat, and warm up much faster. They also use less power and do not
require mercury, unlike the CCFLs of yesteryear.

5. Twisted nematic (TN) or In-plane switching (IPS)

LCD monitors are available in two different panel types. TN is the least expensive
and most common, while the IPS panels are higher-quality, yet more expensive. IPS
is often found in professional-grade displays due to its wider viewing angles, ability
to display more colors and other attributes important to professional photographers,
artists and graphic designers.

6. Video input

This really depends on the age of your computer. If it’s older, you’ll need an analog,
or VGA. Newer computer models use a digital connection for the monitor (e.g.
DVI, HDMI or DisplayPort). Most monitors come with one analog and one digital
video input.

7. Ergonomic flexibility

The stand the monitor sits on is almost as important as the technical aspects
described above. You don’t want to have to put your beautiful new monitor on top
of a stack of books to be able to use it without hurting your neck. Many displays are
really limited in that they only allow you to tilt the monitor back a few degrees.
More advanced ones though allow you to tilt, adjust the height, swivel left and right
and other neat things.

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