INDEX

[Link] Name of Experiment Date of Date of

Experiment Submission

EXPERIMENTS

1 Resistance per centimetre of given wire

2 Verify the laws of combination of resistances

3 Galvanometer figure of merit

4 AC frequency - Sonometer

5 Convcave mirror

6 Convex lens

7 Refractive index of a glass slab

8 PN Junction diode

ACTIVITIES

1 Assemble a household circuit

2 Assemble the components of a given electrical circuit

3 Check correction of a given circuit

4 Identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor

5 Refraction in glass slab

6 Diffraction of light

EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT – 1
Resistance per centimetre of given wire
Aim:
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
Apparatus:
A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a battery, one way key, a voltmeter and an ammeter of
appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale.
Formulae Used:

The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm’s Law 
= R
Where, V : Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor)
 I: Current flowing through it.

If l is the length of resistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire = 
Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
(i) Zero error:
Zero error in ammeter = 0
Zero error in voltmeter = 0
Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
Voltmeter Reading V (V) Ammeter Reading I (mA) 
S. No 
=  (Ω)
Observed value Corrected value Observed Value
1 1 1 10 10 100
2 2 2 20 20 100
3 3 3 30 30 100
4 4 4 40 40 100
5 5 5 50 50 100

Mean R = 100 Ω
Length of resistance wire: 18 cm
Graph between potential difference & current:

The graph comes out to be a straight line.

Procedure:
1. Draw a neat diagram of the experimental arrangement as shown in Fig
2. Connect the various components according to the circuit diagram
3. Note the least count and zero errors in voltmeter and ammeter.
Insert the key K. Slide the rheostat to the extreme right such that very small current flows through the wire
and record the reading of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
5. Shift the rheostat contact to increase the current by small amount and take the reading again.
6. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool and then again insert the key.
7. Repeat the step 6 for five different settings of the rheostat. Record your observation in tabular form.
8. Take out the resistance wire and measure its length (l) in cm.
Result:
It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence current voltage relationship is established i.e. V I or Ohm’s
Law is verified.
Unknown resistance per cm of given wire = 5.56 Ω cm-1
Precautions:
(i) Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
(ii) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
Source of Error:
(i) Rheostat may have high resistance.
(ii) The instrument screws may be loose.
EXPERIMENT – 2
Verify the laws of combination of resistances
Aim:
To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)
Apparatus:
A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.
Formulae Used:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by:
(100−)
 = 
×
Where,
R = known resistance placed in left gap.
X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
L = length of meter bridge wire from zero and up to balance point (in cm)
Circuit Diagram:
 Observation:
Table for length (l) & unknown resistance, X:
Resistance Resistance Mean
Resistance from Length AB = l Length BC = 100−
Observation =   Resistance
Coil resistance (cm) 100-l (cm)
(Ω) (Ω)
box R (Ω)
1 5 49.6 50.4 5.1
r1 2 6 54.2 45.8 5.1 5.1
3 7 58.3 41.7 5.1
1 5 33.3 66.7 9.9
r2 2 6 37.3 62.7 10.1 10
3 7 41.1 68.4 10.0
1 5 25.1 74.9 14.9
r1 and r2 in
2 6 28.6 71.4 14.9 15
series
3 7 31.5 68.5 15.2
Calculations:
(i) In Series: Experimental value of RS = 15 Ω
Theoretical value of RS = R1 + R2 = 15 Ω
Procedure:
1. Draw a neat diagram of connections as shown in fig and arrange the apparatus according to the circuit
diagram.
2. Connect the unknown resistance X in the right gap and a resistance box R in the left gap with the help of
connecting wires. Connect the leclanche cell E through a key K across AC and a galvanometer between B
and D.
3. To check the connections, close the key K and take out resistance of about 0.5 Ω from resistance box R.
Press the jockey on the wire first to one side, then to the other end and see that the deflections in the
galvanometer at these two positions are in the opposite direction. If the deflections is in opposite
directions then the connections are correct.
4. Adjust the value of R from the resistance box in such a way that the balance point is obtained near the
middle of the wire. The balance point should always lie between 30 and 60 cm mark. Note the values of R1
and length l of the experimental wire.
5. Repeat the observations two more times.
6. Remove the first resistance coil and put second coil in its place. Find R2.
7. Now put R1 and R2 in series.
Result:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RS are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. RS = R1 + R2 is verified.
Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT – 3
Galvanometer figure of merit
Aim:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus:
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 Ω and 500
Ω), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a p⁵iece of sandpaper.
Formulae Used:
(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
.
= −
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance
(ii) Figure of merit:
= (+)θ
Where E : emf of the cell
θ : deflection produced with resistance R.
Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
For Half Deflection:
 Half Deflection Galvanometer
Deflection in Shunt Resistance
[Link] Resistance R (Ω) θ Resistance
galvanometer (θ) S (Ω) .
2  = −
1 4500 30 70 15 71.1
2 9500 14 70 7 70.5
3 5200 26 70 13 70.9
4 5700 24 70 12 70.8
Mean G = 70.8 Ω
For Figure of Merit
End of the cells Resistance from Figure of Merit
S. No Deflection θ (div)
E (V) Resistance Box R (Ω) = (+)θ
1 3 4500 30 2.18 × 10-5
2 3 9500 14 2.23 × 10-5
3 3 5200 26 2.18 × 10-5
4 3 5700 24 2.16 × 10-5
Mean =2.19 × 10-5 A/div
Calculation:
Mean G = 70.8 Ω
(i) For G : Calculate G using formula.
Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
(ii) For k:
Mean k =2.19 × 10-5 A/div
Calculate k using formula & record in table.
Take mean of values of k.
Procedure:
1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the circuit
diagram
2. From the high resistance box (R-BOX 1) (1-10 kΩ), remove 5 kΩ key and then close the key K1. Adjust the
resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dial. Record the values
of resistance, R and deflection θ.
3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the deflection in the
galvanometer which is exactly half of θ. Note down S. Remove plug K2 after noting down the value of shunt
resistance, S.
4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that θ is even number of divisions and record
the observations for R, S, θ and 2 in tabular form.
5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k using the formula
Result:
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method:
G = 70.8 Ω
(ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A/div
Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
 (iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for
small resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.
EXPERIMENT – 4
AC frequency - Sonometer
Aim:
To determine the frequency of AC mains using a sonometer.
Apparatus:
A sonometer with soft wires. a set of eight tuning forks, seven 50 g slotted weights, a clamp, rubber Pad,
paper rider, metre Scale.
Formula Used:
The frequency of AC using sonometer is given by:
1 
= 2 
Where l: balancing length between the wedges
T: Tension of the string
m : mass per unit length of the wire
Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
Length of wire l = 100 cm = 1.4 m
Mass of Wire M0 = 6.6 g = 0.0066kg
0
Mass per unit length  = 
= 0.0047 kg m-1
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s-2
Tension Resonant length (l) 1 
S. No Load M (g)
T=Mg (N) Increasing Decreasing Mean (m) = 2 

1 50 0.49 10.0 10.0 10.0 51.0

2 100 0.98 14.3 14.4 14.4 50.1
3 150 1.47 17.7 17.6 17.6 50.2
4 200 1.96 20.4 20.4 20.4 50.1
Mean n = 50.4 Hz
Calculation:
Frequency of AC mains, f = 50.4 Hz
Actual frequency of AC mains supply = 50 Hz
Difference = 0.4 Hz
 
%  =  
×100
0.4
%  = 50 ×100
%  = 0. 8 %
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in fig. Stretch the copper wire PQ of sonometer by placing a load of 50 g
in the hanger.
2. Support the magnet in a stand such that its one pole lies close to the middle of the sonometer wire.
3. Connect the magnet to the secondary of a step down transformer.
4. Start the current through the wire and adjust the position of the wedges until the wire starts vibrating.
[Link] the length of the wire between the wedges by sliding one of them keeping the rider always in the
middle till it flies off.
6. Measure the vibrating length and note the tension in the string.
7. Repeat four times the above process by increasing the load in steps of 50 g.
8. Switch off AC supply and calculate mass of 100 cm sonometer wire. Hence find mass per unit length m
for the wire.
Result:
The frequency of the alternating current found using sonometer is 50.4 Hz.
Precautions:
(i) Sufficient load should be put on the wire to make it tight.
(ii) The sonometer wire should be free from kinks and streched horizontally.
(iii) Pulley should be frictionless.
(iv) For each load, the length should be taken at least twice.
(v) The pole of the electromagnet should be placed very close to the middle of vibrating segment of the
wire.
Sources of error:
(i) AC frequency may not be stable.
(ii) Sonometer wire may not be uniform.
(iii) Pulley may have some friction.
EXPERIMENT – 5
Convcave Mirror
Aim:
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.
Apparatus:
An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror, one lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle & a half – metre scale.
Formula Used:
The object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the focal length (f) of a concave mirror are related by
the formula
1 1 1

= 
+ 
Diagram:
Observations:

Position of uprights (cm) Object Image


[Link] Concave distance distance = +
Needle I’ Needle I
Mirror  (cm)  (cm)
1 0 50.4 50.4 50.4 50.4 25.2
2 0 55 45.7 55 45.7 24.9
3 0 60 43 60 43 25.0
4 0 65 41 65 41 25.1
5 0 70 39.5 70 39.5 25.2

Calculations: Mean f = –25.1 cm

Procedure:
1. Find the rough focal length of the mirror by holding the mirror with its reflecting surface towards a
distant object such as building, tree etc and place a screen in front of it. Adjust the distance between them
so that the sharp image of the building or tree is formed on the screen. Measure the distance between the
screen and the mirror.
This will be equal to rough focal length of the mirror.
2. Place all the three uprights on the optical bench, one holding concave mirror and other holding object
needle .
3. Adjust the height of the object needle in such a way that its tip lies on horizontal lin e through the pole of
the mirror and clamp it at a distance between F and 2F
4. Now put the image needle I on the principle axis of the mirror on the same side behind O
5. Now remove the parallax between the image of the object needle O and needle I by rotating the eyes
towards left or right such that the tip of image and image needle is not separated.
6. Note the positions of the three uprights on the optical bench.
7. Repeat the experiment four times by changing the distance between mirror and the needle upright O but
keeping it always between F and 2F.
Result: The focal length of given concave mirror = – 25.1 cm.
Precautions:
(i) The distance of the object needle O from the mirror should not be less than rough focal length of the
mirror ( i.e, it should always be placed between F and 2F).
(ii) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens.
(iii) Parallax should be removed carefully.
(iv) The height of the needles should be upto the pole of the mirror.
Sources of error:
(i) The uprights may not be vertical.
(ii) Parallax may not be removed perfectly.

EXPERIMENT – 6
Convex lens
Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v
Apparatus:
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a lens holder, two optical needles, a
knitting needle & a half – metre scale.
Formula Used:
The object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the focal length (f) of a convex lens are related by the
formula
1 1 1

= 
− 
Diagram:

Observations:

Position of uprights (cm)

S. NO  (cm)  (cm)
Object needle Convex lens Needle image
1 0 42 84.5 42 42.5
2 0 46 85.0 46 39.0
3 0 50 89.4 50 39.4
4 0 54 89.5 54 35.5
5 0 58 92.0 58 34.0

Calculations: Mean f = 21.1 cm

Procedure:
1. Determine the rough focal length of the convex lens by focussing a sharp, clear and inverted image of a
distant object on the wall.
2. Place the three uprights on the optical bench, mount the given convex lens and place it in between the
two needle uprights as shown in the fig.
3. Mark the needle uprights as O and I. Adjust the heights of the needles so that the tips of the needles and
the centre of the lens are in one line.
4. Measure the length of the knitting needle with the help of metre rod. Find the index correction for the
distance of needle O from the lens and for the needle I from the lens.
5. Arrange the position of the object needle O at a distance between f and 2f of the lens. Look for the side
of the needle I into the lens at a distance of more than 30 cm from the needle I.
6. Remove the parallax between the needle I and the inverted image of the needle O.
7. Note the positions of needle O, the lens and the needle I on the scale of optical bench.
8. Repeat the experiment five times by changing the position of the needle O with respect to the lens by a
few centimeter every time.
9. Plot a graph between u and v.
Result: The focal length of given convex lens = 21.1 cm.
Precautions:
(i) Tips of needle should be as high as the optical center of the lens.
(ii) The principal axis of the lens should be parallel to the optical bench scale.
(iii) Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
(iv) The eye should be kept at a distance of 30 cm from the needle I.
(v) The index correction should be applied.
Sources of error:
(i) The uprights may not be vertical.
(ii) Parallax may not be removed perfectly.
(iii) The lens of smaller focal length may be used.
EXPERIMENT – 7
Refractive index of a glass slab
Aim:
To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.
Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder, spirit level.
Formula Used: Refractive index of the glass slab
 ℎ
μ=   ℎ
Diagram:
Observations:
Length = MSR + (VSR × LC)
MSR – Main scale reading (M)
VSR – Vernier scale reading (n)
LC – Least count
To find the least count of the travelling microscope =
"" "  ℎ  " 0.5 
! = ℎ #  " "  ℎ   "
= 50
= 0. 001 
Refractive index of glass
Reading of microscope
Lycopodium
Mark without Cross Mark with Apparent
powder on glass Real Depth 3−1
[Link] glass slab glass slab Depth μ= 3−2
slab R3-R1 (mm)
R1 = M+n×LC R2 = M+n×LC R3-R2 (mm)
R3 = M+n×LC
(mm) (mm)
(mm)
2.50 + 20 × 0.001 3.10 + 39 × 0.001 4.45 + 46 × 0.001
1 1.976 1.357 1.456
= 2.52 = 3.139 = 4.496
2.50 + 20 × 0.001 3.10 + 39 × 0.001 4.45 + 46 × 0.001
2 1.976 1.357 1.456
= 2.52 = 3.139 = 4.496
2.50 + 20 × 0.001 3.10 + 39 × 0.001 4.45 + 46 × 0.001
3 1.976 1.357 1.456
= 2.52 = 3.139 = 4.496

Calculations:
The mean value of the refractive index of glass slab is = 1.51
Procedure:
1. Calculate the vernier constant of the travelling microscope.
2. Level the travelling microscope using a spirit level and the base screws. Set its axis to the vertical scale.
3. Move the eye piece of the microscope so that a sharp image of cross-wire is obtained.
4. Put an ink mark X on the platform of the travelling microscope (M) and focus the microscope on it. Note
the reading R1..
5. Raise the microscope and put the glass slab on the mark.
6. Focus the microscope on the image of the mark and note the reading R2..
7. Now sprinkle lycopodium powder on the upper face of the glass slab and focus again to record R3..
8. Repeat three times.
Result:
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as = 1.51
Precautions:
(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the
experiment. Only rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
(ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen. dd depth apparent depth real
EXPERIMENT – 8
PN Junction diode
Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.
Apparatus:
A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a battery of 30 V, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0- 30V), a
milli ammeter (0-50 mA), micro ammeter (0-50 μA), one – way key, connecting wires.
Circuit Diagram:
(a) Forward bias characteristics

(b) Reverse bias characteristics

Observations:
(a) Forward bias characteristics
Zero reading of milli ammeter = 0
Zero reading of voltmeter = 0
Forward Bias Voltage VF (V) Forward Current IF (mA)
S. No
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
 1 0 0 0 0
2 0.1 0.1 0 0
3 0.2 0.2 0 0
4 0.3 0.3 0 0
5 0.4 0.4 0 0
6 0.5 0.5 0 0
7 0.6 0.6 4 4
8 0.7 0.7 8 8
9 0.8 0.8 12 12
10 0.9 0.9 16 16
11 1.0 1.0 20 20
12 1.1 1.1 24 24
13 1.2 1.2 28 28
14 1.3 1.3 32 32
15 1.4 1.4 36 36
16 1.5 1.5 40 40
17 1.6 1.6 44 44
18 1.7 1.7 48 48
19 1.8 1.8 50 50
20 1.9 1.9 54 54

(b) Reverse bias characteristics

Zero reading of micro ammeter = 0
Zero reading of voltmeter = 0
Reverse Bias Voltage VR (V) Reverse Current IR (uA)
S. No
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
1 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 0 0
3 4 4 0 0
4 6 6 4 4
5 8 8 5 5
6 10 10 6 6
7 12 12 8 8
8 14 14 12 12
9 16 16 14 14
10 18 18 18 18
11 20 20 22 22
12 22 22 24 24
13 24 24 28 28
14 26 26 56 56
Calculations: Graph is plotted between forward – bias voltage (VF) (on x-axis) and forward current, (IF) (on y
– axis). Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, VR (along X’ axis) and reverse current, IR (along Y’
axis).

Procedure:
(a) Forward bias characteristics
1. Make the connections as shown in the fig. Positive voltage is applied to the diode by a potential divider
arrangement. The forward voltage is kept low (upto few volts). A milli-ammeter is used to measure the
forward current.
2. Start from low voltage and vary it by equal steps. Record the forward current corresponding to each
increment of forward voltage. Do not increase the value of forward current above the specified value.
3. Plot a graph between forward voltage Vf taken along x axis and forward current If taken along y axis.
(b) Reverse bias characteristics
1. Make the connections as shown in the fig. A source of high voltage is used to apply reverse bias.
Voltmeter used to measure reverse bias has a range of 0-30 volts. A micro-ammeter is used to measure the
reverse current.
2. Start from low voltage and vary it by equal steps. Record the reverse current corresponding to each
increment of reverse voltage. Do not increase the value of forward current above the specified value.
3. Plot a graph between forward voltage Vr taken along -ve x axis and forward current Ir taken along -ve y
axis.
Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.
Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not being used.
(iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error:
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
Activities
Activity – 1
Assemble a household circuit
Object :
To assemble a household circuit, comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and power source
Apparatus :
Three bulbs (20 W, 50 W and 100 W) three (on/off) switches, flexible connecting wire with red and black
plastic covering, a fuse wire, a two pin plug, main electric board with two pin socket and main switch.
Diagram :

Theory :
Household circuit functions on main supply 220 V, 50 Hz and current ratings of 5 A for domestic supply for
normal appliances, bulbs, fluorescent tubes, fans etc
Power supply :
15 A for heavy load appliances, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser hot plates etc.
Total power consumption ‘P' any time,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.......
where P1, P2, P3 are powers drawn by appliances
At a potential 'V', the current I drawn from the mains is
P = VI
i.e. I = P/V
for P in watt and V in volt, I will be in amperes.
Normally, to protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn, fuse of a little
higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn are connected in series with set of
appliances.
Remember that in household circuits, all appliances are connected in parallel with a switch connected in
series with each appliance in supply live line.
Also for further safety, a suitable value mains fuse is connected in series with supply source. Note that fuse
is a safety device, never use a fuse of much higher rating than the one recommended.
Procedure :
i) Connect one end of the bulb holder to the red flexible wire through a switch S in series. Connect the
other end of the bulb holder to the black flexible wire.
ii) Connect the three bulb switch combination in parallel, red wire ends at one point and the black wire end
at the other point.
iii) Take two long flexible wires to serve as lead wire, one wire is red and the other is black.
iv) Connect the red wire end to the red wire L1.
It will serve as a live lead.
v) Connect the black wire ends to the black wire L2 . It will serve as neutral lead.
vi) Put the fuse wire F in live lead L1
vii) Connect a plug (two pin plug) P at the end of the two leads.,
viii) Insert the plug in a two pin socket provided in the main electric board (inserting the upper pin for L1, in upper
hole of the socket and the lower ping for L2 in lower hole of the socket).
Testing :
Make the switches on one by one. Then put them off one by one.
Observation:
The bulbs glow when the switch is made on. It stops glowing when the switch is put off.

Activity – 2
Assemble the components of a given electrical circuit
Object :
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm's law circuit)
Apparatus :
A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a theostat, one way key, an unknown
resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.
Diagram :

Procedure :
i) Connect the items as shown in Fig.
ii) For measuring current, amumeter should be connected in series with the components
iii) For measuring potential drop, voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistance coil or wire
Conclusion :
Assembly of all the components in electric circuit is complate.

Activity – 3
Check correction of a given circuit
Object :
To draw a diagram of a given open circuit comprising of a battery, resistor, theostat, key, ammeter and
voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also
the circuit diagram.
Apparatus :
A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a theostat, one way key, unknown resistance
wire or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper
Diagram :
An open circuit (not connected circuit) is given:
 Corrected circuit diagram

Theory :
(a) Functional electrical circuit: A circuit is functional only when all the components of the circuit are
connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components are in working condition and key is closed.
(b) Open electrical circuit: An open circuit means that there is a break in some part of the circuit. The break
may be deliberate such as key is in open position or three is a fault such as broken wire or burnt or loose
connection.
Procedure :
i) Draw the circuit in note.
ii) Write various components & mark those which are not connected in proper order.
iii) Draw the correct circuit diagram.
iv) Now close the key and check up whether the corrected circuit is now functional.

Result :
The connected circuit assembled using components in proper order is found functional on checking.
Precautions :
(1) Range of Voltmeter and Ammeter should be chosen.
(2) Before making connections, the ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned by rubbing with (sand
peper).

Activity – 4
Identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor
Object :
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.
Apparatus :
Multimeter, battery eliminator, reversing key, above mixed collection of items.
Diagram :

Theory :
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered
i) A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forwand biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. It does not emit light while conducting.
ii) A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when forward biased and does
not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting.
iii) A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B) as collector (C).
iv) An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi terminal device in form of a clip.
v) A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased (In fact
there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
(vi) A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased or reverse
biased (Hence it does not conduct with D.C. voltage) However it conducts with A.С. voltage.
Procedure:
i) If the item has four or more terminals and has from of a chip, it is an IC (Integrated circuit).
ii) If the item has three terminals, it is transistor.
(iii) If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead:
Make a series circuit with battery eliminator, reversing key, the item and the multimeter with range set in
milliamperes. Switch on the battery eliminator and watch the movement of the multimeter pointer
i) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is no
light emission, the item is diode ie there is only unidirectional flow of curent and emits no light.
ii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is light
emission, the item is a LED i.e. there is unidirectional flow of current & emits light.
Observation :
 No. of Obs No. of legs Device

1 More than three IC

2 Three Transistor

3 Two Capacitor, Diode or resistor

No. of Obs No. of legs Device

1 Unidirectional emits no light Diode

Unidirectional emits light LED

2 Both directions (steady) Resistor

3 Initialy high but decays to zero Capacitor

Activity – 5
Refraction in glass slab
Object :
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
Apparatus :
A glass slab, drawing sheet, drawing board, drawing pins, paper pins and a scale.
Diagram :

Theory :
When a pencil beam of light passes more or less obliquely from one transparent medium to another, say
from air to glass and then from glass to air it undergo deflection from its straight path as shown in Fig. Here
say AB bends towards the normal at E and again it bends away from the normal at F. This change in
direction of a ray of light is called "Refraction of light".
When a ray of light is incident obliquely on a parallel sided glass slab (AB) the emergent ray (CD) shifts
laterally. The perpendicular distance (d) between the direction of the incident ray and emergent ray is
called "lateral shift"
Procedure :
1. Fix a white sheet with the help of drawing pins on a drawing board.
2. Place a glass slab in the middle of the sheet and mark its position PQRS by a fine pencil line.
3. Fix two pins A and B on one side of the glass slab at a distance of about 10 cm from each other. So that
the line joining them may represent the direction of incident ray AB as shown in Fig.
4. Look for the images of A and B through face RS and fix two more pins C and D at 10 cm from each other
in such a way that these two pins cover the images of A. and B i.e, all the four appear along the same
straight line.
5. Remove the glass slab and pins. Put small circles around the positions of the pins A, B, C and D. Join THe
position of pins and in line EF.
6. Draw normals at points E and F.
7. Measure angle of incidence i and angle of emergence e, and lateral displacment d =
Result :
Here angle i = angle e
The lateral displacement is = _________ cm

Activity – 6
Diffraction of light
Object :
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit between sharp edges of razor blades.
Apparatus :
Microscope slides (two), two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen and source of monochromatic light
(laser pencil), black paper.
Theory :
When light is allowed to pass through fine openings or around sharp obstacles like edge of razor blades
such that size of opening or sharpness of edges is of the order of wavelength of light, it bends around
corners. Bending of light around sharp obstacles or corners is termed as diffraction. The angle of
diffraction for different orders (n) of diffraction is given as
dsinθ =nλ
Diagram :

Procedure:
i) Making of fine slit using razor blades
ii) Place two razor blades with their sharp edges facing each other and extremely close to each other such
that there is small gap of the order of fraction of millimeter. Fig.
iii) Paste the blades using cello-tape leaving no gap between paper and glass plate
iv) Cut the small slit in between the sharp edges of blades.
v) Place the slit about 0.5 m from a wall and a source of light with a slit in front of it at a distance of about
20 cm from the slit
vi) Observe the light falling on the wall
vii) It will be observed that instead of having a bright slit like light on the wall, the light spreads and on
either side of slit secondary maxima i.e. slits with lower intensity are seen.
Conclusion :
When light waves are made to be incident on very fine openings (slit) they bend and spread showing the
phenomena of diffraction of light.
Precautions :
i) Black paper should be pasted such that there is no air gap between the glass plase and paper.
ii) The slit should be made as thin as possible.
iii) Instead of using ordinary electric bulb light, laser torch light will give better effect on the screen.