Chapter 6: Syntax

How are words combined to make meaningful statements?

What are the principles behind structural constructions?

Lesson 1: The Basics of Syntax

Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences in a language. It deals with how words
combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences, and the rules that govern the arrangement of
words in these structures. Structural control is always the struggle of every second language
learners. Oftentimes, incorrect structural arrangement leads to confusion and misunderstanding
since structure carries meaning. In analyzing syntax, the first thing to consider is examining the
syntactic categories, then considering the syntactic unit.

Syntactic Categories
1. Nouns (N)
Nouns are words that represent people, places, things, or ideas.
o Examples:
 Person: teacher, student
 Place: school, park
 Thing: book, chair
 Idea: freedom, happiness
2. Pronouns (Pro)
Pronouns are words used in place of nouns to avoid repetition.
o Examples:
 Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
 Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
 Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself
 Interrogative pronouns: who, when, where, why, what, how
3. Verbs (V)
Verbs describe actions, states, or occurrences.
o Examples:
 Action verbs: run, jump, eat
 Linking verbs: is, are, was, were
 Auxiliary verbs: have, will, can, must
4. Adjectives (Adj)
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns by providing more information about them, such as
size, color, or quantity.
o Examples:
 big, small, blue, happy, many, few
5. Adverbs (Adv)
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, often indicating how, when, where,
or to what extent something happens.
o Examples:
 quickly, very, yesterday, here, never, almost
 6. Prepositions (Prep)
Prepositions show relationships between nouns (or pronouns) and other words in a
sentence, typically indicating location, time, or direction.
o Examples:
 in, on, at, under, between, before, after
 She is in the room.
7. Conjunctions (Conj)
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
o Examples:
 Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor
 Subordinating conjunctions: because, although, if, unless
 Correlative conjunctions: either...or, neither...nor, both
8. Interjections (Interj)
Interjections are words or phrases that express strong emotions or sudden exclamations.
o Examples:
 Wow! Ouch! Hey! Oh no!
9. Articles (Art)
Articles are words that define the noun as specific or unspecific.
o Examples:
 Definite article: the
 Indefinite articles: a, an
 I saw a cat. (indefinite)
 I saw the cat. (definite)

Syntactic Units
1. Words
Words are the smallest units of language that carry meaning and can stand alone
or combine with others to form phrases or sentences.

2. Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that work together to perform a specific syntactic function.
Here are different types of phrases:
o Noun Phrase (NP): A noun phrase consists of a noun (headword) and any
modifiers or determiners.
 Example: The big black dog
o Verb Phrase (VP): A verb phrase consists of a main verb and its auxiliaries or
modifiers.
 Example: has been running
o Adjective Phrase (AdjP): An adjective phrase consists of an adjective and any
modifiers.
 Example: very happy
o Adverbial Phrase (AdvP): An adverbial phrase consists of an adverb and any
modifiers.
 Example: quite quickly
 o Conjunctional Phrase (ConjP): A conjunctional phrase connects words, phrases,
or clauses.
 Example: and then
o Interjectional Phrase (InterjP): An interjectional phrase expresses strong
emotions.
 Example: Oh my goodness!
3. Clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. It can be either
independent or dependent.
o Independent Clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence
because it expresses a complete thought.
 Example: She went to the store.
She went to the store when her mother came.
o Dependent Clause: A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence because
it does not express a complete thought. It relies on an independent clause to form
a complete sentence.
 Example: Because she was tired
 Complete sentence: Because she was tired, she went to bed early.
4. Sentences
A sentence is a word or a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Sentences
can be categorized into different types based on their structure:
o Simple Sentence: A simple sentence consists of one independent clause.
 Example: I love reading books.
o Compound Sentence: A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction.
 Example: I wanted to go to the beach, but it started raining.
o Complex Sentence: A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and
at least one dependent clause.
 Example: Although it was raining, we went for a walk.
o Compound-Complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence consists of two
or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
 Example: I went to the store because we were out of milk, and I also
bought some bread.

Exercises:
Analyze the following sentences based on their structure:
1. Everyone was encouraged to stay home during quarantine.
2. The rest are ready for the for the Christmas break except for Jack.
3. The test was announced a week ahead.
Analyze the following group of words according to their syntactic unit:
1. The students prepared for the examination.
2. Everyone was waiting silently for the teacher.
3. The test took an hour.
4. when the sun shines
Lesson 2: Principles of Syntax

Principles of Syntax
Syntax is governed by principles that explain how words and structures combine to form
sentences. These principles include compositionality, recursion, constituency, projection,
merge, adjunction, movement, and substitution.

1. Principle of Compositionality
The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meanings of its parts (words and phrases)
and the way they are syntactically combined.
Example:
You and I should run fast now.
You run fast now.
You run fast.
You run.
Run.

Each of the sentences is composed of a word or phrase that makes a sentence. The
meanings
of these sentences is related, however, added or deduced constituents, may affect the entire
meaning of the sentence. The significance of a complex phrase is dependent exclusively on the
meanings of its parts and their syntax.
Gottlob Fregean: explained the principles of compositionality as to how elements in the
sentence and their arrangements affect the totality of the meaning as a whole it is called the
FREGEAN PRINCIPLE OF COMPOSITIONALITY. Fregean assumed that the phrases in
the sentences are interdependent. "The whole meaning of the sentence can be described
according to the functional interdependence of the meaning of its parts" The principle of
compositionality explains further that similar words would mean differently if arranged
differently in the sentence.
Example:
The man runs the truck.
The truck runs the man. (create another meaning)

The dog bites the man.

The man bites the dog.

The principles of compositionality state that as long as the elements in the sentence are
arranged the same, the whole sense remains the same. Once the parts of the sentence are fixed
and put together as to the intended meaning, there is no more leeway regarding the meaning of
the whole.

This means that:

 The same words in different arrangements can yield different meanings.
 Sentence interpretation depends on the structure.
For example:
 The dog chased the cat. (The dog is the agent; the cat is the object.)
  The cat chased the dog. (The cat is the agent; the dog is the object.)
 John gave Mary a book. (Meaning depends on the arrangement of "John," "Mary," and
"book.")

2. Principle of Recursion
Recursion allows syntactic structures to embed within themselves, enabling infinite
sentence generation. Accordingly, a grammatical process can apply more than once, which
allows the speakers to produce sentences of indefinite length and complexity. This is very
essential in the study of language because it explicates the human capability of producing infinite
sentences embedded in other sentences.
According to this principle, a sequential repetition of structural elements could happen
within the sentence, as one structural component could be inserted into another structural
component. Chomsky explained linguistic recursion as“something that occurs when a
grammatical sentence, which includes a noun or noun-phrase and a verb, might or might not
contain another sentence.” This means that the generation of sentences is limitless. By the way,
Noam Chomsky is the proponent Generative Grammar.
The recursion of adjectives is shown in the sentence below:
The dog
The K9 dog
The lazy K9 dog
The huge lazy K9 dog
The fox
The brown fox
The quick brown fox
The quick, brown, fox, jumps over the sleeping, huge, lazy, K9 dog.
In English and in many languages, recursion of phenomenal adjectives is allowed.
Adjective can be placed in successive strings which contribute to the same noun. Recursion
could also be applied in a series of noun phrase.

This means that:

 Phrases or clauses can be nested indefinitely.
 This principle accounts for the creativity of human language.

Recursion could be embedding; thus, one can always add additional subordinate clauses
within a frame of the sentence.
Examples:
That was the house that we built.
That was the mat that laid in the house that we built.
That was the mat that laid, on the floor in the house that we built.
That was the dog that slept on the mat, that laid on the floor in the house that we built.

Recursion could be coordination, which uses coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.)
to link an indefinite numbers of sentences. For example: My daughter went to the airport and I
went to the bus station but daddy canceled his trip and went to work.
 The principle of recursion proves that language is creative, which is composed of infinite
stems of structural elements. Chomsky (1980) stated that “We construct new sentences freely
and
use them on appropriate occasions, we make use of this ‘recursive’ property of grammar
constantly in everyday life.”

3. Principle of Constituency
Sentences are composed of constituents, which are groups of words functioning as single
units in the structure of a sentence. A constituent is a word or group of words that serves as a
single unit within the grammatical structure. It could be a morpheme, a word, phrase, or clause.
All words and phrases within the sentence are constituents of that particular sentence.

This means that:

 Constituents can often be moved, substituted, or coordinated.

Most constituents are phrases or sequences of one or more words that are built around a
head lexical item and work as a unit within a sentence. Constituents include noun constituent
(noun phrase - NP) and verbal constituent (verb phrase - VP). Proper nouns usually function as
the head of the nominal group, all other constituents are modifiers of the head.

The examples show the chunking of a sentence into constituents. As shown, a sentence is
built upon noun and verb phrase which stems to minor constituents. Leonard Bloomfield (1933)
called the process as Immediate Constituent Theory. According to Bloomfield "every structure
may be divided into its immediate constituent almost in two ways and each way may, in turn, be
divided and subdivided until ultimate constituents are reached (words).”
Tests for Constituency:
1. Substitution Test: Replace the group of words with a pronoun or another word.
o The boy with the blue hat ran quickly.
 Substitute: He ran quickly.
2. Movement Test: Move the group of words within the sentence.
o The boy with the blue hat ran quickly.
 Move: Quickly, the boy with the blue hat ran.
3. Coordination Test: Coordinate the group of words with another phrase of the same type.
o The boy with the blue hat ran quickly.
 Coordination: The boy with the blue hat and the girl in the red dress ran
quickly.
4. Principle of Projection
The head of a phrase (e.g., a verb, noun, or adjective) determines the category of the
phrase and projects its properties onto the structure. Projection is a principle in syntax, which
refers to the words inserted into the structures that project phrases (XPs) of the same category
such as the NP and the VP. These form larger constituents that compose a sentence. When heads
project the phrase, the phrase is termed as a projection.
Example:
The students of MSUN study hard. (NP projection)
The big house with a parked red car is mine. (NP projection)
The man with a white shirt is my brother. (NP projection)
I saw several occurrences of the situation. (VP projection)
He will read books with interesting plots. (VP projection)

Nouns, verbs, determiners and prepositions are considered the heads of phrases. Phrases
are constructed bottom-up in such a way that words are merged into structures. Once phrases are
inserted into an existing structure, they project phrases (XPs) of the same category (e.g. NP, VP,
DP) which form larger constituents that compose a sentence.

This means that:

 A phrase inherits features (e.g., syntactic category) from its head.
 Complements are determined by the head.

For example:
Noun Phrase (NP):
o The tall boy. Head: boy; Modifier: tall
Verb Phrase (VP):
 o She reads books. Head: reads; Complement: books

5. Principle of Merge

Merge is a fundamental syntactic operation that combines two elements to form a new
hierarchical structure. Structure building starts with the predicate, which is the core element of a
clause. In predicate merge, one phrase can be combined with another. To do that, the grammar
must have a mechanism that combines phrases. Several phrases can be merged to form into one
set. Though the entire predicate contains more than one phrase, it is merged as one unit: a verb
phrase.
Example:
My mobile data will expire in few weeks.
Take note that:
- few weeks is a noun phrase
- in a few weeks is a prepositional phrase
- will expire is a verb phrase
All above the chunks, of phrases can be merged into one single phrase which is a verb phrase
(VP), which is "will expire in a few weeks."

This means that:

 Merge explains how words combine to form phrases and sentences.
 It is a binary operation: two elements (X and Y) combine to form a single unit [X Y].

In the sentence, "I want a puppy". The determiner phrase (DP) is produced by adding a
determiner to a noun. Further, the verb phrase merge (VP) is a combination of the verb and the
determiner phrase or noun phrase.

Some more examples:

 Merge two words: red + car → red car
 Merge a noun phrase and a verb phrase:
o [The boy] + [plays soccer] → [The boy plays soccer.]

6. Principle of Adjunction

Adjunction is a syntactic operation that adds optional modifiers (adjuncts) to a structure.

Merge join phrases by placing one phrase into the complement or specifier of another phrase. It
also possible to merge phrases that are not complements or specifiers of their host phrase.
Adjunction adds modifiers to phrases. Some parts of a sentence are indispensable and when
removed will make the remainders incomplete. There are heads, complements, and specifiers that
make up the core meaning of the phrase. Adjuncts, however, are the opposite. They add extra
descriptions. Adjuncts are phrases or clauses that are dispensable or replaceable. Adjuncts
include additional descriptions and modifiers to phrases.
Examples:
I had my exercise routine this morning.
We had fun throughout the weekend.
You definitely surprise me.
We left the school early.
I bought new clothes yesterday.
Those little children in the park want a puppy badly.

Removing “this morning” in the sentence “I had my exercise routine” this morning would
not change the sense of the sentence. The same goes for removing or replacing “throughout the
weekend” with “the whole day”. Taking out “school” and “new” will not change the intended
message.
Adjunctions are different from complements in the sense that when their position
changed within the sentence, it would not change the meaning.
Examples:
I studied thoroughly for several hours a night.
I thoroughly studied at night for several hours.
I studied for several hours at night thoroughly.

Since adjoined phrases are different from complements and specifiers, adjunction provide
an opportunity for merge by copying the phrasal node of the host phrase. All the adjuncts are
attributed to the extended structures. In this way, the integral parts of a phrase such as the head,
specifier, and complement are distinguished from adjuncts. There are restrictions on the number
of complements or specifiers we can have in the sentence but not on adjuncts. The phrasal node
can be copied indefinitely.
This means that:
 Adjuncts provide additional, non-essential information.
 Adjunction does not affect the grammaticality of the core sentence.
More Examples:
 Core sentence: She reads books.
o Adjunction: She reads books in the library.
o Adjunction: She reads books every evening.
 Core sentence: The cat slept.
o Adjunction: The cat slept on the warm mat.
o Adjunction: The cat slept last night.

7. Principle of Movement
 Movement involves the repositioning of a constituent within a sentence for syntactic or
semantic purposes. Besides constructing phrase structures, syntax can also move the elements of
phrase structures around by removing them from the position in which they were originally
inserted in the structure and moving them somewhere else.

This means that:

 Movement often occurs in questions, passives, or emphatic constructions.
 It leaves a "trace" or gap in the original position.
For example:
 Question formation:
o Statement: He is reading a book. (declarative sentence)
o Question: What is he reading? (interrogative sentence)
 Passive voice:
o Active: The chef cooked the meal.
o Passive: The meal was cooked by the chef.
 Emphasis:
o Neutral: She bought a new dress.
o Emphatic: A new dress, she bought.

Syntax categorizes two types of movement:

1. Auxiliary Movement
2. Phrasal Movement
Examples of auxiliary (verbs) movements:
I communicate with my friend.
Did you communicate with your friend?
Whom did you communicate with?
Are you the one communicating with your friend?
What are you doing?

In the English language, sentences always begin with a noun followed by a verb such as
the sentence“I communicate with my friend.” This is not the case when constructing
interrogatives. The wh-interrogative and the do-verb change the movement of the sentence.
Instead of starting with a noun or pronoun, the sentence "Whom did you communicate with?"
begins with a wh-interrogative "whom", followed by a do-verb "did" before the pronoun "you"
and the verb communicate. The same goes for the sentence“Did you communicate with your
friend?” which begins with a do-verb, followed by a pronoun then the main verb.
Syntactic movements always occur in interrogatives. The same structural arrangement
does not always occur in constructing wh-interrogatives. In the sentence“Whom did you
communicate
with?”start with a wh-interrogative followed by did then pronoun before the verb. But when we
say“What are you doing?” the pattern changes to wh-interrogative followed by the verb before
the pronoun then the verb.

Syntactic movements examples:

What is that? (wh + verb + demonstrative)
 Is that true? (verb + demonstrative + noun)
Did you do that? (do + pronoun + main verb + demonstrative)
Where did that happen? (wh + do + demonstrative + noun)
What is going on? (wh + lv + prepositional verb)

Phrasal Movement
Movement does not only occur in interrogatives. In declarative sentences, the movement
is the positioning of phrases in the sentence while retaining the meaning and the grammaticality.

Example:
Sarah is wedded to Mateo.
Mateo is wedded to Sarah.

Their family brought gifts for them.

For them, their family brought gifts.

8. Principle of Substitution

Substitution replaces a constituent with a smaller element (e.g., pronouns, "do so,"
"there") to confirm its syntactic role or structure. This denotes the capability of substituting a
certain word in the sentence. This act of substitution does not change the meaning of the
sentence.

This means that:

 Substitution demonstrates constituency.
 It simplifies repeated or implied structures.

Pronoun substitution:
o The boy with the blue hat ran quickly.
o Substitution: He ran quickly.
"Do so" substitution:
o She sings beautifully, and he does so too.
o Does= he also sings beautifully
Placeholder substitution:
o There is a dog in the park.
o Substitution: There is one.

For example:
Maria prepared for her lesson; she is a teacher.
 The teacher prepared for her lesson.
She prepared for her lesson.
She prepared for that.
The last sentence “she prepared for that” is a pro-form substitution, which needs an
antecedent to complete its reference. It is a kind of anaphora or a grammatical substitute to words
such as pronouns or pro-verb. Even though sentences are linear on the surface, their constituents
are organized hierarchically.
In noun replacement, only an entire nominal constituent can be replaced with a pronoun.
Example:
The girl in school uniform ate an apple.
"She ate an apple." versus "She in school uniform ate an apple."
In verb replacement, only an entire verbal constituent can be replaced with a do-verb.
Example:
The girl in school uniform ate an apple.
"She ate an apple and so did I" versus "She bite an apple and so did I a banana"
Summary:

Principle Definition
Compositionality Meaning depends on structure and parts
Recursion Embedding structures within structures
Constituency Words group into single functional units
Merge Combines two elements to form a new unit
Adjunction Adds optional modifiers to structures
Movement Repositions constituents for syntax/semantics
Substitution Replaces constituents with simpler elements

Lesson 3: Syntax Structures

Syntax involves the arrangement and relationships of words in sentences. Four

fundamental sentence structures in syntax are Structures of Predication, Structures of
Modification, Structures of Coordination, and Structures of Complementation. Below is an
explanation and examples of each.

1. Structures of Predication
Predication is the relationship between the subject and the predicate, where the predicate
expresses something about the subject. It is the core structure of a sentence.
Since we started schooling, we were taught that a group of words does not express a
complete thought without a subject and a predicate. A combination of subject and predicate or
the doer of the action and the action itself makes-up a sentence. Predicates always give more
information about the subject. They could be simple or a series of phrases. To find the predicate
in the sentence is to always look at what the subject is doing.
 Subject: The doer or topic of the sentence.
 Predicate: What is being said about the subject, often containing a verb.

Examples:
 The boy runs. (The boy = subject; runs = predicate)
 The flowers are blooming beautifully. (The flowers = subject; are blooming beautifully =
predicate)

The sentences above consist of a subject and a verb or predicate. The structure of
predication is the association between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. A predicate is
one of the major constituents in a sentence, the other one is the subject. Both subjects and
predicates may constitute a word or a group of words. A predicate could be a single word, a
phrase, or any of the syntactic structures of modification, coordination, and complementation.
The predicate is the best mark for the structure of predication.
If a predicate is a structure of complementation, there is always a verb at its core. For Example:
Decerie is kind. The predicate structure starts with is and is complimented by an adjective kind.

If the predicate is a structure of coordination, the predicate is always marked by a verb as

coordinate members. For Example: Keisha sings and dances. The predicate is introduced with an
intransitive verb added by another intransitive verb, the and is the conjunction.

If the predicate contains a structure of modification, it will always begin with transitive verb. For
example: Chavie drives a luxurious car. The predicate is marked with the verb drives followed
by a direct object car modified by the word luxurious.

EXAMPLES OF PREDICATE
Anne Marie likes movie so much. (likes movie so much is the predicate)
We are advised to stay at home. (are advised to stay at home is the predicate)

DISTINCTION OF VERBS

FORMS
Verbs are mainly distinguished according to their form.

These include the s-forms and base-forms. Verbs always agree with the subject in number. The s-
form is used when the subject is in third person singular, while base-form is used in the third
person plural.

Example of verbs in s-forms.

Talks - John talks to Rose.
Travels - Danica travels on foot.
 In both sentences, John and Danica as a subject is singular thus verb talk and travel are
added with the inflection s. But when the subject is plural, the base form-form of the verb is
used.

Example of verbs in base-form.

Talk - Jhon and Mark talk to Rose everyday.
Travel - Danica and Daniela travel on foot.

The verbs used in both sentences are in base-form (no inflection s) since the subject is plural.

Verb forms also include the distinctions between regular and irregular verb. Regular verbs
are those that form their past participle by adding –ed or –d to the base form. Irregular verbs are
those that change their form when used as past tense or past participle.
Example of the Regular verb
Fellgen agreed to the suggestion posed. (agree)
He compared the present data to the previous one. (compare)

Example of the Irregular verb

Michelle hurt her head while reading. (hurt)
He spread the news on social media. (spread)
She thought of a new design for her room. (think)

KINDS AND FUNCTION

The predicate structure always varies according to the kind of verbs used in the sentence.
These include linking verbs, auxiliary verbs, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, ditransitive
verbs, ergative verbs, prepositional verbs, and modal verbs.

Linking verbs
Also called as a copulative verb, these are verbs that connect a subject to a complement. Linking
verbs include be verbs. Linking verbs also involve verbs that appeal to the senses. For example:
The teachers are productive. S + LV + C (complement)

Auxiliary Verbs
Are those that help the main verbs complete the ideas in the sentences. These include the (a) be
verbs: is, am, are, was, were; (b) do verbs: do, does, did; (c)have: has, have, had,, and the (d)
modals: can, could, would, might, may, will, etc.
For example:
I will start the program. (modal + base form)

Transitive verbs
Are those that need an object to receive the action. The objects could be nouns or pronouns that
are direct receiver of the action. For example:
My friend fixed my television. S + TV + DO

Intransitive verbs
Are those that do not need an object to receive the action. This is the direct opposite of a
transitive verb. A prepositional phrase maybe added after the intransitive verb, which, when
deleted, would not change the message of the sentence. For example:
Chavie ran away into the forest. (into the forest may be deleted) S + InV

Ditransitive verbs
Are verbs that allow two objects such as nouns and pronouns to complete the meaning. For
example:
He offered me a job. S + DiV + IO+ DO
I promised you a good grade. S + DiV + IO + DO

Ergative verbs
Are verbs that may or may not require object nouns and pronouns to complete the message. An
ergative verb is a verb that can be both transitive and intransitive, where the subject of the
intransitive verb is the same as the object of the transitive verb. For example:
Mila broke the glass. (the glass—object)
The glass broke into pieces. (into pieces may be deleted)

Prepositional verbs
A prepositional verb is an idiomatic expression that combines a verb and a preposition to make a
new verb with a distinct meaning. Some examples of prepositional verbs in English are care for,
long for, apply for, approve of, add to, resort to, result in, count on, and deal with. The
preposition in a prepositional verb cannot be separated. For example:
The boy sat on the chair. Verb + Prep + obj

VERBS ASPECTS AND TENSES

Verb tenses are categorized into the present, past, and future. The tenses with the verb are
often associated with the aspects. The aspects include simple, progressive, perfect and perfect
progressive.

Simple past tense

In constructing simple past tense, the verb is always in the past form. The verbs in the simple
past tense are actions that are completed in a particular or over a period of time. For example:
I had my research yesterday. S + verb phrase that begins with simple past
She presented a good summary of a story. S + verb phrase that begins with simple past

Simple present tense

In constructing simple present tense, the verb is either in s-form or base-form depending on the
plurality of the subject. The simple present tense is used for habitual actions, factual information,
used in comments, present feelings and emotions, and current events. For example:
The sun rises in the east. (Factual information.) S + verb phrase in simple present
I feel safe being with you. (emotion) S + verb phrase in simple present

Simple Future Tense

In constructing simple future tense, the main verb should be in base-form preceded by will or
shall. This indicates actions that will happen in the future including plans, promises, and
predication.
For example:
I will visit you. (Plan) S + verb phrase that begins with will
We will graduate. (plan or expected) S + verb phrase that begins with will

Past Progressive Tenses

Denotes action that occurred at a certain time in the past or happened while another action took
place. Subject + was/were + present participle
For example:
I was eating when you called. (two actions at a time) S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb
I was sleeping when the phone rang. S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb

Present Progressive Tense

Denotes action that is happening at a particular time at the present or an event that is happening
at a certain time in the future. The duration of the action is evident. Subject + is/am/are + present
participle For example:
She is teaching Math now. (Progressive action) S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb
I am going to buy some groceries. (Futuristic action) S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb

Future Progressive Tense

Denotes action is expected to happen at a particular time in the future. Subject + will + be +
present participle. For example:
I will be going to a party later. (Future on-going actions) S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb
I will be visiting my cousin during the summer break. S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb

Past Perfect Tense

Denotes a duration of action that was completed at a certain time in the past. It also describes the
action that is preceded at another past time or events that are expected. Subject + Had + past
participle. For example:
I had imagined that the movie is interesting. (expected) S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb
I had been a teacher since 2004. (proceeded another time) S + verb phrase with auxiliary verb

Present Perfect Tense

Denotes an action that happened in the past and is completed at the present. Subject + has/have +
past participle For example:
I have already read the Twilight saga. (action is done at the time of speaking)
S + verb phrase that begins with auxiliary verb
Future Perfect Tense
Denotes an action that will be completed in the future before another action. This includes the
conditionals and actions that will occur at a determined time. Subject + will/would + has/have +
past participle. For example:
Have I listened to you; it would have not happened. (regret)
I will have been promoted had I not transferred work. (conditionals)
Before you become a teacher, you will have mastered the content. (expected)

Past Perfect Progressive

Denotes an action that is on-going at the past resulting in another action or interrupted by earlier
action. Subject + had + been + verb-ing. For example:
The students had been preparing for the examinations.
I had always been expecting to hear from you.

Present Perfect Progressive

Denotes an action that began at a particular time in the past, still going on the present, and will
possibly continue in the future. Subject + has/have + been + verb-ing. For Example:
You have been using my laptop.
The teacher has been preparing her lesson.

Future Perfect Progressive

Denotes an action that is presently happening and will continue in the future. Subject + Will +
have + been + verb-ing. For example:

I will have been staying in this town for years.

The company will have been operating for a year.

Let’s Practice:

Highlight all the predicates in the paragraph that follows:

It is rightly said that being disciplined is essential in life. When a person leads a
disciplined life, they set an easy path to success. They will develop an approach to happiness and
a beautiful future ahead. Being disciplined is the practice of having a scheduled daily routine
which helps an individual to be punctual and hard-working. An individual is taught what being
disciplined means from the time they are young. Even though discipline takes a lot of effort, the
advantages of a disciplined life make it a worthwhile endeavor.

2. Structures of Modification

Modification involves words or phrases that qualify or describe another word (the head).
Modifiers can be adjectives, adverbs, or other modifying structures. In general, modification is a
structural construction, where one grammatical element is modified by another. In such a case,
one element has a structural dependence on the other. The element of higher significance in the
sentence is called the head, while the accompanying element is called the modifier. These make
up the structure of modification. The structure of modification is composed of two elements: 1.)
the main word or the head and 2.) the modifier, which describes the head and, in a way, affecting
the head’s meaning. The modifier may be a word or a phrase.

Types of Modifiers:
1. Adjective Modifiers: Modify nouns or pronouns.
o Examples:
 The tall tree is cut. (tall modifies tree)
 A happy child is celebrating her birthday. ( happy modifies child)
2. Adverb Modifiers: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
o Examples:
 He ran quickly. (quickly modifies ran)
 She is very smart. (very modifies smart)
3. Prepositional Modifiers: Modify nouns or verbs using prepositional phrases.
o Examples:
 The book on the table is mine. (on the table modifies book)
 She danced with grace. (with grace modifies danced)

The basic modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Examples: (adjective and adverb modifier):
 The lovely woman performed the dance gracefully.
 Frankly speaking, I think that is a losing case.
 The cute girl, sweet and smart, is my student.

The word “lovely” in the sentence is an adjective describing the “woman”, which is a
noun; and the word “gracefully” is an adverb that describes the verb “performance”. These
descriptors are examples of word modifiers, where lovely and gracefully carry the structure of
modification,
while woman and performance are the head. In the third sentence, the cute, wise, and smart are
modifiers of the word student. It is arranged in a unique; premodifier + head + post modifier
pattern. Adjectives are modifiers may come in series, where words of different grammatical
labels have one grammatical function: adjective modifying a noun.
Examples:
 these four little ginger kittens (pronoun, number, size, color + noun)
 the first three eager applicants (article, ordinal, cardinal, quality + noun)
 a cheap black plastic bag (article, cost, color, material + noun)
 many hand-crafter wooden jewel cases (quantity, verbal adjective, nominalized
adjective, material + noun)

Nouns and verbs are usually the head of the phrases, but not all times. The head also
includes other grammatical categories such as adjective as head, and adverb and preposition as a
head. Examples:
 I am so happy to see you. (adjective as head)
 I would like to see you very soon. (adverb as head)
  I dropped it straight down the drain. (preposition as head)

The structures of modification are categorically listed as:

The noun phrase structure of modification occurs when the noun is the head of the phrase.
Examples:
 a complicated story It is indeed a complicated story.
 a beautiful caricature I saw such a beautiful caricature.
A verb phrase structure of modification occurs when the verb is head of the phrase. Examples:
 meticulously work I know you always work meticulously.
 honorably stood He honorably stood for the principles that he believes in
life.
 manage gracefully He managed the discussion gracefully.
 have always practiced I have always practiced self-restraint.
 can actually prove He can actually prove you wrong.
An adjective phrase structure of modification occurs when the adjective is head of the phrase.
Examples:
 quite fabulous That was quite fabulous, good job!
 gorgeously handsome He has always been gorgeously handsome in my eyes.
 not too skinny I hope that I am not too skinny for your taste.
 just so clueless He is always just so clueless all the time.
A prepositional phrase structure of modification occurs when the preposition is the head of the
phrase. Examples:
 such in favor What you did was such in favor of the proposal.
 right to my head The idea gets right to my head.
 broken to the bones I am feeling broken to the bones.
An adverb phrase structure of modification occurs when the adverb is the head of the phrase.
Examples:
 very rapidly The test was done very rapidly that it doesn’t seem
accurate.
 more consistently You have studied more consistently this time than before.
 very gradually Your transformation is done very gradually.
 so indifferently She reacted to the post so indifferently.

Let’s Practice:
Fill-in the blanks with appropriate descriptors then at the opposite side identify the descriptors.
Ex. Two angry dogs barked. adjectives

1. _______________ vases fell. __________________

2. ________________ candles burned. __________________
3. The petite dancers performed __________. __________________
4. It was a _________ done singing. __________________
5. _____________, Sheena bowed. __________________
3. Structures of Coordination
 Coordination connects two or more elements of equal syntactic importance using
coordinating conjunctions or correlative pairs. Coordination is a phenomenon in which two or
more elements, known as “conjuncts,” are linked together, often with a conjunction such as
“and.” Unlike subordination, in which one element is asymmetrically embedded within another,
coordination gives the appearance of being symmetric in many ways. For example, the conjuncts
are typically all constituents of the same category, and each conjunct could appear on its own in
that position within the sentence.

The structures of coordination are classified as:

1. syndetic—the elements are joined by coordinating conjunctions
She wakes up early but she came late.
2. asyndetic—when the coordinators are not necessarily present but could be inserted
She wakes up early, (yet) she came late.
3. polysyndetic—when the coordinator is reoccurring between each pair of units
She wakes up fast and early and she arrived to school on time.

Careful attention needs to be done when constructing coordinating structures, to avoid

semantic ambiguity. In the case of nestled coordinate conjunctions where one coordinate
structure can be easily nestled inside another such as “Sam and Mary and John left.”, it cannot
be fully understood who left. If three of them left, a comma should replace the first conjunction.
It is not clear who left with John, the connector or should be used instead of the first and
conjunction.
Another case is a mismatch of the syntactic category, which happens when the strings are
not parallel. An example is the sentence “Sam was having a vacation and tried to leave early.
Having a vacation and leaving early are although associated but they are of different strings.
These two cannot be joined by the coordinator and unless “he” is added after and to make the
next string a separate but associated clause. Therefore, in constructing structures of coordination,
it is very important to use the appropriate conjunction while employing extra caution to the use
of conjoins, to make a clear meaning.

Series
A structure of coordination which has more than two components is called a series. It is
the only structure in English which has more than two immediate constituents; clearly, a series
has
as many immediate constituents as there are items in the series:
- red, white and blue
- government of the people, by the people, for the people
In the second example, the three prepositional phrases make up a series, which in turn
functions as a modifier of government. The fact that coordinators are not always used between
members of structures of coordination means that such structures may frequently be structurally
ambiguous, or at least potentially so.

Elliptical Structure
Elliptical structure is joining two sentences which have the same predicate and object to
make it shorter by omitting a part of sentences without change the meaning.
A. Two positive statements that have same predicate (including object and complement) can be
arranged as follows: Pattern:
Positive sentence, and + Subject + auxiliary + too
Positive sentence, and + so + auxiliary + Subject.
Here are some of the examples:
• He is busy. I am busy.
= He is busy, and I am too.
= He is busy, and so am I.
• You bought a new book. She bought a new book.
= You bought a new book, and she did too.
= You bought a new book, and so did she.
• John likes swimming. Maria likes swimming.
= John likes swimming, and Maria does too.
= John likes swimming, and so does Maria.
• Hans has written it. I have written it.
= Hans has written it, and I have too.
= Hans has written it, and so have I.

B. Two Negative statements that have same predicate (including object and complement) can be
arranged as follows: Pattern:
Negative sentence, and + Subject + auxiliary + not + either.
Negative sentence, and + neither + auxiliary + Subject.
Here are some examples:
• I don’t like smoking. He doesn’t like smoking.
= I don’t like smoking, and he doesn’t either.
= I don’t like smoking, and neither does he.
• He wasn’t ill and I wasn’t ill.
= He wasn’t ill, and I wasn’t either.
= He wasn’t ill, and neither was I.
• Ali didn’t ask any question. You didn’t ask any question.
= Ali didn’t ask any question, and you didn’t either.
= Ali didn’t ask any question, and neither has Budi.

C. The combination of negative statements and positive statements with the same tense is
arranged by using the conjunction “but”. Pattern:
Positive sentence, but + Subject + auxiliary + not.
Negative sentence, but + Subject + auxiliary.
Here are some of the examples:
• Ann can play a guitar. Alni can’t play a guitar.
= Ann can play a guitar, but Alni can’t.
• Jan is a student. Fatimah is not a student.
= Jan is a student, but Fatimah isn’t.
• I don’t like smoking. He likes smoking.
= I don’t like smoking, but he does.
• She didn’t buy a new car. You bought a new car.
= She didn’t buy a new car, but you did.
Split Structure of Coordination
Normally, the constituents of a structure of coordination appear right next to one another,
with the coordinator, if any, between them. But with coordinators of the middle group, such as
rather than, split and inverted structures like the following are common:
Rather than starve, he chose to eat insects.
This is most simply analyzed as an inversion of:
He chose to eat insects rather than starve.

Conjunctions are categorized as coordinating, subordinating, correlative, and conjunctive.

Coordinating Conjunctions:
Coordinating conjunctions coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses,
words, or other parts of speech which are of the same syntactic importance. Also known as
coordinators, coordinating conjunctions are used to give equal emphasis to a pair of main
clauses. Coordinating conjunctions always connect words, phrases, words, clauses, sentences.
Examples: cup and saucer Sam or John small but terrible
make or break reading and writing

In the following examples, the coordinating conjunctions have been italicized.

1. You can eat your cake with a spoon or fork
2. My dog enjoys being bathed but hates getting his nails trimmed.
3. Bill refuses to eat peas, nor will he touch carrots.
4. I hate to waste a drop of gas, for it is very expensive these days.

The functions of the coordinating conjunctions are as follows:

and: used for combining two or more related strings or conjoins
I tried my luck and I got it.
but: used in combining two or more contrasting strings
I paid for the travel but decided not to go.
or: used in indicating one option between two or more strings
Is it me or this just doesn’t make sense
so: used in indicating outcomes or result
I slept early so I felt better.
yet: used in strongly contrasting a prior statement
I studied hard yet I didn’t make it.
for: used in specifying the time or purpose
I travelled for five days only.

Subordinating Conjunctions:
These are subordinators that link the dependent and the independent clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions mostly appear in complex sentences. When adverbs acting as
conjunctions mostly appear in complex sentences. When adverbs acting as conjunctions are
placed at the beginning of the clause that precedes the main clause, a comma is needed.
Examples:
If I were you, I would talk to him.
While some wait for the storm to pass, others adjust the sail.
 The complete list of subordinating conjunctions according to purpose is as follows:

Purpose Subordinating Conjunctions

Concession: though, although, even though, when/while
I was sleeping when you came. (introducing a background information)
Although it’s already late, I am still working. (contrasting statement)
Reason: because, since, why, in order that, so that
I study hard because I want a better future.
Leave early so that you will not be late. (suggesting a result)
Comparison: than, whereas, rather than, whether, as much as
Whether you like it or not, we have to go. (expressing uncertainties or
doubts)
Manner: how, although, as if
She defended it so much as if she is right. (statement that may or may not be
true)
If it happens, I will be happy. (condition)
Indicates Time: after, by the time, till, while, as long as, now that, until, as soon as,
once, when, before, since, whenever
There is always a rainbow after the rain. (action that happened later in time)
Condition: unless, if, only if, provided that, even if, in case that, lest, until, assuming that
Even if you don’t care, I am still here. (true statement but do not affect
something)
Relative Adjective: whatever, what, which, that,
Indicates Place: where, wherever
Relative Pronoun: whom, whomever, whose, who, whoever

Correlative Conjunctions
These are connectors that come in pairs and connect the parts of the sentence that show
equal importance. When two subjects are singular and plural, the subject closest to the verb
affects the verb. Sentences with correlating conjunctions have to be constructed in a way that the
conjoins are parallel, such as joining words of the same grammatical category; noun, verb,
adjective, etc. There is no specific punctuation required when correlative conjunctions connect
two words or phrases to each other. However, if correlative conjunctions connect two
independent clauses to each other, then a comma must precede the second pair (i.e., must precede
the coordinating conjunction).
Example: Neither John’s friends nor his brother is going to the party.
Below is a list of common paired conjunctions also called correlative conjunctions:
as…as hardly…when whereas…therefore since…therefore
just as…so either…or if…then whether…or
both…and neither…nor not…but not only…but also
whether…or not rather…than what with…and no sooner…than

Examples:
1. We’ll have both the cheesecake and the chocolate cake.
2. Oh, you want neither the cheesecake nor the chocolate cake? No problem.
3. I didn’t know whether you’d want the cheesecake or the chocolate cake, so I got both.
4. I’ll eat them both - not only the cheesecake but also the chocolate cake.
5. If that is the case, then I would rather quit.

Conjunctive Adverbs
These are used as a linking device between elements or ideas. They denote the logical
relationship between clauses and sentences. The functions of conjunctive adverbs are either
connect and contrast ideas or indicate results. Conjunctive adverbs include:

Connecting similar ideas:

besides Skating is my favorite sports besides tennis.
likewise
also
furthermore
moreover

Connecting contrasting ideas:

nevertheless
still She was injured during the event, still, she won.
instead
rather
however
nonetheless
conversely
otherwise

Indicating results:
consequently They exerted effort in practicing, consequently, they won.
meanwhile
therefore The students are trained well, therefore, they can execute better.
thus
accordingly
hence
then

Let’s Practice:
Determine whether the sentence is correctly structured or not. If it contains an error,
correct the sentence.

1. Getting married is strong, for the couple has the same orientations and goals.
_______________________________________________________________

2. No one could tell you to stop smoking nor keep you from getting drunk.
_______________________________________________________________

3. He is allowed to get a leave and he did not do.

_______________________________________________________________

4. Structures of Complementation
Complementation involves elements (complements) that complete the meaning of a
predicate. Complements are required by certain verbs or adjectives to make the sentence
meaningful. A sentence has to be expressed in a complete thought. There are instances that a verb
alone already makes up a sentence. However, in many instances, a sentence needs a complement.
A complement is a word or phrase that completes the statement. In the sentence “Every day is an
opportunity.”, every day is the subject, is is the verb that links the subject and the complement,
which is “an opportunity”. When the linking verb and the complement merged as one unit, they
become a verb phrase. This makes up the structure of complementation.
A structure of complementation is a verb comprising two major components: a verbal
component (VB) and a complement (C). The verbal component may be a finite verb or verb
phrase, or non-finite verb in the form of an infinitive, an infinitive without “to” or a present
participle. In short, it is the connection between the verb and the word or group of words that
complete meaning.
There are two major main complement structure categories: the subject complement and
the object complement.

Types of Complements:
1. Subject Complements: Follow linking verbs and describe or rename the subject. The
pattern is subject + linking verb + subjective complement, such as “She is graceful.”
“She” is a subject, “is” is a linking verb, and “graceful” is a complement, which is an
adjective. The complements could be a noun or pronoun, an object, an adjective, an
adverb, a function word, an infinitive, a present participle.
Examples:
Today is my day. (noun)
Today is all there is. (function word)
Today is hot and humid. (adjective)
Today is almost over. (adverb)
Her plan today is to go to the beach. (infinitive verb)
Today has been quite relaxing. (verb in the present participle)

2. Object Complements: Provide additional information about the object, often following a
verb. It is a predicative expression that follows a direct object or states what the object
has become. The pattern for the objective complement is subject + transitive verb +
direct object, such as “I saw the baby sleeping.” In this sentence, “I” is the subject,
“saw” is the verb, and “the baby is sleeping” is the objective complement, where
“sleeping” is describing what the baby is doing. Objective complement could be a single
word indefinite pronoun, a single noun, an infinitive verb phrase, a gerund, or a clause.
Examples:
She feels something. (single word indefinite pronoun)
She sees the pen. (single word—noun)
She wants to write about it. (infinitive verb phrase)
She desires writing the story. (gerund)
 She knows what he is doing. (clause)

An object complement is also a combination of an indirect and direct object. The

pattern is: subject + transitive verb + indirect object + direct object. (S+TV+IO+DO)
Examples:
The judges awarded him first prize. My parents left me an inheritance.
Subject: the judges Subject: my parents
Transitive verb: awarded Transitive verb: left
Indirect Object: him Indirect Object: me
Direct Object: the prize Direct Object: inheritance

Another structure of an objective complement is a combination of a transitive

verb, a direct object, and an object of the preposition. The pattern is: subject + transitive
verb + direct object + object of the preposition. (S+TV+DO+OP)
Examples:
The judges awarded the first prize to him. My parents left an inheritance to me.
Subject: the judges Subject: my parents
Transitive Verb: awarded Transitive Verb: left
Direct Object: the first prize Direct Object: inheritance
Object of the Preposition: to me Object of the Preposition: to me

Exercise:
Identify the type of verb (LV, InV or TV) and the structure of complementation in the
following sentences:

1. He got sick.
2. I gave him some medicine.
3. The fish got away.
4. He is a graceful dancer.
5. I stay as long as I can.

Structure Definition Example

Relationship between subject and
Predication The cat sleeps.
predicate.
Adds details or qualifies The big house.
Modification
another word. (big modifies house)
Coordination Connects elements of equal importance. She sings and dances.
He wants to travel.
Completes the meaning of a verb or
Complementation (to travel =
adjective.
complement)