Laws of Chemical Combination * This law established after the experiments by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust. ¢ The chemical reaction between two or more substances give rise to products which is governed by certain laws called Laws of Chemical Combination.32 eae lons Anion may be defined as an atom or group of atoms having positive or negative charge. ~ Some positively charged ions : Na*, Kt, Ca? APY ~ Some negatively charged ions : CI (chloride ion), S® (sulphide ion), OH” (hydroxide ion), $0," (sulphate ion) + We can classify ions in two types: (i) Simple ions Mg?* (Magnesium ion) Na* (Sodium ion) Cr (Chloride ion)¢ Law of Conservation of Mass ~ During a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants will be equal to the total mass of the products. > Mass can neither be created mY destroyed in a chemical reaction. — Example: A (reactant) + B (reactant) > AB (product) mass of A + mass of B = mass of AB+ Law of Constant Proportions > Ina chemical reaction, compounds always contain the same elements present in definite proportions by mass irrespective of their source. > It was given by Lavoisier. — For example: (i) 18 gm of HO = 2 gm of hydrogen + 16 gm of oxygen = mass of hydrogen/mass of oxygen = 2/16 = 1/8 (ii) 36 gm of H20 = 4 gm of hydrogen + 32 gm of oxygen = mass of hydrogen/mass of oxygen = 4/32= 1/8 (iii) 9 gm of H2O = 1 gm of hydrogen + 8 gm of oxygen = mass of hydrogen/mass of oxygen = 1/8 This verifies law of constant proportionsDalton's Atomic Theory > According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms. > Six Postulates of Dalton's atomic \ theory: (i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms. (ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed ina chemical reaction. (iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties. (Law of conservation of mass)(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties. (Law of conservation of mass) (iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical 7 properties. vy (v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds. (Law of constant proportion) (vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.Atoms « Atoms are building blocks of all matter. According to modern atomic theory, an atom is the smallest particle of an element which takes part in chemical reaction. * Atoms are very small and which can’t be seen even through very powerful microscope. « Atomic radius is measured in nanometres. Nanometres = 10°? m* Modern day symbols of Elements — Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements. > Berzilius suggested that the symbols of elements should be made from one or two letters of the name of the element. © Hydrogen O Carbon O Oxygen ® Phosphorus Be Sulphur ® Iron © Copper ®© Lead © Silver (3) Gold ® Platina QO Mereury Symbols of elements as prposed by Dalton — The name copper was taken from Cyprus, a place from where it was found for first time. a> The name copper was taken from Cyprus, a place from where it was found for first time. q — Now, IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) approves names of elements. > The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter (uppercase) and the second letter as a small letter (lowercase). For example: hydrogen (H), aluminium (Al), cobalt (Co). — Some other symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. For example: Fe from its Latin name ferrum, sodium is Na from natrium, potassium is K from kalium.German or Greek. For example: Fe from its Latin name ferrum, sodium is Na from natrium, potassium is K from kalium. Element Symbol Element Symbol Alurvinium Al Iodine I Argon Ar ron Fe Barium Ba Lead Pb Caleium Ca Nitrogen N Carbon ce Oxygen 0 Chlorine cl Potassium K Cobalt Co Silicon Si Copper Cu Silver Ag Fluorine 1 Sulphur s Gold Au Zine Zn Hydrogen ll IUPAC name of some elements* Atomic Mass QO > Dalton’s atomic theory proposed the idea of atomic mass which explained the law of constant proportions so well. — The mass of an atom of an element is called its atomic mass. = In 1961, IUPAC have accepted ‘atomic mass unit’ (u) to express atomic and molecular mass of elements and compounds. > The atomic mass unit is defined as the quantity of mass equal to 1/12 of mass of an atom of carbon-12. 1 amu or u = 1/12 x Mass of an atom of C!2 1u= 1.66 x 1027 kgamu or u = 1/12 x Mass of an atom of C!2 1u=1.66 x 1027 kg Element Atomic Mass Hydrogen lu Carbon l2u Nitrogen l4u Oxygen lou \s Sodium 23 u Magnesium 24u Sulphur 32u Chlorine 35.5u Calcium 40 u¢ Atom existence ~ Atoms of most of the elements are very reactive and does not exist in free state. > Only the atoms of noble gases (such as He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) are chemically unreactive and can exist in the free state as single atom. > Atoms of all other elements combine together to form molecules or ions. Atom (Electrically neutral) Ton (electrically charged) Mole lectrically neutral)Molecules \ “/ > Amolecule is in general a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together > Amolecule is the smallest particle of matter (except element) which is capable of an independent existence and show all properties of that substance. > Examples: ‘H20’ is the smallest particle of water which shows all the properties of water. > Amolecule may have atom of same or different elements, depending upon this, molecule can be categorized into two categories:categories: (i) Homoatomic molecules (containing atom of same element) Examples: Hp, O, O03, Sg, P4 etc. \ (ii) Heteroatomic molecules or compounds (containing atoms of different elements) Examples: H20, CO2, NaCl, CaCO3etc. Atomicity — The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called its atomicity.Atomicity — The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called its atomicity. Name Formula Atomicity |, Argon Ar Monoatomic(1)"] Noble gases constitute 2. Helium = He = Monoatomic (1) monoatomic moleules 3. Oxygen 0,-—_—Diatomic (2) H, ——_Diatomic (2) VA 5. Phosphorus P, Tetratomic (4) \ 6, Sulphur § 4, Hydrogen , Polyatomic (8)/ Chemical Formulae \) > It is the symbolic representation of the composition of a compound. ¢ Characteristics of chemical formulae — The valencies or charges on ion must balance. — When a compound is formed of metal and non-metal, symbol of metal comes first. E.g., CaO, NaCl, CuO. ~ When polyatomic ions are used, the ions are enclosed in brackets before writing the number to show the ratio. E.g., Ca(OH)» , (NH4)2SO4¢ Rules for writing chemical rormuied\ fo (i) We first write symbols of elements which form compound. (ii) Below the symbol of each element, we should write their valency. (iii) Now cross over the valencies of combining atoms.(iv) With first atom, we write the valency of second atom (as a subscript). (v) With second atom, we write the Examples: (i) Symbol: H Valencies: 1 (ii) Symbol: C Valencies; 4 S 2 0 2 valency of first atom (subscript). “\ H,S, or H,S (Hydrogen sulphide) C,0, or CO, (Carbon dioxide) [Take 2 common and divide the formula by 2] (iii)For Hydrochloric acid (Hydrogen chloride) H Cl 1X H,Cl, or HCL=a (iii)For Hydrochloric acid (Hydrogen chloride) H dl Xi HCI, or HCL (iv) For Carbon tetrachloride c,d 4 x, C\CI, or CCl, (v) For Magnesium chloride Mg cl Xi MgCl, \ (vi)For aluminium oxide Al 0 3 x ALO, (vii)For Calcium oxide Ca 0 2 x Ca,0, or CaO [Take 2 common and divide the formula by 2}(iii) Calcium hydroxide Ca OH 2+ 1 (iv)Ammonium sulphate NH, SO, I+ 2- {v) Magnesium hydroxide Mg OH ma I- toy ars \"\ (NH,) SO, Ca(OH), Mg(OH) ,