UNIT – I: TRANSISTOR AT HIGH FREQUENCY

Hybrid П Common Emitter Transistor model

i) Common emitter configurations have medium impedance, gains. So it can be use

for low frequency input and also high frequency input signal.

ii) Open circuit and short circuit parameters are used for designing the hybrid П
common emitter transistor model.

iii) Cover the Hybrid parameters like ohms (open circuit impedance), mhos (Short
circuit conductance), two set of dimensionless parameters like voltage gain and
current gain.

iv) Hybrid П common emitter transistor model is also called as “Giacoletto model”.

v) 𝐵 ′ =Internal node/virtual base point

𝑟𝑏𝑏 ′ = ohmic base-spreading resistance (spreading either side) is represented as a

lumped parameter between the external base terminal and 𝐵 ′

1 1 1
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 = ; 𝑟𝑐𝑒 = ; 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 =
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑔𝑐𝑒 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐

𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 =Input resistance (or) resistance between 𝑏 ′ and emitter

𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = Feedback resistance (or) resistance between 𝑏 ′ and emitter

𝑟𝑐𝑒 = Output resistance (or) resistance between base and emitter

𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 = Voltage across the emitter junction

𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = Transition capacitance (or) collector-junction capacitance

𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶𝑏 ′ 𝑒 = Diffusion capacitance across emitter junction

𝑔𝑚 =transconductance

vi) Transistor gives reasonable amplification at all frequencies.

vii) All parameters (resistances and capacitances) in the model are assumed to be
independent of frequency.

viii) Transistor may operate with the quiescent operating point and constant for
small-signal swings.
 Hybrid П conductance in terms of low frequency h parameters

All the resistive components in the hybrid-pi model can be obtained from the h
parameters for the CE configuration.

𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 is a input voltage i.e. emitter voltage, 𝑉𝐸

𝐼𝑏 is a input current
𝑉𝑐𝑒 is a output voltage
𝐼𝐶 is a output current

Transistor conductance, 𝒈𝒎 :
Output current is proportional to input voltage and express by following equations.

𝐼𝐶 ∝ 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

𝐼𝐶 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 =
𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

The transconductance, 𝑔𝑚 is defined as the ratio of change in output current to

input voltage.

𝜕𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 ≡
𝜕𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

𝜕𝐼𝑒
= 𝛼0
𝜕𝑉𝑒

𝛼0
=
𝜕𝑉𝑒
𝜕𝐼𝑒
𝛼0 𝛼0
𝑔𝑚 = (𝑜𝑟)
𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

𝑟𝑒 = 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

For 𝑉𝑇 (≈Ve )
𝛼0 𝐼𝑒 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶𝑂 𝐼𝐶
∴ 𝑔𝑚 = = =
𝑉𝑒 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐶𝑂 − 𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 = 𝛼0 =
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
Since 𝐼𝐶𝑂 ≪ 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑚 = (𝐼𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐴)
𝑉𝑇 26
Input conductance, 𝒈𝒃′ 𝒆 :

i) Input conductance, g b ′ e is evaluated by the short circuited output terminals.

ii) Hybrid-pi model is valid at low frequencies, where all capacitances are negligible.

iii) The h-parameter equivalent circuit with all elements are given in equivalent
circuit diagram as given below.

iv) In a reverse bias of junction 𝐽𝑐 , the value of 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 > > 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 . Hence entire input
current, 𝐼𝑏 flows into 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 .

v) The short-circuit collector current is

𝐼𝑐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 ≈ 𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

vi) The short-circuit current gain ℎ𝑓𝑒 is defined by

𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑒 = = 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝐼𝑏 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝐼𝑐
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 =
𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏

ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑐
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 = = ∵ ℎ𝑓𝑒 =
𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑏 𝑉𝑐𝑒 =0

𝑔𝑚
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒 =
ℎ𝑓𝑒
Base spreading resistance, 𝒓𝒃𝒃′ :

i) Base spreading resistance, 𝑟𝑏𝑏 ′ is evaluated with output port is short circuited.

ii) So input resistance 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 is parallel to feedback resistance 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 .

iii) Because of high and low value combination of 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 ||𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 , the 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 will be
considered. As per with 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 >> 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 , the input impedance, ℎ𝑖𝑒 is a sum of 𝑟𝑏𝑏 ′ and
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 .

iv) From equivalent circuit, ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 𝑟𝑏𝑏 ′ + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

Therefore base spreading resistance is determined by

𝑟𝑏𝑏 ′ = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

v) Incidentally the input impedance is also calculated by

ℎ 𝑓𝑒 𝑉𝑇
ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 𝑟𝑏𝑏 ′ +
𝐼𝑐
Feedback conductance, 𝒈𝒃′ 𝒄 :

i) The value of Feedback conductance, 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 is derived for the open-circuit of input

terminal.

ii) The hybrid parameter ℎ𝑟𝑒 is a reverse voltage gain and defined as the ratio of
output voltage to input voltage.

iii) Equivalent circuit for the input open-circuit 𝐼𝑏 = 0 is represented in following

circuits.

iv) Using voltage division

𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 + 𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
ℎ𝑟𝑒 = =
𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐

ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 1 − ℎ𝑟𝑒

ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 ∵ ℎ𝑟𝑒 < < 1, 1 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 = 1

𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 =
ℎ𝑟𝑒

ℎ𝑟𝑒
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
Output conductance, 𝒈𝒄𝒆 :

i) Output conductance, 𝑔𝑐𝑒 is obtained when the input circuit is open i.e. 𝐼𝑏 = 0.

ii) The conductance ℎ𝑜𝑒 and reverse voltage gain are expressed by following
expressions.

𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑒 =
𝑉𝑐𝑒

𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒
ℎ𝑟𝑒 =
𝑉𝑐𝑒

iii) By applying nodal analysis for the equivalent circuit

𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑐 = + + 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

iv) To find ℎ𝑜𝑒 :

1 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒
∴ ℎ𝑜𝑒 = + + 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

1 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒
ℎ𝑜𝑒 = + + 𝑔𝑚 ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

1 1
ℎ𝑜𝑒 = + + 𝑔𝑚 ℎ𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

For a condition of 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 > > 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒

1 1
ℎ𝑜𝑒 = + + 𝑔𝑚 ℎ𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐

ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 𝑔𝑐𝑒 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑒

Substitute following terms in the ℎ𝑜𝑒 expression

𝑔𝑚
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒 =
ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 = ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒

Now ℎ𝑜𝑒 expression can written as

𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 𝑔𝑐𝑒 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑒

ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 𝑔𝑐𝑒 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 ℎ𝑓𝑒

ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 𝑔𝑐𝑒 + 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 (1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 )

𝑔𝑐𝑒 = ℎ𝑜𝑒 − 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒

 Hybrid П capacitances

Design of Gaocolleto model with Hybrid П capacitances are shown in following

circuit.

To find Ce:
Since 𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑒 represents, the diffusion capacitance across the emitter junction. It is
directly proportional to the current and approximately independent of temperature.

Experimentally, 𝐶𝑒 is determined from a measurement of the frequency 𝑓𝑇 at which

the CE short circuit current gain drops to unity.
𝑔𝑚
𝐶𝑒 ≈
2𝜋𝑓𝑇

To find Cc :
Hybrid-pi capacitances is a collector-junction capacitance 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑐 . The value of
capacitance is the measured with the input open and is usually specified by
manufacturers as 𝐶𝑜𝑏 .

Collector junction is reverse bias and 𝐶𝑐 is a transition capacitance. Hence it varies

−𝑛
as 𝑉𝐶𝐸 , where n is 1/2 or 1/3 for an abrupt or gradual junction.

Reasonable values for 𝐶𝑐 = 3𝑝𝐹; 𝐶𝑒 = 100𝑝𝐹

 Hybrid Common emitter model

hie input impedance (Ω)

hfe forward current transfer ratio (dimensionless)
hoe output admittance (Siemens/mho)
hre reverse voltage ratio (dimensionless)

𝑉𝑏𝑒 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒

𝐼𝑐 = ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏

Output is shorted, 𝑉𝑐𝑒 = 0

𝑉𝑏𝑒
ℎ𝑖𝑒 =
𝐼𝑏 𝑉 =0
𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑒 =
𝐼𝑏 𝑉𝑐𝑒 =0

Input is open, 𝐼𝑏 = 0
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑒 =
𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝐼 =0
𝑏
𝑉𝑏𝑒
ℎ𝑟𝑒 =
𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑏 =0

Common emitter 𝒓𝒆 model:

Input impedance 𝛽𝑟𝑒 is used in 𝑟𝑒 model

𝐼
𝛽 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 𝐼𝑐
𝑏

𝑉𝑇 26
𝑟𝑒 = =
𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑐 (𝑚𝐴)
 Current gain with resistive load

i) Load resistor 𝑅𝐿 is connected at output.

ii) Miller’s theorem is convenient to deal with the parallel combination of

conductance 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 and capacitance 𝐶𝑐 elements.

iii) Input 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 and output 𝑉𝑐𝑒 , the gain of circuit is

𝑉𝑐𝑒
𝐾=
𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

iv) Input resistance and capacitance is obtained with input current

𝑉𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 − 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 1 − 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 1 − 𝐾
𝐼𝑏 = = =
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐

𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐−𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐼𝑏 1−𝐾
1−𝐾
𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐−𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐 (1 − 𝐾)
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐

Similarly

𝐶𝑐−𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑐 1 − 𝐾 OR 𝐶𝑐−𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑐 1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 −𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿 −(𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 )𝑅𝐿

𝐾= = = = = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

v) Output resistance and capacitance is obtained with output current

𝑉𝑐𝑒 − 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐
 𝑉′
𝑉𝑐𝑒 1 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑒
𝑐𝑒
=
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐
1
𝑉𝑐𝑒 1 − 𝐾
=
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐

𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐 𝐾
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐−𝑜𝑝 = = = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑐
𝐼𝑐 1 𝐾−1
1−𝐾
𝐾−1
∴ 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐−𝑜𝑝 = 𝑔𝑏 ′ 𝑐
𝐾

Similarly

𝐾−1
𝐶𝑐−𝑜𝑝 = 𝐶𝑐
𝐾

vi) Two independent time constants, one associated with the input circuit and
other associated with the output circuit is obtained. Respective equivalent
circuit is shown below.

vii) In a practical situation, the output time constant is negligible in comparison

with the input time constant and corresponding equivalent circuit is shown
below.

viii) The conductance 𝑔𝑐𝑒 may be neglected as compare with 𝑅𝐿 and simplified
equivalent circuit is derived.
 CE short circuit current gain obtained with the hybrid- П model

i) Current gain, 𝐴𝑖 when load 𝑅𝐿 connected is given by

𝐼𝐿
𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑏

ii) Consider a single-stage CE transistor amplifier and corresponding circuit is

given below.

iii) Hybrid-II CE model intended for use at high frequencies. Equivalent circuit
with short circuit condition is shown by following diagram.

iv) The load current 𝐼𝐿 = −𝐼𝐶 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒

v) Equivalent input impedance is determined by

𝑟𝑏 ′𝑒 × 𝑋 𝐶𝑒 +𝐶𝑐
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑋 𝐶𝑒 +𝐶𝑐 =
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 + 𝑋 𝐶𝑒 +𝐶𝑐
1
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 ×
𝑗𝜔 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐
𝑧 =
1
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 +
𝑗𝜔 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐
 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑗𝜔 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐
=
𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 × 𝑗𝜔 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐 + 1
𝑗𝜔 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐

𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑧 = =
1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐 𝐼𝑏

vi) Therefore current gain is calculated by

𝐼𝐿
∴ 𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑏
−𝐼𝐶 −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑏 ′ 𝑒
= =
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
−𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
=
1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐
−ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 =
1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐
To find Bandwidth 𝒇𝜷 and parameter 𝒇𝑻 :

Bandwidth 𝑓𝛽 : Frequency at which CE short circuit current gain decreased by 0.707f

(fall by 3dB).
1
𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐

The CE 3-dB frequency or the beta cut-off frequency is 𝑓𝛽 (also designated as

𝑓ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝛼𝑒 ).

1
Frequency 𝑓 is given by , where R is the resistance in parallel with the
2𝜋 𝑅𝐶
capacitance.

1
𝑓= = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
2𝜋 𝑅𝐶

−ℎ𝑓𝑒
∴ 𝐴𝑖 =
1 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐

−ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 =
𝑓
1+𝑗
𝑓𝛽

ℎ𝑓𝑒
 𝐴𝑖 =
2
𝑓
1+
𝑓𝛽

for 𝑓 = 𝑓𝛽

ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 =
2

 𝐴𝑖 = 0.707ℎ𝑓𝑒
Parameter 𝒇𝑻 :

Parameter 𝑓𝑇 defined as the frequency at which the short-circuit common-emitter

current gain attains unit magnitude
OR
Frequency 𝑓𝑇 is an operating frequency at which CE short circuit current gain is
unity i.e. 𝐴𝑖 = 1.

∴ 𝐴𝑖 = 1

ℎ𝑓𝑒
 =1
2
𝑓𝑇
1+
𝑓𝛽

𝑓𝑇
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 >>1
𝑓𝛽

ℎ𝑓𝑒
∴ =1
2
𝑓𝑇
𝑓𝛽

ℎ𝑓𝑒
 =1
𝑓𝑇
𝑓𝛽

𝑓𝛽 ℎ𝑓𝑒
 =1
𝑓𝑇

𝑓𝑇 = 𝑓𝛽 ℎ𝑓𝑒

It represents the short-circuit current-gain-bandwidth product.

𝑓𝑇 is the product of the low-frequency current gain and the upper 3-dB frequency.

For typical transistor, 𝑓𝑇 = 80 MHz and 𝑓𝛽 = 1.6 MHz.

 UNIT – II: LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

Classification of large signal amplifiers:

Based on amount of transistor bias and amplitude of input signal, large signal
amplifiers are classified as

Class A Amplifier,
Class B Amplifier,
Class AB Amplifier and
Class C Amplifier.

Class A amplifier:

Transistor is biased such that output current flows i.e. transistor is ON for the full
cycle i.e. 3600 of input ac signal.

The transistor remains in the active region for the full input signal. Transistor is not
operated in Cut off or Saturation region. Transistor conducts for full 360 degree time
period.

Class B amplifier:
In Class B amplifier, trans bias and amplitude of input signal is selected such that
output current flows i.e. transistor is ON for only half cycle (1800) of input signal.
Class AB amplifier:
Operates between two extremes defined for Class A, B. output signal exists for more
than 1800, less than 3600.

Class C amplifier:
In Class C amplifier, transistor bias and amplitude of input signal is selected such
that output current flows i.e. transistor is ON for less than half cycle (<1800) of input
signal.
 Second harmonic Distortion

i) Harmonic distortion is caused due to the non-linearity of the characteristics curve.

ii) Relationship between alternating current 𝑖𝑐 and input excitation 𝑖𝑏 is

𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘1 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑘2 𝑖𝑏2

𝑘1 , 𝑘2 are constants

iii) Second harmonic distortion can determine from dynamic transfer curve using
three-point method.

iv) Let excitation is sinusoidal, 𝑖𝑏 = 𝑖𝑏𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 and output current 𝑖𝑐 is determined by
2
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos2 𝜔𝑡

1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘1 𝑖𝑏𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚
2
2
2
𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 2
+ 𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚
2 2
2
𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑐 = 2
+ 𝑘1 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚
2 2
By presence of DC current component
 2 2
𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚 𝑘2 𝐼𝑏𝑚
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶 + + 𝑘1 𝐼𝑏𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + cos 2𝜔𝑡
2 2
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵2 cos 2𝜔𝑡

Here 𝐵0, 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 Fourier components

𝐼𝐶 = DC component of current
𝐵0 = Extra dc current component due to rectification of signal
𝐵1 = Amplitude of desired signal at fundamental frequency 𝜔1
𝐵2 = Amplitude of desired signal at 2nd harmonic frequency 𝜔2

v) 𝐵0 , 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 are currents are determine by three point method

𝜔𝑡 = 0, 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = , 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶 ; 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 − 𝐵2  𝐵0 = 𝐵2
2
𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ; 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 − 𝐵1 + 𝐵2

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐵1

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐵1 =
2

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐼𝐶 + 2𝐵0 + 2𝐵2 = 4𝐵2 + 2𝐼𝐶

1
𝐵2 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 2𝐼𝐶
4

vi) Second-harmonic distortion 𝐷2 is the ratio of 2nd harmonic component to

fundamental component. The value of 𝐷2 is calculated by
𝐵2
𝐷2 =
𝐵1
Higher order harmonic distortion

i) Total harmonic distortion i.e. THD can determine using a five point method.

ii) Increased curvature of dynamic transfer curve, 𝑖𝑐 in power series form

𝑖𝑐 = 𝑘1 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑘2 𝑖𝑏2 + 𝑘3 𝑖𝑏2 + 𝑘4 𝑖𝑏2

iii) For sinusoidal input, the output current 𝑖𝑐 express by

𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵2 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵3 cos 3𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵4 cos 4𝜔𝑡

iv) To find 𝐵0 , 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , 𝐵3 , choose at equal interval of output current

one half at the maximum in positive half cycle = 𝐼1

2
one half at the maximum in negative half cycle = 𝐼− 1
2

𝜔𝑡 = 0, 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ;
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵3 + 𝐵4
𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = ; 𝑖 = 𝐼1 ;
3 𝑐 2
𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵4
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + − − 𝐵3 −
2 2 2 2
 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = ; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝐶 ;
2 𝑐
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 − 𝐵2 + 𝐵4 ; 𝐵2 = 𝐵0 + 𝐵4

2𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = ; 𝑖 = 𝐼− 1 ;
3 𝑐 2
𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵4
𝐼− 1 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 − − + 𝐵3 −
2 2 2 2

𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ;
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 − 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 − 𝐵3 + 𝐵4

By solving above equations

1
𝐵0 = 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 2𝐼1 + 2𝐼− 1 − 6𝐼𝐶
6 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 2
1
𝐵1 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐼1 − 𝐼− 1
3 2 2
1
𝐵2 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 2𝐼𝐶
4
1
𝐵3 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 2𝐼1 + 2𝐼− 1
6 2 2
1
𝐵4 = 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 4𝐼1 − 4𝐼− 1 + 6𝐼𝐶
12 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 2

Output power at fundamental frequency

𝐵12 𝑅𝐿
𝑃1 =
2
Total output power, P is calculated.
𝑅𝐿
∴ 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4 … = 𝐵12 + 𝐵22 + 𝐵32 …
2
𝐵12 𝑅𝐿
𝑃 = 1 + 𝐷22 + 𝐷32 …
2
𝑃 = 1 + 𝐷2 𝑃1

Total Harmonic Distortion(THD), 𝐷 = 𝐷22 + 𝐷32 + 𝐷42 + ⋯

THD is the ratio of the sum of root means squares of all the harmonic voltages to the
RMS voltage of fundamental component.
𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + 𝑉42 + ⋯
𝑇𝐻𝐷 =
𝑉1
 Direct Coupled Power Amplifier (Simple series fed Power Amplifier)

i) Load resistance 𝑅𝐿 connects directly to output circuit i.e. collector and hence it is
called as direct coupled power amplifier or Series-fed amplifier.

ii) Simple transistor amplifier is shown in electronic circuit.

iii) If input current 𝑖𝑏 is sinusoidal, then output current and voltage i.e. 𝑖𝑐 , 𝑣𝑐 are also
sinusoidal.

iv) Resistance Rb provides fixed bias for setting operating point Q at center. Class A
amplifier operates in linear region.

v) Input capacitor blocks dc voltage and allows ac signal. 𝑉𝑐𝑐 provides DC input
power.

vi) Output characteristics with operating point Q are shown in diagram. When signal
is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q1 and Q2. Ic increases to (Ic)max and decreases
to (Ic)min as applied reference voltage VCC.

Output power 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑐 × 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐2 𝑅𝐿

Here 𝑉𝑐 , 𝐼𝑐 are RMS values of instantaneous 𝑖𝑐 , 𝑣𝑐 values.

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐 = =
2 2 2

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑐 = =
2 2 2

Static output characteristics for equal increments of input current are shown.
 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
Output power, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑐 =
8

Output power in terms of 𝑅𝐿

2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑐 = = =
2 2 2𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑐𝑐 provides DC power input 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄

Converter efficiency
𝑃𝑎𝑐−𝑜𝑝
η=
𝑃𝑑𝑐−𝑖𝑝
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
⇒η =
8𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ; 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝐼𝐶𝑄 ; 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0

2𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄
∴η=
8𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄
= 25%

Disadvantages:
i) The load RL directly connected to output circuit, no control in quiescent current.
ii) Considerable waste of power.
iii) Converter efficiency is less.
Transformer Coupled Power Amplifier

(i) Suitable Transformer is used (coupled) at output circuit to control quiescent

current.

(ii) It is advisable DC current is also not to pass in load i.e voice coil of loud speaker.

(iii)This achieved by primary resistance of transformer. It is necessary output

matching transformer. Otherwise loss in internal device resistance of speaker.
𝑁
(iv) Traformation Ratio, 𝑛 = 𝑁2 and secondary load referred to primary, 𝑅𝐿′ = 𝑅𝐿 𝑛2
1

(v) By taking 𝑁2 < 𝑁1 ; ′ 𝑛′ can made less than unity. So 𝑅𝐿 can made bigger value.

𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

η=
𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑎𝑐 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝑑𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
2 2
=
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝐶
=
2𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶
1
=
2
= 50 %
Class B Amplifier

i) It is also called as Single end Class B amplifier.

ii) The Class B amplifier conducts for positive half cycle only i.e. 180 degrees and
output current is obtained for half cycle.

iii) Operating waveforms for input current 𝑖𝑏 of full cycle and corresponding output
current 𝑖𝑐 is drawn in following waveform..

iv) During positive half cycle: The input voltage Vi is positive. Transistor Q operates
in active region i.e. junction Je in forward bias and junction JC in reverse bias.
Transistor Q conducts during positive half cycle only i.e. 180 degrees.

v) During positive half cycle: The input voltage, Vi is negative. Transistor Q

operates in cut-off region i.e. both junctions Je, JC are in reverse bias. Transistor
Q is turn off during negative half cycle i.e. 180 degree to 360 degree.
vi) The operating point Q is lies at center of load curve and respective input and
output waveform are derived as shown in diagram.
Class B push-pull power Amplifier

(i) Output circuit of Class B push-pull power amplifier is designed with mid tapped
transformer with two transistors. Secondary of transformer is connected to voice
coil of loud speaker.

(ii) Design of input circuit with center tapped transformer excites the two transistors
with equal voltage. One transistor pushes the output on a positive half-cycle and
the other pulls on a negative half cycle.

(iii)Class B push-pull amplifier has two NPN transistors.

(iv) In a single end Class B, only one transistor for one half cycle gives output. Where
as in other half cycle at input excitation produce distortion.

(v) Static output characteristics are equidistant for equal increment of input
excitation. Dynamic transfer characteristics assumed linear and output
reassemble input wave.

(vi) Large distortion due to non-linearity of dynamic transfer characteristics is

eliminated by push pull amplifier.

(vii) Input excitation through centre-tapped transformer where two equal voltages
with 1800 produced across secondary winding.

(viii) Two transistors Q1, Q2 will be turn ON in equal amount of positive and
negative cycles respectively.

At (𝜔𝑡), the current 𝑖1 is obtained by

𝑖1 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵2 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵3 cos 3𝜔𝑡 …

At (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋), the current 𝑖2 is obtained by

𝑖2 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 + 𝐵1 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) + 𝐵2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) + 𝐵3 cos 3(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) …
= 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐵0 − 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵2 cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝐵3 cos 3𝜔𝑡 …

Total the output current, 𝑖 ∝ 𝑖1 − 𝑖2

 𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 2𝑘 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵3 cos 3𝜔𝑡 …
This expression shows that a push-pull circuit balance out all even harmonics. Odd
harmonics terms act as the principle source of distortion

Efficiency of Class B amplifier:

𝑃𝑜𝑝 (𝑎𝑐 ) = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑉𝑛 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= × =
2 2 2

2𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝑐 ) = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝑚 ×
𝜋
𝑃𝑜𝑝 (𝑎𝑐 )
η=
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= 2
2𝐼
𝑉𝑚 × 𝜋𝑚
𝜋
=
4
= 0.785
% η = 78.5%
Complementary Symmetry Class B power Amplifier

(i) In a Complementary Symmetry Class B power Amplifier design two transistors

i.e. NPN and PNP are used.

(ii) Common collector configuration is used to match the output impedance for
maximum power transfer without an output transformer

(iii)Input driver transformer is used to provide signals 1800 out of phase.

(iv) Same signal voltage is applied to the base of two transistors; the actions on two
transistors are opposite.

(v) During positive half cycle, NPN transistor would be forward bias and PNP
transistor reverse biased. This action is reverse in negative half cycle thereby
satisfying push-pull action.

(vi) To reduce the cost and weight, the elimination of transformers extend both high
and low frequency responses.
Cross over distortion in power amplifier:

i) Cross over distortion in power amplifier caused due to non-linearity of input

characteristics. Transistor does not turn ON at zero volt applied to emitter
junction.

ii) Transistor is forward biased by cut-in voltage. This cut-in voltage 0.3V for
germanium, 0.7V for silicon.

iii) Input sinusoidal base voltage excitation could not produce a sinusoidal output
current at output circuit. The distortion caused by non-linear input
characteristics is shown below.

iv) In the regions of small input currents, the output is much smaller than actual
value. This effect is crossover distortion.

v) In Class B push pull power amplifier, one transistor cutting off before, other
begins to conduct. This behaviour produces a crossover distortion in Class B
push pull power amplifier and shown following figure.
vi) Crossover distortion can reduce by operating the transistors in Class AB mode.
Small standby current at zero excitation can reduce the crossover distortion.
 Class AB power amplifier

i) Design of Class AB power amplifier develops with a center tapped transformer

like Class B amplifier design. Input for two transistors will be excited equal
voltages with opposite polarity.

ii) Class AB or Class AB push-pull amplifier has additional emitter stabilizing

resistor, RE. Remain circuit is same as Class B and shown in following figure.

iii) Crossover distortion present in Class B overcome by the Class AB power

amplifier.

iv) Transistors Q1, Q2 are biased such that Q point is placed between active
region of class A and cut-off region of Class B and this is shown in following
diagram.
v) Transistors Q1, Q2 conducts more than 1800, so crossover distortion can
eliminated.

vi) Class AB power amplifier efficiency is more than Class A power amplifier, but
slightly less than Class B power amplifier.
 Class C power amplifier (Tuned power amplifier)

i) The output circuit of Class C power amplifier is developed with tank circuit that
operated at particular tuned resonant frequency. The total design is shown in
circuit diagram.

ii) Negative supply voltage, -VBB connected to the base circuit. So input junction Je
is reverse bias, it will ON when input signal exceeds the reverse bias.

iii) Class C power amplifier designed to conduct only small part of positive half cycle.

iv) Operating point Q is below the cut off point of load line and shown in figure.
Hence output current, Ic in the form of pulse.

v) Class C power amplifier is not used in audio frequency. Used in radio frequency
range of electromagnetic waves.

vi) Class C power amplifier used in communication systems and for high frequency
tuned operation.
 Class D power Amplifier

i) Class D power amplifier design consists a two push-pull transistors switches

and shown in following circuit. These two transistors are used to produce a
square wave.

ii) Transistors with complementary connection in Class D power amplifier are

used as switches instead of current sources.

iii) Square wave from a transistors are filtered to recover the fundamental
frequency. The square wave at output is
sin 3𝜃 sin 5𝜃
𝑉𝐶 = 0.636𝑉𝐶𝐶 sin 𝜃 + +
3 5

iv) During positive half cycle, transistor Q1 will be cut-off and transistor Q2
saturates. In a negative half cycle, transistor Q2 will be cut-off and transistor
Q1 saturates. Hence output voltage alternates between 0 and +VCC.

v) Square wave from output voltage is fed to high Q series resonant circuit which
transmits fundamental frequency.

vi) Output voltage form circuit which is almost sine wave which is given by
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.636𝑉𝐶𝐶 sin 𝜃
Maximum value of output sine wave is 0.636𝑉𝐶𝐶

vii) Power dissipation in switches is ideally zero and hence efficiency of Class D
power amplifier design is near to 100%.
Class S Amplifier

i) Class S power amplifier is used in switching regulation.

ii) Output circuit of Class S power amplifier is designed with emitter follower LC
filter as shown in circuit given below.

iii) Input circuit with VCC drives a continuous string of pulses those are having
amplitude of VCC.

iv) Driving voltage for LC filter is a train of pulses with amplitude of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 .

v) If 𝑋𝐿 is greater than 𝑋𝐶 at switching frequency, the output is a dc voltage i.e. 𝑉𝑑𝑐 .

This dc voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 is determined by

𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐷 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸

Here D is the duty cycle of input waveform.

vi) Higher value of duty cycle produces large dc output and vice versa. In this
manner switching regulation can be obtained in Class S power amplifier. Power
dissipation by a transistor in saturation condition is given by

𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝐷𝐶

The value of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡 is closer to zero i.e. 0.3V, the power dissipation is very less.
 UNIT-3 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Open loop Amplifiers

i) Open loop Amplifiers does not have any feedback gain.

ii) External source signal fed 𝑉𝑠 to basic amplifier through mixer.

iii) Input signal 𝑉𝑖 is combined or compare with reference. Hence mixer is called
comparator. Mixers are two types namely series mixer or shunt mixer.

iv) Gain of amplifier, A is obtained with ratio of output voltage to input current.

𝑉0
𝐴=
𝑉𝑖

v) Output of amplifier is sampled by suitable sampler to obtain required output. The

sampling circuit is either voltage sampler or current sampler. Voltage sampler
and current sampler are also called as node sampler and loop sampler
respectively.

vi) Open loop Amplifiers are used in certain non – linear applications such as
comparators, square wave generators. Astable multivibrator and oscillators are
works on the principle of open loop gain.
Feedback amplifier

i) Feedback amplifier consist a basic amplifier gain 𝐴 and feedback network.

Block diagram Feedback amplifier is shown in following figure.

ii) External source signal fed 𝑉𝑠 to basic amplifier through mixer.

iii) Input signal 𝑉𝑖 is combined or compare with reference. Hence mixer is called
comparator. Mixers are two types namely series mixer or shunt mixer.

iv) Gain of basic amplifier, A is obtained with ratio of output voltage to input
current.

𝑉0
𝐴=
𝑉𝑖

v) Output of amplifier is sampled by suitable sampler to obtain required output.

The sampling circuit is either voltage sampler or current sampler. Voltage
sampler and current sampler are also called as node sampler and loop
sampler respectively.

vi) Output of sampling network fed to feedback network. Feedback ratio 𝛽 is

determine by following expression. There are two types of feedback (a) Positive
Feedback, (b) Negative Feedback.
𝑉𝑓
𝛽 = Feedback ratio =
𝑉0
𝑉𝑓 =Feedback signal (current or voltage)

vii) Gain of feedback amplifier 𝐴𝑓 is calcultated using following equation.

𝑉0
𝐴𝑓 = Gain of Feedback amplifier =
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠 =AC input in the input side (current or voltage).
 Positive Feedback

i) If the feedback signal 𝑉𝑓 in phase with the input signal 𝑉𝑠 , then net 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑓 .

ii) Input applied to amplifier increased, 𝑉0 increasing exponentially. This type of

feedback is said to be positive or regenerative feedback.

iii) Gain with positive feedback

𝑉0
𝐴𝑓 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑉0
=
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓
1
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑓
𝑉0 − 𝑉0
1
=
1
𝐴−𝛽
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 − 𝐴𝛽

iv) 𝐴𝑓 > 𝐴 . Product of open gain 𝐴 and feedback factor 𝛽 is called “loop gain”.
Therfore loop gain = 𝐴𝛽.

v) If 𝐴𝛽 = 1, then 𝐴𝑓 = ∞. So amplifier gives an ac output without ac input. So

amplifier act as oscillator.

vi) Positive feedback increse the instabliligy, reduce band width and increase the
distortion and noise.
 Negative Feedback

i) If the feedback signal 𝑉𝑓 out of phase with the input signal 𝑉𝑠 , then net
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑓

ii) Input to amplifier decreases, and output 𝑉0 decreases. Hence voltage gain will
reduce.

iii) This type of feedback is said to be negative or degenerative feedback.

iv) Gain with negative feedback

𝑉0
𝐴𝑓 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑉0
=
𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
1
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑓
𝑉0 + 𝑉0
1
=
1
+𝛽
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
v) 𝐴𝑓 < 𝐴 . If 𝐴𝛽 >> 1, then 𝐴𝑓 = 1/𝛽. Stabilization is acomplished by negative
feedback.

vi) Negative feedback always helps to improve performance, bankwidth. Negative

feedback is used to reduce the distorion and noise.
 Voltage Amplifier

i) Voltage Amplifier is represented by Thevinin’s equivalent circuit. It is also called

as voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) amplifier.

ii) Amplifier input resistance 𝑅𝑖 is large compared to source resistance 𝑅𝑠 then

𝑉𝑖 ≈ 𝑉𝑠 .

iii) If external load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is large compared to output resistance 𝑅0 then

output voltage 𝑉0 ≈ 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖 ≈ 𝑉𝑠 . Here 𝐴𝑉 is open-circuit voltage gain.

iv) Amplifier that provides 𝑉0 ∞𝑉𝑖 and proportional factor does not depend on
magnitude of 𝑅𝑠 or 𝑅𝐿 . Such circuit is called voltage amplifier.

v) Ideal voltage amplifier has infinite 𝑅𝑖 and zero 𝑅0 i.e. 𝑅𝑖 = ∞, 𝑅0 = 0

vi) Practical voltage amplifier has 𝑅𝑖 >> 𝑅0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 << 𝑅𝐿

 Current Amplifier
i) Current Amplifier is represented by Norton’s equivalent circuit. It is also called
as current controlled current source (CCCS) amplifier.

ii) Amplifier input resistance 𝑅𝑖 is low compared to source resistance 𝑅𝑠 then

𝐼𝑖 ≈ 𝐼𝑠

iii) If external load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is low compared to output resistance 𝑅0 then

𝐼0 ≈ 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 ≈ 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑠 . 𝐴𝑖 is short-circuit current gain with 𝑅𝐿 = ∞

iv) Amplifier that provides 𝐼0 ∞𝐼𝑖 and proportional factor does not depend on
magnitude of 𝑅𝑠 or 𝑅𝐿 . Such circuit is called Current amplifier.

v) Ideal Current amplifier 𝑅𝑖 = 0, 𝑅0 = ∞

vi) Practical Current amplifier has 𝑅𝑖 << 𝑅0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 >> 𝑅𝐿 .

 Transconductance Amplifier

i) In a Transconductance amplifier, input is Thevinin’s equivalent circuit, output is

Norton’s equivalent circuit. It is also called as voltage controlled current source
(VCCS) amplifier.

ii) Amplifier input resistance 𝑅𝑖 >> 𝑅𝑠 then 𝑉𝑖 ≈ 𝑉𝑠 .

iii) If 𝑅0 >> 𝑅𝐿 then 𝐼0 ≈ 𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖 ≈ 𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑠 . Here 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐼0 /𝑉𝑖 is transconductance.

iv) Amplifier that provides 𝐼0 ∞𝑉𝑖 and proportional factor does not depend on
magnitude of 𝑅𝑠 or 𝑅𝐿 . Such circuit is called Transconductance amplifier.

v) Ideal voltage amplifier has infinite 𝑅𝑖 and zero 𝑅0 i.e. 𝑅𝑖 = ∞, 𝑅0 = ∞.

vi) Practical voltage amplifier has 𝑅𝑖 << 𝑅0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 << 𝑅𝐿 .

 Transresistance Amplifier

i) In a Transresistance amplifier, input is Norton’s equivalent circuit, output is

Thevinin’s equivalent circuit. It is also called as current controlled voltage source
(CCVS) amplifier.

ii) Input resistance 𝑅𝑖 is less than 𝑅𝑠 then 𝐼𝑖 ≈ 𝐼𝑠 .

iii) If 𝑅𝑜 << 𝑅𝐿 then 𝑉0 ≈ 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖 ≈ 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑠 . 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑉0 /𝐼𝑖 is open-circuit transfer resistance

𝑅𝐿 = ∞.

iv) Amplifier that provides 𝑉0 ∞𝐼𝑠 and proportional factor does not depend on
magnitude of 𝑅𝑠 or 𝑅𝐿 . Such circuit is called transresistance amplifier.

v) Ideal transresistance amplifier have infinite 𝑅𝑖 = 0, 𝑅0 = 0.

vi) Practical transresistance amplifier has 𝑅𝑖 << 𝑅0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 << 𝑅𝐿 .

Sampling Network

Voltage sampling: output voltage is sampled by connecting feedback network in

shunt across output.

Impedance of feedback network is greater than load resistance, 𝑅𝐿 .

Current sampling: output current is sampled by connecting feedback network in

series with output.

Impedance of feedback n/w is less than load resistance, 𝑅𝐿

Mixing Network:
Mixing Network with series input connections is modelled with feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 .
Mixing Network with shunt input connections is modelled with feedback current 𝐼𝑓 .

Example of feedback amplifier circuit is represented by the transistor collector and

emitter circuit is given below.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Positive feedback of amplifier circuit generates oscillations as in oscillators.

Although there is reduction in voltage gain, there are improvements using negative
feedback.

Negative feedback amplifier i) better stabilized voltage gain, ii) enhanced frequency
response, iii) higher input impedance, iv) lower output impedance, v) reduction in
noise, distortion and ii) increase in linearity.

Desensitization or Stabilization of Gain

𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
Differentiate wrt ‘A’
𝑑𝐴𝑓 1 + 𝐴𝛽 1 − 𝐴 0 + 𝛽
=
𝑑𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝛽 2

1 + 𝐴𝛽 − 𝐴𝛽
=
1 + 𝐴𝛽 2

1
= 2
1 + 𝐴𝛽

𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴𝑓 = 2
1 + 𝐴𝛽

Therefore

𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴𝑓 1 + 𝐴𝛽 2
=
𝐴𝑓 𝐴
1 + 𝐴𝛽

𝑑𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝛽
= ×
𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝛽 2

𝑑𝐴 1
= ×
𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝛽

𝑑𝐴𝑓
= Fractional change in voltage gain with feedback
𝐴𝑓
𝑑𝐴
= Fractional change in voltage gain without feedback
𝐴
 𝑑𝐴𝑓
𝐴𝑓 1
Sensitivity = =
𝑑𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝐴

Desensitivity = 𝐷
= Reciprocal of Sensitivity
1
=
Sensitivity
= 1 + 𝐴𝛽

𝐴 represents 𝐴𝑉 , 𝐺𝑀 , 𝐴𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀

𝐴𝑓 = transfer gain with feedback=𝐴𝑉𝑓 , 𝐺𝑀𝑓 , 𝐴𝐼𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑀𝑓

Classification of Negative Feedback Amplifiers and their analysis
Negative feedback in an amplifier is the method of feeding a portion of the amplified
output to the input but in opposite phase. The phase opposition occurs as the
amplifier provides 180o phase shift whereas the feedback network doesn’t.

Classification:
1) Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifiers
Input of amplifier is proportional to the output voltage.
Further classified into two types
i) Voltage-series feedback amplifiers
ii) Voltage-shunt feedback amplifiers

2) Negative Current Feedback Amplifiers

Input of amplifier is proportional to the output current.
Further classified into two types
i) Current-series feedback amplifiers
ii) Current-shunt feedback amplifiers
1) Voltage-series Negative Feedback Amplifier and its analysis
Voltage sampling and Series mixing is used in Voltage-series feedback amplifier.

Apply KVL to input circuit

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0

Output voltage
𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑉0 = = 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
Here
𝐴𝑣 𝑅𝐿 𝑉0
𝐴𝑉 = =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑖
Substitute 𝑉0 in KVL equation

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽 𝐴𝑉 × 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 )

𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 )
𝐼𝑖

𝐴𝑣 is open circuit voltage gain without feedback.

𝐴𝑉 Indicates open circuit voltage gain without feedback taking load 𝑅𝐿 into account

𝐴𝑣 = lim 𝐴𝑉
𝑅𝐿 →∞

Output resistance:
𝑅0𝑓 is obtained by looking into outputterminals, 𝑅𝐿 → ∞, and making external source
𝑉𝑠 = 0

We have KVL at output

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅0 + 𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖
 𝑉 − 𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖
𝐼 =
𝑅0
Here
𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑓 (𝑎𝑠 𝑉𝑠 = 0)
= −𝛽𝑉

𝑉 − 𝐴𝑣 (−𝛽𝑉)
∴𝐼=
𝑅0

𝑉(1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 )
𝐼 =
𝑅0

𝑉 𝑅0
𝑅0𝑓 = =
𝐼 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 )

′
Output resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝐿 include, 𝑅0𝑓 :
′
𝑅0𝑓 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓 = 𝑅0𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿 =
𝑅0𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0
(1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 ) + 𝑅𝐿
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣

𝑅0 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣
𝑅0 × 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝛽𝐴𝑣 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑅 +
0 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0′
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉

Here
𝑅0 × 𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑣 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0′ = ; 𝐴𝑉 =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿

Feedback amplifier with FET with input and circuit is given below.
2) Current-shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier and its analysis
Current sampling and Shunt mixing is used in Current-shunt feedback amplifier.

Input resistance 𝑹𝒊𝒇 :

Apply KCL to input node

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 )

Output current
𝑅0
𝐼0 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 × = 𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
Here
𝐼0 𝐴𝑖 𝑅0
𝐴𝐼 = =
𝐼𝑖 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
∴ 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = =
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 ) 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼

𝐴𝑖 is short circuit current gain without feedback

𝐴𝐼 indicates short circuit current gain without feedback taking load 𝑅𝐿 into account
𝐴𝑖 = lim 𝐴𝐼
𝑅𝐿 → 0

Output resistance 𝑹𝟎𝒇 : 𝑅𝐿 disconnected i.e. 𝑅𝐿 = ∞; external source signal is made

zero i.e. 𝐼𝑆 = 0.

As 𝐼𝑠 = 0; 𝐼𝑖 = −𝐼𝑓 = −𝛽𝐼0 = 𝛽𝐼 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑉𝑠 = 0, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 )

KCL at output node

𝑉
= 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖
𝑅0
𝑉
𝐼 = − 𝐴𝑖 (𝛽𝐼)
𝑅0
𝑉
𝐼(1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) =
𝑅0
𝑉
𝑅0𝑓 = = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝐼
 ′
Output resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝐿 include, 𝑅0𝑓 :
′
𝑅0𝑓 = 𝑅0𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅0𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑖 )𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅0 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑖 ) 𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑖 )
𝑅0𝑓′
= =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝛽𝐴𝑖 𝑅0 𝑅 + 𝑅 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑖 𝑅0
0 𝐿 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅0 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑖 )
𝑅0𝑓′
=
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼

Here
𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑖 𝑅0
𝑅0′ = ; 𝐴𝐼 =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
3) Current-series Feedback Negative Feedback Amplifier and its analysis
Current sampling and Series mixing is used in Current-series feedback amplifier.

Apply KVL to input circuit

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0

Output voltage
𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖 𝑅0
𝐼0 = = 𝐺𝑀 𝑉𝑖
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
Here
𝐺𝑚 𝑅0 𝐼0
𝐺𝑀 = =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑖
Substitute 𝐼0 in KVL equation

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽 𝐺𝑀 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽 𝐺𝑀 × 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
𝐼𝑖

𝐺𝑚 is short circuit transcondunctance without feedback

𝐺𝑀 indicates short circuit transcondunctance without feedback and taking load 𝑅𝐿

into account

𝐺𝑚 = lim 𝐺𝑀
𝑅𝐿 → 0

Output resistance 𝑹𝟎𝒇 : 𝑅𝐿 disconnected i.e. 𝑅𝐿 = ∞; external source signal is made

zero i.e. 𝑉𝑆 = 0.
As 𝑉𝑠 = 0; 𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑓 = −𝛽𝐼0 = 𝛽𝐼
KCL at o/p
𝑉
𝐼= − 𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖
𝑅0
𝑉
∴𝐼= − 𝐺𝑚 𝛽𝐼
𝑅0
𝑉
𝐼(1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) =
𝑅0
 𝑉
𝑅0𝑓 = = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚 )
𝐼

′
Output resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝐿 include, 𝑅0𝑓 :

′
𝑅0𝑓 = 𝑅0𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿

𝑅0𝑓 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅0𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚 )𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅0 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚 ) + 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚 𝑅0

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚 )
=
𝛽𝐺𝑚 𝑅0
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑅 +
0 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0′ (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑚 )
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀

Here
𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 𝐺𝑚 𝑅0
𝑅0′ = ; 𝐺𝑀 =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿
4) Voltage-shunt Feedback Negative Feedback Amplifier and its analysis
Voltage sampling and Shunt mixing is used in Voltage-shunt feedback amplifier.

KCL to input
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0
Using voltage

𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖 𝑅0 𝑉0 𝑅𝑚 𝑅0
𝑉0 = = 𝑅𝑀 𝐼𝑖 ; ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑀 = =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝑖 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿

∴ 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽 𝑅𝑀 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 )

Now input resistance

𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = =
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 ) 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀

𝑅𝑚 is open circuit transresistance without feedback

𝑅𝑀 indicates transresistance without feedback taking load 𝑅𝐿 into account

𝑅𝑚 = lim 𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝐿 →∞

Output resistance: Disconnect 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝐿 = ∞ and made external source zero 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐼𝑠 = 0.

As 𝐼𝑠 = 0;
𝐼𝑖 = −𝐼𝑓 = −𝛽𝑉0 = −𝛽𝑉

KVL at output node

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅0 + 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖
V = 𝐼𝑅0 + 𝑅𝑚 −𝛽𝑉
𝑅0 𝐼 = 𝑉 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 𝑉
𝑅0 𝐼 = 𝑉(1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 )
V 𝑅0
𝑅0𝑓 = =
I 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚
 ′
Output resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝐿 include, 𝑅0𝑓 :
′
𝑅0𝑓 = 𝑅0𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿

𝑅0𝑓 × 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅0𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0
+ 𝑅𝐿
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 )
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝛽𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑅 +
0 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝛽𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 +
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿

𝑅0 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0𝑓
′
=
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀

Here
𝑅0 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑅0′ = ; 𝑅𝑀 =
𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅0 + 𝑅𝐿

.
 UNIT – IV: OSCILLATORS

Oscillators-Introduction

i) Definition: Circuit that generates periodic voltage without an ac input signal is

called oscillator.
OR
Circuit generates periodic voltage from dc source input energy.

ii) If the output voltage is sine wave function of time, then oscillator is called
‘sinusoidal’ or ‘harmonic’ oscillator. Ex: positive feedback and Negative resistance
oscillators

iii) Another category of oscillator generates non-sinusoidal waveforms such as

square, rectangular, triangular and sawtooth waves.

iv) Oscillators are essential components that produce a periodic electronic signal,
typically a sine wave or square wave.

v) Oscillators convert DC signal to periodic AC signals which can be used to set

frequency, be used for audio applications, or used as a clock signal
 Classification of Oscillators
Ocsicllators are classified in different ways

(1) According to waveforms generated:

(a) Sinusoidal oscillator: generates sinusoidal voltage or current

(b) Relaxation oscillator: generates voltage or currents which may abruptly one or
more times in a cycle.

(2) According to fundamental mechanisms involved

(a) Negative resistance oscillators:

Uses negative resistance of amplifying device to neutralize the positive resistance of
the oscillator.

(b) Feedback oscillators:

Uses positive feedback in feedback amplifier to satisfy the Barkhausen criterion.

(3) According to the frequency generated:

(a) Audio Frequency Oscillator (AFO): up to 20kHz
(b) Radio Frequency Oscillator (RFO): 20kHz to 30MHz
(c) Very High Frequency (VHF) Oscillator: 30MHz to 300MHz
(d) Ultra High Frequency (UHF) oscillator: 300MHz to 3GHz
(e) Microwave frequency oscillator: above 3GHz

(4) According to type of circuit used

Sine-wave oscillators may be classified as
(a) LC tuned oscillator
(b) RC phase-shift oscillator
 Barkhausen Criterion

i) Oscillator circuit is set into oscillations by random variation caused in the base
current due to noise component or a small variation in the dc supply.

ii) Noise components i.e. extremely small random electrical voltages and currents
are always present in any conductor, tube or transistor.

iii) Even when no external signal is applied, the ever present noise will cause some
small signal at the output of the amplifier.

iv) When the amplifier is tuned at a particular frequency 𝑓0 , the output signal caused
by noise signal will be predominant.

v) If a small fraction 𝛽 of the output signal is fed back to the input with proper
phase relation, feedback signal will be amplified by amplifier.

vi) If the amplifier gain greater than 1 𝛽 , then output increases and thereby
feedback signal becomes larger.

vii) This process continuous and output goes on increasing. Hence signal level
increase and gain could be reduced. At particular value gain exactly equal to1 𝛽 ,
output voltage remains constant

viii) Frequency of oscillations: Output voltage remains constant at frequency 𝑓0

called ‘frequency of oscillations’.

ix) Amplitude Stability of Oscillators:

To sustain oscillations i.e. amplitude of 𝐴𝛽 > 1

 As soon as oscillations are initiated, they quickly grow in size till amplitude
becomes great enough.

Introduce the nonlinear effects and decreases the amplification. Then equilibrium
is established at amplitude where amplification of loop is unity.

If there is no such amplitude limiting, the amplitude of oscillations could be

infinite. So nonlinear action will establishes the equilibrium amplitude in
oscillator.

x) For 𝐴𝛽 < 1 Oscillations died out after time

xi) For 𝐴𝛽 > 1 Oscillations can be sustain

xii) For 𝐴𝛽 = 1 Oscillations are stabilized at with particular frequency.

Barkhausen Criterion conditions:

i) 𝐴𝛽 = 1 i.e. magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
ii) Total phase-shift around the closed loop is zero or 3600.
 1) RC Phase shift Oscillator using FET

i) Amplifier provides 1800 shift and feedback circuit produce 1800 shift and hence
total 3600 phase shift obtained.

ii) Juntion Field Effect Transistor (JFET) can be used. FET amplifier is self-baised
with capacitor-bypassed source resistor and drain resistor. Value of 𝑅𝐷′ is a
parallel combination of 𝑟𝑑 ||𝑅𝑑 and hence 𝑅𝐷′ < < 𝑅 and it can be neglected.
Feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 available at output of last RC section and fed to gate as
input.

iii) Feedback circuit consists 3 cascaded RC sections and 600 phase shift is obtained
from each RC section. RC Phase shift using cascade of high pass filter i.e. phase-
lead RC network. Phase shift ∅ given by each RC section is
1
∅ = tan−1
𝜔𝐶𝑅

iv) If 𝑅 made zero, then ∅ = 900 . So ∅ made less than 900 i.e. 600 by adjusting R.

v) Apply KVL for RC circuit

1
𝐼1 𝑅 + − 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
−𝐼1 𝑅 + 𝐼2 2𝑅 + − 𝐼3 𝑅 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
−𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼3 2𝑅 + =0
𝑗𝜔𝐶
 1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛼 =
𝜔𝑅𝐶
From third KVL equation
1
 − 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼3 2𝑅 + − 𝐼1 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
 − 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼3 𝑅 2 + =0
𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝛼
 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = −𝐼3 𝑅 2 +
𝑗
 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = −𝐼3 𝑅 2 − 𝑗𝛼
𝐼2 = 𝐼3 2 − 𝑗𝛼

From second KVL equation

1
−𝐼1 𝑅 + 𝐼2 2𝑅 + − 𝐼3 𝑅 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝐼1 𝑅 = 𝐼2 𝑅 2 − 𝑗𝛼 − 𝐼3 𝑅

𝐼1 𝑅 = 𝐼3 𝑅 2 − 𝑗𝛼 2 − 𝑗𝛼 − 𝐼3 𝑅

𝐼1 𝑅 = 𝐼3 𝑅 3 + 𝛼 2 − 𝑗4𝛼

𝐼1 = 𝐼3 3 + 𝛼 2 − 𝑗4𝛼

Substitute 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 in first KVL equation

1
𝐼1 𝑅 + − 𝐼2 𝑅 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝐼3 3 − 4𝑗𝛼 − 𝛼 2 1 − 𝑗𝛼 − 𝐼3 2 − 𝑗𝛼 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖

𝐼3 𝑅 3 − 4𝑗𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − 3𝑗𝛼 − 4𝛼 2 + 𝑗𝛼 3 − 2 + 𝑗𝛼 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖

𝐼3 𝑅 1 − 5𝛼 2 − 6𝑗𝛼 + 𝑗𝛼 3 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖

−𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖
𝐼3 𝑅 = 𝑉𝑓 =
(1 − 5𝛼 2 ) − 𝑗(6𝛼 − 𝛼 3 )

𝑉𝑓 −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′
𝛽 = =
𝑉𝑖 1 − 5𝛼 2 − 𝑗(6𝛼 − 𝛼 3 )

Loop gain is a real value, 𝛼 3 − 6𝛼 = 0𝛼 2 = 6

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′
𝛽 =
29

𝐴 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

FET amplifier Voltage gain

𝐴 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′
1
 𝐴 = 29 & 𝛽 =
29

So gain of FET amplifier gate must be at least 29 to sustain oscillations.

For sustain oscillations, 𝐴𝛽 > 1 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷′ > 29

To find frequency of oscillations, 𝒇𝟎 :

1
𝛼=
𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝛼2 = 6
1
 2 2 2=6
𝜔 𝑅 𝐶

1
𝜔2 =
6 𝑅2 𝐶 2

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6
 2) RC Phase shift Oscillator using BJT

i) Amplifier provides 1800 shift and feedback circuit produce 1800 shift and
hence total 3600 phase shift obtained.

ii) BJT can be used as amplifier and it has bypassed capacitor and emitter
resistor. Feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 available at output of last RC section and fed to
gate as input.

iii) Feedback circuit consists 3 cascaded RC sections and 600 phase shift is
obtained from each RC section. RC phase shift using cascade of high pass
filter i.e. phase-lead RC network. Phase shift ∅ given by each RC section is
1
∅ = tan−1
𝜔𝐶𝑅

iv) If 𝑅 made zero, then ∅ = 900 . So ∅ made less than 900 i.e. 600 by adjusting R.

v) Apply KVL for RC circuit

 1
𝐼1 𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶 + − 𝐼2 𝑅 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑏 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
−𝐼1 𝑅 + 𝐼2 2𝑅 + − 𝐼3 𝑅 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
−𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼3 2𝑅 + =0
𝑗𝜔𝐶

1 𝑅𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛼 = ,𝑘 =
𝜔𝑅𝐶 𝑅

From KVL third equation

𝐼2 = 𝐼3 2 − 𝑗𝛼

From KVL second equation

𝐼1 = 𝐼3 3 − 𝛼 2 − 𝑗4𝛼 = 0

Substitute 𝐼1 , 𝐼3 in KVL first equation

1
𝐼1 𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶 + − 𝐼2 𝑅 = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑏
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝐼1 𝑅 1 + 𝑘 − 𝑗𝛼 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑏

𝐼3 𝑅 3 − 𝛼 2 − 4𝑗𝛼 1 + 𝑘 − 𝑗𝛼 − 𝐼3 𝑅 2 − 𝑗𝛼 = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑏

𝐼3 𝑅 3 − 𝛼 2 − 𝑗4𝛼 + 3𝑘 − 𝛼 2 𝑘 − 𝑗4𝛼𝑘 − 𝑗3𝛼 + 𝑗𝛼 3 − 4𝛼 2 − 2 + 𝑗𝛼 = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑏

−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑏
𝐼3 [ 1 + 3𝑘 − (5 + 𝑘)𝛼 2 ) − 𝑗(6𝛼 + 4𝛼𝑘 − 𝛼 3 ] =
𝑅

𝐼3 [ 1 + 3𝑘 − (5 + 𝑘)𝛼 2 ) − 𝑗(6𝛼 + 4𝛼𝑘 − 𝛼 3 ] = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑘𝐼𝑏

𝐼3 −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑘
 =
𝐼𝑏 1 + 3𝑘 − (5 + 𝑘)𝛼 2 − 𝑗[(6 + 4𝑘)𝛼 − 𝛼 3 ]

Because of loop gain is real, 6 + 4𝑘 𝛼 − 𝛼 3 = 0𝛼 2 = 6 + 4𝑘

𝐼3 −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑘
 =
𝐼𝑏 1 + 3𝑘 − 5 + 𝑘 (6 + 4𝑘)

𝐼3 −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑘
 =
𝐼𝑏 1 + 3𝑘 − (4𝑘 2 + 26k + 30)
 𝐼3 −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑘
 =
𝐼𝑏 −4𝑘 2 − 23k − 29

𝐼3 ℎ𝑓𝑒
 =
𝐼𝑏 4𝑘 + 29 + 23
k

To sustain oscillations 𝐼3 𝐼𝑏 > 1

29
∴ ℎ𝑓𝑒 > 4𝑘 + + 23
k

Obtain min of ℎ𝑓𝑒

𝑑ℎ𝑓𝑒 29
=4− 2 =0
dk 𝑘

29
𝑘= = 2.7
4

ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 45
𝑚𝑖𝑛

So ℎ𝑓𝑒 of BJT amplifier has at least 45 to sustain oscillations.

To find frequency of oscillations, 𝒇𝟎 :

1
𝛼=
𝜔𝑅𝐶
2
𝛼 = 6 + 4𝑘
1
 2 2 2 = 6 + 4𝑘
𝜔 𝑅 𝐶

1
𝜔2 =
6 𝑅2 𝐶 2

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6 + 4𝑘
Drawbacks of phase shift oscillators

Oscillator is suitable for low frequency only.

It is difficult to control three RC circuits for 𝑓0 i.e. frequency of oscillations.

Applications of phase shift oscillators

RC phase shift oscillators can be used for low-frequency applications.

Oscillators produce radio and audio frequencies and they suitable for this range of
frequencies.

Frequency ranges of 200 Hz to 2 kHz, 2 kHz to 20 kHz and 20 kHz to 200 kHz can
be obtained by using other sets of resistors.

To be more specific, they are used for musical instruments, voice synthesis, and
GPS units.
 3) LC tuned Oscillator

i) Oscillation frequency determined by tuned LC tank circuit.

ii) Consists tuned LC circuit in collector branch.

iii) 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑒 establish proper operating conditions as in CE amplifier.

iv) 𝐶𝑒 is emitter bypass capacitor that reduce the voltage dropping at emitter.

v) 𝑅𝑏 control amount of feedback to sustain. Also prevent the loading of collector

circuit.

vi) CE amplifier produce 1800 phase shift. Additional 1800 phase shift introduced by
inductor 𝐿𝑠 which is couple with 𝐿𝑝 .

vii) Frequency of oscillations are determined by

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝑝 𝐶
 4) Hartley Oscillator

i) In a oscillator 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑒 provide necessary dc bais to the transistor. 𝐶𝑒 is bypass

capacitor. 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 coupling capacitors. Block the dc.

ii) Feedback network consists 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 and 𝐶 determine the frequency of oscillations.

iii) As +𝑉𝐶𝐶 ON, transient current is produced in the tank circuit and damped
harmonics oscillations are set up.

iv) Oscillatary current in tank circuit produce ac voltage across 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 . Terminal 1 is

positive wrt to 3 and 2 is –ve wrt 3. So phase difference 1800 is obtained.

v) Frequency of oscillations
1 1
𝑓0 = =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀)𝐶
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

For Hartley oscillator

𝑍1 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 = 𝑠𝐿1
𝑍2 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿2 = 𝑠𝐿2
1
𝑍3 =
𝑗𝜔𝐶

For LC tuned oscillatory circuit

ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 𝑍3 = 0
 1 𝐿1
𝑗𝜔 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2
− 𝜔2 (ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 1)𝐿1 𝐿2 + = 0
𝜔 𝐶 𝐶

1 1
𝑗𝜔 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − − 𝜔 2
𝐿1 (ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 1)𝐿2 − =0
𝜔2 𝐶 𝜔2𝐶

By equating imaginary part is zero

1
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2 = 0
𝜔 𝐶
1
𝜔 =2
(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) 𝐶
1
𝑓0 = ; 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
2𝜋 𝐿𝑇 𝐶

To find the gain:

𝐿1
𝜔2 (ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 1)𝐿2 + = 0
𝐶

(ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 1)𝐿2 = (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )

(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )
ℎ𝑓𝑒 = −1
𝐿2
𝐿1
Gain = ℎ𝑓𝑒 =
𝐿2
 5) Colpitts Oscillator

i) Radio frequency coil/choke (RFC)-for maximum power transfer.

ii) Additional 1800 phase shift is obtained by 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 with 𝐿.

iii) Frequency of oscillations

1
𝑓𝑇 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇

𝐶𝑇 is capacitance of series 𝐶1 , 𝐶2
1 1 1 𝐶1 𝐶2
= + 𝑂𝑅 𝐶𝑇 =
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

𝐶
iv) 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 𝛽 = 𝐶2
1
 6) Clapp Oscillator

i) Circuit differs from the Colpitts oscillator only in one respect; it contains one
additional capacitor (C3) connected in series with the L

ii) The addition of capacitor (C3) improves the frequency stability and eliminates
the effect of transistor parameters and stray capacitances.

iii) Capacitance 𝐶3 is choosen such that it could be less than 𝐶1 , 𝐶2

iv) Frequency of oscillations

1
𝑓𝑇 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇

𝐶𝑇 is capacitance of series 𝐶1 , 𝐶2

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
 7) Crystal Oscillator

i) Inductor is replaced by crystal as in( Colipitts). Piezoelectric crystal usually

quartz, tourmaline, and rochella salt.

ii) Used as resonant circuit replaced in LC circuit.

iii) Piezoelectric effect: Mechanical stress produces electric field charge.

iv) Either series or parallel

v) For Series resonant

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝑆 𝐶𝑆

vi) For Parallel resonant

1
𝑓0 =
𝐶 𝐶
2𝜋 𝐿𝑠 𝐶 𝑃+ 𝑆𝐶
𝑃 𝑆
Applications:

All LC tuned oscillators are compact in size and are of low cost due to which they
are extensively used in
electronic warfare systems,
communication systems,
guidance systems,
microprocessors,
microcontrollers,
space tracking systems,
measuring instruments,
medical devices, computers,
digital systems,
instrumentation,
phase-locked loop systems,
modems, sensors,
disk drives, marine systems,
telecommunications,
engine control systems,
clocks, Global Positioning Systems (GPS),
cable television systems,
video cameras,
toys, video games,
radio systems,
cellular phones, timers, etc.
 8) Wein Bridge Oscillator

i) Consists two stage RC coupled amplifier and provies 3600 phase shift.

ii) Balanced Wein-bridge is used as feedback network and no need to provide any
phase shift.

iii) Feedback network consists lead-lag network i.e. 𝑅1 − 𝐶1 , 𝑅2 − 𝐶2 and voltage

divider 𝑅3 − 𝑅4 .

iv) Lead-lag network provides positive feedback to input. Voltage divider provide
negative feedback to emitter.

v) For balanced Weins bridge

𝑍1 𝑍4 = 𝑍3 𝑍4

𝑅2 × −𝑗𝑋𝐶2
(𝑅1 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶1 )𝑅4 = 𝑅3
𝑅2 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶2

𝑅3 (𝑅1 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶1 )
=
𝑅4 𝑅2 × −𝑗𝑋𝐶2
𝑅2 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶2
𝑅3 𝑅1 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶1 (𝑅2 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶2 )
=
𝑅4 −𝑗𝑅2 𝑋𝐶2

𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 − 𝑗𝑅1 𝑋𝐶2 − 𝑗𝑅2 𝑋𝐶1 − 𝑋𝐶1 𝑋𝐶2

=
𝑅4 −𝑗𝑅2 𝑋𝐶2

Imaginary part

𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑋𝐶1
= +
𝑅4 −𝑗𝑋𝐶2 𝑗𝑅2

𝑅3 1
= 𝑗𝜔𝐶2 𝑅1 +
𝑅4 𝑗𝜔𝑅2 𝐶1

Here Imaginary part is zero

−𝑗
𝑗𝜔𝐶2 𝑅1 + =0
𝜔𝑅2 𝐶1
1
𝜔𝐶2 𝑅1 =
𝜔𝑅2 𝐶1
1
𝜔=
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝑓0 = ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅; 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

To determine gain of Wein bridge Oscillator using BJT amplifier

Assume 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅; 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶

Voltage division
1
𝑅 𝑠𝐶
𝑉𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑉0 𝑠 ×
1 1
𝑅 𝑠𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶

𝑅
𝑠𝐶
1
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶
𝑉𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑉0 𝑠 ×
𝑅
𝑠𝐶 1
1 + 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶
 𝑅
𝑉𝑓 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
=
𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 𝑠𝐶

𝑉𝑓 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶
=
𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1 + 𝑠 2 𝑅 2 𝐶 2 + 2𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝑓 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶
=𝛽= 2 2 2
𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠 𝑅 𝐶 + 3𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎, 𝐴𝛽 = 1

1 𝑠 2 𝑅 2 𝐶 2 + 3𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴 = =
𝛽 𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑗
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔0 = 𝑅𝐶
2
𝑗 𝑗
𝑅 2 𝐶 2 + 3 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 1 −1 + 𝑗3 + 1
𝐴= 𝑅𝐶 = =3
𝑗 𝑗
𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐶
Wein bridge amplifier gain has at least 3 to sustain oscillations

Applications:

Widley used in audio and radio frequency generations

Used for function generators in laboratories

Wein bridge oscillators are used in signal processing in communication devices.

Because of capability of generating pure sine waves make them the choice for
various electronic applications.
 UNIT – V: LINEAR & NON-LINEAR WAVESHAPING

Triggering pulses to multivibrator are reshaped using High pass RC (differentiating

circuits) circuits, low pass RC circuits (Integrating circuit).

Attenuator is a device for attenuating; especially one for reducing the amplitude of
an electrical signal without distortion

High pass RC circuit (Differentiating circuit)

For a High pass RC circuit

𝑅
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ×
𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶
1
𝑋𝐶 =
ω𝐶

Pass band:

Range of high frequency that is allows by the circuit.

At ω = ∞; 𝑋𝐶 = 0, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 .

Stop band:

Range of low frequency that does’t allowed circuit. In this band the low frequency
signal stopped by the circuit.

At ω = 0; 𝑋𝐶 = ∞, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 0

Differentiator:

𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
 𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝐶 × 𝑅 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Output voltage is proportional to differentiate of input voltage. Ckt functions as

differentiator.

i) Sinusoidal input:
The gain verses frequency for Sinusoidal input is shown in figure.

KVL applied to circuit

𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑅 𝑡
𝑡
1
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
𝐶
0

Apply Laplace transform

𝐼 𝑠 1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = +𝐼 𝑠 𝑅 =𝐼 𝑠 𝑅+
𝑠𝐶 𝑠𝐶

1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠
𝑠𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑅𝐶
𝐺 𝑓 =
1 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑅𝐶
 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑅𝐶
𝐺 𝑓 =
1
𝑗 2𝜋 𝑅𝐶 𝑓 +1
𝑗 2𝜋 𝑅𝐶 𝑓

1
𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑗
− +1
2𝜋 𝑅𝐶 𝑓

1
𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑗
1−
2𝜋 𝑅𝐶 𝑓

1
𝐺 𝑓 =
𝑓1
1−𝑗
𝑓
Here
1
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑐 = = lower cut − off frequency
2𝜋 𝑅𝐶

𝐺 𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑓  𝐺 𝑓 = 𝐴∅

1
𝐴=
2
𝑓1
1+
𝑓

𝑓1
∅ = tan−1
𝑓

Expression for lower cut-off frequency, 𝑓1 :

Lower cut-off frequency is a frequency at which the gain of circuit is equal to 0.707.

𝐴=1 2

1
𝐴=
2
𝑓1
1+
𝑓

1 1
 =
2 2
𝑓1
1+
𝑓

Square on both sides

1 1
 =
2 𝑓 2
1+ 1
𝑓
 𝑓1 2
1 + =2
𝑓
𝑓1 2
 =1
𝑓
1
𝑓1 = 𝑓 =
2𝜋 𝑅𝐶

Response of 1st order linear circuit:

𝑡
1
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
𝐶
0

𝑡
1 𝑣0 𝑡 𝑣0 𝑡
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 + × 𝑅
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
0

𝑡
1
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣0 𝑡
𝑅𝐶
0
Differentiate above equation

𝑑𝑣0 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝑡 𝑣0 𝑡
− + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

Solving above equation

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

At 𝑡 = ∞, 𝐴 = 𝑣0 ∞

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝐵 = 𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 ∞
−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣0 ∞ + [𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 ∞ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
ii) Step Input:

Response of RC High pass filter to Step Input:

Step waveform is applied to input and mathematically defined as

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0

i) Initially at 𝑡 = 0, input goes sudden change.

Sudden ∆𝑉 not accept by capacitor i.e. V=0 and act as short circuit.

Output voltage, 𝑣0 0 = 𝑉

ii) At 𝑡 = ∞, Capacitor is fully charged.

Capacitor C act as open circuit.

So no current flows in output i.e. 𝑣0 ∞ = 0.

iii) Use initial and final conditions and substitute in general transient response
expression.
−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣0 ∞ + [𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 ∞ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡 −𝑡
 𝑣0 𝑡 = 0 + 𝑉 − 0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶

RC=time constant

The output response for step input is shown in figure and it is observed that the
output is exponentially decays in RC High pass circuit.
iii) Pulse Input: Response of RC High pass Filter to Pulse Input:

𝑉 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑝
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =
0 elsewhere

i) For 0 − 𝑡𝑝 : Response circuit is obtained by following expression.

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑝

ii) For 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 :

Capacitor behaves like a short circuit

Output of circuit is
−𝑡 𝑝
𝑣0 𝑡𝑝+ = 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉

iii) For 𝑡 = ∞: Final condition (𝑡 > 𝑡𝑝 ):

Capacitor C is fully charged and it behaves like open circuit.

No current will flow in resistance R and 𝑣0 ∞ = 0

iv) Substitute the initial and final conditions

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣0 ∞ + [𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 ∞ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡 𝑝 −𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 0 + [(𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉) − 0 ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡 𝑝 −𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉(𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 1) 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

The output response for pulse input is shown in figure.

iv) Square Input:

Response of RC High-pass Filter to Square Input:

Capacitor C blocks input dc component and average value of input signal is zero
over a one cycle.

i) For 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑇1

Response of circuit is
−𝑡
𝑣01 𝑡 = 𝑉1 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

ii) At 𝑡 = 𝑇1

Output of RC high-pass filter is

−𝑇1
𝑣01 𝑡 = 𝑉11 = 𝑉1 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

iii) For 𝑇1 < 𝑡 < 𝑇1 + 𝑇2

Output voltage for this duration is

−(𝑡−𝑇1 )
𝑣02 𝑡 = 𝑉21 = 𝑉2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

iv) At 𝑡 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2
Output voltage at this instant is

−𝑇2
𝑣02 𝑡 = 𝑉21 = 𝑉2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Here

𝑉2 = 𝑉11 − 𝑉

𝑉 = 𝑉11 − 𝑉2 ; 𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉21

𝑡 − 𝑇1 𝑖𝑠 𝑇2

The output response for square input is shown in figure.

In a RC High-pass Filter to Square Input

 Average level of output signal is always zero. Output is extending in both

positive and negative directions with respect to zero.

 When input changes abruptly by an amount V, the output also changes

abruptly by an equal amount and in same direction,

 Output decays exponentially towards zero voltage during finite interval.

v) Ramp Input:

Response of RC High pass Filter to Ramp Input:

Ramp Input can be expressed as

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =
𝛼𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0

𝛼=Slope of ramp

Apply KVL to RC high-pass circuit

𝑡
1
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
𝐶
0

𝐼 𝑠
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = +𝐼 𝑠 𝑅
𝑠𝐶

1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅
𝑠𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠𝐶

1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑉0 𝑠
𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠𝑅𝐶
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1
𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 𝑠
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1
𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶

𝑠
𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 ×
1
𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶

𝛼 𝑠
𝑉0 𝑠 = ×
𝑠2 1
𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶

𝛼
𝑉0 𝑠 =
1
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶
By partial fraction
1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
1 𝑠 1
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

1 1
𝐴= = = 𝑅𝐶
1 1
𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶 0 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑠=0

1 1
𝐵= = = −𝑅𝐶
𝑠 𝑠=−
1 1
𝑅𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶

𝐴 𝐵
∴ 𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝛼 +
𝑠 1
𝑠 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝛼 −
𝑠 1
𝑠 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

1 1
𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝛼𝑅𝐶 −
𝑠 1
𝑠 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

Apply inverse Laplace

𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝛼𝑅𝐶 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑅𝐶

The output response for ramp input is shown in figure.

91
To find % Tilt or Sag, P:

From a general transient response of RC circuit

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣0 ∞ + [𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 ∞ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

𝑡 −𝑡 𝑡
𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 < < 1 & 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ≈
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉 1 −
𝑅𝐶

𝑇
 𝑣0 𝑡 𝑇 =𝑉 1−
𝑡=
2 2𝑅𝐶

𝑇
𝑣0 𝑡 𝑇 =𝑉−V×
𝑡=
2 2𝑅𝐶
∆V

∆V
∴ % 𝑇𝑖𝑙𝑡, 𝑃 = × 100
𝑉
𝑇
P= × 100
2𝑅𝐶

𝑃 = 𝑇 × 𝜋𝑓1 × 100

𝜋𝑓1
𝑃 = × 100
𝑓

92
 Low pass RC circuits (Integrating circuits)
Low pass RC circuits consists series resistor and shunt capacitor. It allows a low
frequency signal and attenuates high frequency signal.

At very high frequency capacitor C acts as virtual short circuit and output voltage
fall to zero.

Reactance of capacitor C at output is

1
𝑋𝐶 =
𝑗𝜔𝐶
At 𝜔 = 0, 𝑋𝐶 = ∞; C is open circut 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡
At this low frequency filter has Pass band.

At 𝜔 = ∞, 𝑋𝐶 = 0; C is short circuted and 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑡 𝑋𝐶 = 0

High frequency signal attenuated/suppress in low pass RC circuit. So this is called
as stop band.

Low pass RC circuit as Integrator:

1 1 𝑣 𝑡 1
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝑅𝐶

Output is integral of input

i) Sinusoidal input:

Apply KVL RC low-pass circuit

1
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶

Apply Laplace transform

𝐼 𝑠
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 𝑅 +
𝑠𝐶

1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 𝑅+
𝑠𝐶
93
 𝑉0 𝑠 1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑅+
𝑋𝐶 𝑠𝐶

1
𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑋𝐶 ×
1
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶
1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑠𝐶 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
𝑉0 𝑠 = =
1 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 𝑠 1
𝐺 𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶

1 1
𝐺 𝑓 =𝐴= =
1 2 + 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶 2 1 + 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶 2

1
∴𝐴=
2
𝑓
1+
𝑓2
𝑓
𝐺 𝑓 = ∅ = tan−1
𝑓2
The frequency response of high pass RC circuit is shown in the figure.

To find upper cut-off frequency, 𝑓2 :

1 1
=
1 + 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶 2 2
94
Square on both sides
1 1
=
1 + 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑅𝐶 2 2

2
2𝜋𝑓2 𝑅𝐶 =1

1
𝑓22 = 2
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

1
𝑓2 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Output of RC low pass circuit for input is shown in figure.

95
2) Step input:
Response of RC low-pass filter to a Step input:

Step input signal is defined by

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0

i) At 𝑡 = 0:
Input of circuit changes suddenly and this change is not accepted by capacitor.

Capacitor C behaves like short circuit at this instant.

Output voltage, 𝑣0 0 = 0 in a RC circuit.

ii) At 𝑡 = ∞:
Capacitor is fully charged to "𝑉" for applied input.

Now the capacitor C behaves like a open circuit at this instant.

So output in circuit, 𝑣0 ∞ = 𝑉

iii) Substitute in initial, final conditions in transient expression.

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣0 ∞ + [𝑣0 0 − 𝑣0 ∞ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡 −𝑡
 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉 + 0 − 𝑉 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

RC=time constant

Output of RC low-pass circuit response has a exponentially rise and it is shown in

figure.

96
3) Pulse input:
Response of RC low-pass filter to Pulse input

The pulse input is defined by

𝑉 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑝
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =
0 elsewhere

i) For a 0 − 𝑡𝑝 duration:

The output of circuit is

−𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

ii) At 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 :
Output 𝑣0 𝑡𝑝 is obtained by following equation
−𝑡 𝑝
𝑣0 𝑡𝑝 = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

iii) For 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑝 :

Input suddenly falls to zero.

At this instant, capacitor C doesn’t allow sudden change.

Output of circuit, 𝑣0 ∞ = 0

iv) Substitute initial, final conditions in a transient RC response expression.

−(𝑡−𝑡 𝑝 )
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣0 ∞ + [𝑣0 𝑡𝑝+ − 𝑣0 ∞ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

−(𝑡−𝑡 𝑝 )
𝑣0 𝑡 = 0 + [𝑉𝑃 − 0 ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

−(𝑡−𝑡 𝑝 )
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Response of RC low-pass circuit for pulse input is shown in figure.

97
Square input:
Response of Low pass RC circuit to Square input:

i) At 𝑡 = 𝑇1 :
−𝑇1
𝑣01 𝑡 = 𝑉1′ + [𝑉1 − 𝑉1′ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

ii) By inspecting the output waveform

𝑣01 𝑡 = 𝑉2 at 𝑡 = 𝑇1

Therefore
−𝑇1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1′ + [𝑉1 − 𝑉1′ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

iii) At 𝑡 = 𝑇2 : 𝑣0 0 = 𝑉2 , 𝑣0 ∞ = 𝑉2′
−𝑇2
𝑣02 𝑡 = 𝑉2′ + [𝑉2 − 𝑉2′ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

iv) By inspecting the output waveform

𝑣02 𝑡 = 𝑉1 at 𝑡 = 𝑇2

Therefore
−𝑇2
𝑉1 = 𝑉2′ + [𝑉2 − 𝑉2′ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Response of RC low-pass circuit for square input is shown in figure.

For Symmetrical square wave

𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇/2, 𝑉1 = −𝑉2 , 𝑉1′ = −𝑉2′ .

98
Ramp input:

Response of Low pass RC circuit to Ramp input:

Ramp input can be expressed as

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 =
𝛼𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0

𝛼=Slope of ramp signal

KVL to RC low-pass circuit

𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅 + 𝑣0 𝑡

𝐶 𝑑𝑣0 𝑡
𝛼𝑡 = × 𝑅 + 𝑣0 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Apply Laplace transform

𝛼
= 𝑠𝑅𝐶𝑉0 𝑠 + 𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝑉0 𝑠 (1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶)
𝑠2
𝛼
𝑉0 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 (1+ 𝑠𝑅𝐶)
𝛼
𝑉0 𝑠 =
1
𝑅𝐶 𝑠 2 (𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶 )
1/𝑅𝐶 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑉0 𝑠 =𝛼× = 2+ +
1 𝑠 (𝑠 + 1 )
𝑠 2 (𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶 ) 𝑠 𝑅𝐶
1/𝑅𝐶 𝛼 𝛼𝑅𝐶 𝛼𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 𝑠 =𝛼× = 2− +
1 1
𝑠 2 (𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶 ) 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡 −𝑡
𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛼𝑅𝐶 + 𝛼𝑅𝐶 𝑒 𝑅𝐶  𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝛼(𝑡 − 𝑅𝐶) + 𝛼𝑅𝐶 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Response of RC low-pass circuit for ramp input is shown in figure.

99
 Expression for Rise time and Delay time

Rise time, 𝒕𝒓 : Time taken by the output to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.

𝑡1 = 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉

𝑡2 = 90% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉

To find 𝑡1 :

𝑣0 𝑡 = 0.1 𝑉
−𝑡 1
𝑉 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 0.1 𝑉

−𝑡 1
𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 0.9

−𝑡1
 = ln 0.9 = −0.1
𝑅𝐶

𝑡1 = 0,1 𝑅𝐶

To find 𝑡2 :

𝑣0 𝑡 = 0.9 𝑉
−𝑡 2
𝑉 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 0.9 𝑉

−𝑡 2
𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 0.1

−𝑡2
 = ln 0.1 = −2.3
𝑅𝐶

𝑡2 = 2.3 𝑅𝐶

∴ 𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 2.2 𝑅𝐶

1 0.35 0.35
𝑡𝑟 = 2.2 × = 𝑜𝑟
2𝜋𝑓2 𝑓2 𝐵𝑊

100
Delay time, 𝒕𝒅 : Time for output is rise from zero to 50% of final value V.
−𝑡 𝑑
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑉 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 0.5 𝑉

−𝑡 𝑑
𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 0.5

−𝑡𝑑
 = ln 0.5 = −0.7
𝑅𝐶

0.7 0.11
𝑡2 = 0.7 𝑅𝐶 = =
2𝜋𝑓2 𝑓2

101
Attenuator:
Defenation: Circuit that reduce the amplitude of the input signal.

Attenuators are resistive networks.

Ideal circuit:

Simple resistor combination of circuit would multiply the input i.e. by ratio 𝛼.

It is independent of frequency.

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝛼=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑖 ×
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Actual circuit:
Output of Attenuator feeding amplification stage, there is input capacitance 𝐶2 is
“stray capacitance”.

Now Attenuator is not independent of frequency.

Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit:

102
 NON-LINEAR WAVESHAPING

CLIPPER CIRCUITS

Clipper: Ckt with which the waveform is shaped by removing (or clipping) a portion
of input signal without distorting the remaining part is called as clipper.

Diode Clippers
1) Positive Clipper

Series Positive Clipper:

i) Series positive clipper is designed with diode that is connected to input and
resistance R is connected across output terminals.

ii) When input voltage is positive, diode D is reverse bias.

Diode is open circuit and no output appears across output terminals.

Therefore during positive half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 0.

iii) During negative half cycle, negative polarity of input signal is connected to
negative terminal of diode D.

Diode D becomes forward bias and starts conduction.

Therefore during negative half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 .

103
Shunt Positive Clipper:

i) Shunt positive clipper has a diode D across the output. Resistance R is

connected at input side of circuit.

ii) For a positive input signal, diode D has positive voltage polarity with respect
input.

Diode is is forward bias and act as short circuited.

Therefore during positive half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 0.

iii) During negative half cycle, negative terminal of input signal is connected to
negative terminal of diode D.

Now diode D reverse biased and it is open circuited.

Therefore during negative half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 .

104
2) Negative Clipper

Series Negative Clipper:

i) Diode is connected with same polarity of input signal in the design of series
negative clipper. Resistance R is connected across output terminals.

ii) When input voltage is positive, diode D has same positive voltage polarity with
positive input and it becomes a forward bias.

Diode is short circuit and input appears across output terminals.

During positive half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 .

iii) During negative half cycle, negative polarity of input signal is connected to
positive terminal of diode D.

Diode D becomes reverse bias and starts conduction.

Therefore during negative half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 0.

Shunt Negative Clipper:

i) Shunt negative clipper has a diode D across the output. Resistance R is

connected at input side of circuit.

ii) For a positive input signal, diode D has negative voltage polarity with respect
input.

Diode will be reverse bias and act as open circuited.

105
 During positive half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 .

iii) During negative half cycle, negative terminal of input signal is connected to
negative terminal of diode D.

Now diode D is forward biased and it is short circuited.

Therefore during negative half cycle, output voltage, 𝑣0 𝑡 = 0.

106
 Biased Diode Clipper

Circuit used for removal of small portion in positive or negative half cycle.

1) Positive Biased Clipper:

Series type:

i) Positive Biased Clipper with positive voltage polarity of battery 𝑉𝑅 is shown in

series type clipper.

ii) Diode does not conduct as long as the input voltage is greater than 𝑉𝑅 . So output
remains at +𝑉𝑅 .

When the input voltage becomes less than +𝑉𝑅 , the diode conduct and act as
short circuit.

iii) So input signal less than +𝑉𝑅 as well as negative half cycle of input wave will be
available at output.

107
Shunt type:

i) Positive Biased Clipper with positive voltage polarity of battery 𝑉𝑅 is shown in

shunt type clipper.

ii) Diode does conduct as long as the input voltage is greater than 𝑉𝑅 . So output
remains at +𝑉𝑅 until input voltage becomes less than +𝑉𝑅 .

As when the input voltage becomes less than +𝑉𝑅 , the diode does’t conduct and
act as open circuit.

iii) So input signal less than +𝑉𝑅 as well as negative half cycle of input wave will be
available at output.

108
Negative Biased Clipper:

i) In a biased series negative clipper, when the input voltage 𝑣𝑖 ≤ −𝑉𝑅 , the diode
does not conduct and clipping takes place.

ii) In a biased shunt negative clipper, when the input voltage 𝑣𝑖 ≤ −𝑉𝑅 , the diode
conducts and clipping takes place.

iii) Clipping level can be shifting up and down by varying the bias voltage −𝑉𝑅 .

109
Clipping at two independent levels

i) Circuit is used for clipping at two independent levels has combination of positive
bias clipper and negative biased clipper.

ii) During positive half cycle: When the input signal 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ≥ 𝑉𝑅 , the diode 𝐷1 conducts
and act as short circuit, while diode 𝐷2 reverse-biased and act as open circuit. So
output voltage not exceeds the +𝑉𝑅 level.

iii) During negative half cycle: When the input signal 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ≤ −𝑉𝑅 , the diode 𝐷2
conducts and act as short circuit, while diode 𝐷1 reverse-biased and act as open
circuit. So output voltage will not decrease the −𝑉𝑅 level.

110
Zener diode clippers

i) When a signal is applied to a Zener diode in reverse bias, the Zener diode will not
conduct until the voltage across it reaches its breakdown voltage i.e. Zener
voltage.

ii) For 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑧 , diode is reverse bias and 𝐷𝑧 is open. Output voltage is 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑖 .

iii) When the input signal more than zener voltage 𝑉𝑧 , diode forward bias and 𝐷𝑧
starts conduction. Output voltage is 𝑣0 = 0. It is conducting up to
cutting/conducting voltage, 𝑉𝛾 =0.7V germanium or 0.3V of silicon.

iv) Once the voltage exceeds the Zener voltage, the Zener diode will conduct heavily,
limiting the voltage across the diode to the Zener voltage.

111
Full-wave Zener diode clipping for two level clipping:

Output waveforms of Zener diode clipping for two level clipping

112
 Transistor Clippers

i) The common emitter transistor can be used as clipper circuit by changing the
quiescent point of transistor.

ii) Base emitter forms diode. Input voltage applied to base, base current 𝑖𝑏 is given
by
𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣𝛾
𝑖𝑏 =
𝑅𝑏
𝑣𝛾 = 𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 0.7 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛, 0.3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚

113
iii) CE amplifier output is 180 degree phase with respect to input. Hence the output
is drawn opposite to input signal.

iv) Quiescent point is operated by 𝑄(𝑉𝑐𝑒 , 𝐼𝑐𝑒 ) maximum limits.

v) If operating point Q exceeds the maximum limit above load line, the positive
clipping is provided by CE transistor.

vi) Operating Q is made below to provide negative clipping by CE transistor.

114
Comparators

i) Electronic circuit which can used for compares two inputs to produce output.

ii) The circuit of comparator given below consists a diode across output and
resistance in input circuit.

iii) For 0-t1, output voltage is equal to reference voltage.

iv) When the t>t1 output voltage is equal to reference voltage signal.

v) Applications: Detectors, threshold detectors, discriminators, oscillators, zero

crossing detectors

115
Clamping circuits
Circuit that shifts (clamp) a signal to desired DC level i.e. it introduce the DC level to
ac signal.

Clamping operation:
Clamping operation is obtained by either positive or negative shifting of waveform.

1) Positive Clamper Circuit:

i) A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the signal is
raised above to the zero level, then the signal is said to be positively clamped.

ii) A Positive Clamper circuit consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that
shifts the output signal to the positive area of the input signal.

iii) Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is
reverse biased. The output is not considered at this point of time.

iv) During the negative half cycle, at the peak value, the capacitor gets charged with
negative on one plate and positive on the other. The capacitor is now charged to
its peak value 𝑉𝑚 . The diode is forward biased and conducts heavily.

v) During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive 𝑉𝑚 while
the diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at
this instant 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚 .

vi) Signal is positively clamped as shown in figure. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge
on the capacitor.

116
Examples of Positive Clamping circuits are given below.

Positive clamper with positive Vr:

Positive Clamper with Negative Vr:

117
2) Negative Clamper Circuit:

i) A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a

capacitor and that shifts the output signal to the negative portion of the input
signal. The figure below explains the construction of a negative clamper circuit.

ii) During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value 𝑉𝑚 . The
diode starts conduction.

iii) In a negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited. The
output of the circuit at this moment will be 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚

iv) So signal is negatively clamped as shown in figure. Output signal changes as per
the changes in input signal. Shifts the level is according to the charging capacity
of capacitor, as it adds the input voltage signal.

118
Examples of Negative Clamping circuits are given below.

Negative Clamper with Negative Vr:

Negative clamper with positive Vr:

119
Clamping circuit theorem

Statement:
Ratio of area 𝐴𝑓 under forward bias to reverse bias 𝐴𝑟 is equal to ratio of forward bias
resistance to reverse bias resistance i.e. 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅.

In forward bias the current in clamping circuit is

𝑣𝑓 𝑡
𝑖𝑓 𝑡 =
𝑅

Charge gain by capacitor

𝑇1 𝑇1
1 𝐴𝑓
𝑄1 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
0 0

In reverse bias

𝑣𝑟 𝑡
𝑖𝑟 𝑡 =
𝑅
Charge gain by capacitor

𝑇2 𝑇2
1 𝐴𝑟
𝑄1 = 𝑖𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑇1 𝑇1

Under steady state condition

𝐴𝑓 𝐴𝑟
=
𝑅𝑓 𝑅

𝐴𝑓 𝑅𝑓
 =
𝐴𝑟 𝑅
120