HAWASSA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE TITLE: Data Communication and Computer Networks

COURSE CODE: InTe2072

Name: AMANUEL SEIFU

ID NO: 1264/16

SECTION: 3

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. Zemenu Haile

SUBMITTED DATE: 15/5/2025 G.C

 1. What are the various multiple access techniques?
❖ Multiple access techniques allow multiple terminals to share the common communication
medium based on multiplexing. The multiplexing is provided in the physical layer, and the
shared communication medium can be wired cables or wireless spectrum. The basic well-
known multiple access techniques are :

A. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

➢ FDMA divides the total available bandwidth into smaller frequency bands. Each user is
assigned a unique frequency band for communication.

• Common in analog systems like early telephone networks.

• Used in cable TV, where a single coaxial cable carries multiple 6-MHz channels.

• In fiber optics, this technique is called Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM),

using different wavelengths (colors) of light to carry different data streams.

• It’s a continuous transmission method, meaning each user has constant access to
their assigned frequency.

B. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

➢ TDMA divides the channel into time slots and assigns each user a specific slot for
transmission. Each user transmits in rapid succession, one after another, but over the
same frequency channel.

• Common in digital communication systems.

• Used in T1 lines that carry 24 voice channels by interleaving 64-kbps data streams.

• The GSM cellular network is a good example, dividing 200-kHz bands into 8 time
slots per frame using Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation.

• Though users transmit one at a time, the speed of switching creates the impression
of simultaneous transmission.
C. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

➢ CDMA is a spread spectrum technique where each user is assigned a unique

pseudorandom code. All users transmit simultaneously over the same frequency, but their
data is spread across the bandwidth using their unique code.

• Uses direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).

• Widely used in 3G mobile systems like IS-95 and WCDMA.

• A chipping code spreads the signal over a wider bandwidth, and a correlator at the
receiver filters out the desired signal.

• Multiple users can share the same 1.25 MHz (or more) bandwidth with minimal
interference.

D. Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

➢ SDMA allows users to share the same frequency by separating them in space. This is
done using directional antennas and beamforming techniques.

• Used in cellular networks with sector antennas (e.g., 120° sectors per base
station).

• Smart antennas and adaptive arrays enhance SDMA by focusing signals toward
specific users.

• A variation, Polarization Division Multiple Access (PDMA), uses different

polarizations (vertical and horizontal) to separate signals even when using the
same frequency.

• Also applied in satellite and fiber optic systems for high data rate transmission
using dual polarizations (e.g., DP-QPSK).
2. Explain any two layered architectures other than TCP/IP and OSI reference
model.

In addition to the OSI model and the TCP/IP model, several other data communication models
and frameworks are used in networking. Here are a few notable ones:

A. IEEE 802 Architecture

➢ IEEE 802 is a layered model used for LAN and MAN technologies like Ethernet and
Wi-Fi. It focuses on the lower layers of the OSI model:
• Logical Link Control (LLC): Manages error checking and flow control.
• Media Access Control (MAC): Controls access to the physical medium and
device addressing.
• Physical Layer: Deals with the actual transmission of data over cables or wireless
signals.
➢ This model standardizes communication for local networks.

B. Bluetooth Protocol Stack

➢ Bluetooth uses a layered protocol stack for short-range wireless communication:

• Radio & Baseband: Handle physical transmission and connection setup.
• Link Manager Protocol (LMP): Manages pairing, authentication, and encryption.
• L2CAP: Provides data segmentation and reassembly.
• RFCOMM & SDP: Enable serial communication and service discovery.
➢ It's optimized for low-power, wireless device connections.

C. Zigbee Protocol Stack

➢ Zigbee is a low-power wireless protocol used in IoT and automation:

• Physical & MAC Layers: Based on IEEE 802.15.4 for low-rate transmission.
• Network Layer: Manages routing and addressing in mesh networks.
• Application Support & Framework: Facilitate communication between smart
devices.
➢ Zigbee is ideal for smart homes and sensor networks.
 D. Windows NT Networking Model

➢ This model is used in Windows operating systems for network communication:

• Application Layer: Includes user applications.
• Transport Driver Interface (TDI): Connects applications to transport protocols.
• Protocols (TCP, UDP, etc.): Handle data transport.
• NDIS & Network Interface: Manage hardware drivers and physical
communication.
➢ It ensures modular, hardware-independent networking.

E. CAN Protocol Stack

➢ The Controller Area Network (CAN) is used in vehicles and industrial systems:
• Physical Layer: Handles bit transmission over twisted-pair cables.
• Data Link Layer: Manages message framing, error detection, and arbitration.
• Application Layer: Defines communication between control units (ECUs).
➢ CAN enables real-time, reliable communication in embedded systems.

3. Data has to be sent through a transmission media. The transmission media carries
data that can be lost by many factors.

A. Explain the two types of transmission media that can be used to send and receive data
reliably:

1. Guided Transmission Media:

o In this type, data travels through a physical medium like cables.

o These media provide a direct, confined path for signals to travel.

o They are more secure and less susceptible to interference compared to wireless
media.

o Examples include:

▪ Twisted Pair Cable: Two insulated wires twisted together; used in

telephones and LANs.
 ▪ Coaxial Cable: Has better shielding than twisted pair; used in cable TV.

▪ Fiber Optic Cable: Transmits data as light; extremely fast and immune to
electromagnetic interference.

2. Unguided Transmission Media:

o Also known as wireless media, where data is transmitted through the air using
electromagnetic waves.

o No physical path is required, which allows greater mobility and coverage.

o However, wireless media are more prone to interference, signal loss, and security
issues.

o Examples include:

▪ Radio Waves: Used in broadcasting, Wi-Fi, and cell phones.

▪ Microwaves: Used for satellite communication and long-distance phone

calls.

▪ Infrared: Used in remote controls and short-range communications.

B. Identify and describe the transmission impairments introduced by the transmission

media during transmission:

1. Attenuation:

o The loss of signal strength as it travels farther through the medium.

o Depends on medium

▪ For guided media, the attenuation is generally exponential and thus is

typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance.
▪ For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance
and the makeup of the atmosphere.
o Attenuation distortion is particularly noticeable for analog signals: the attenuation
varies as a function of frequency; therefore, the received signal is distorted,
reducing intelligibility.
 2. Delay Distortion:

o Occurs when different signal components (frequencies) travel at different speeds.

o Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different

times, resulting in phase shifts between the different frequencies.

o This causes the signal shape to change, which may affect data interpretation.

o Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data

3. Noise:

o Unwanted energy or signals that interfere with the original signal.

o Types of noise include:

▪ Thermal Noise (white noise): Caused by the random motion of electrons.

It is present in all electronic devices and transmission media, and is a
function of temperature.

▪ Intermodulation noise: When signals at different frequencies share the

same transmission medium, the result may be intermodulation noise.

▪ Crosstalk: When signals in adjacent wires interfere with each other.

Typically, crosstalk is of the same order of magnitude as, or less than,
thermal noise.

▪ Impulse Noise: Sudden spikes of interference, often due to external

sources like lightning. It is generally only a minor annoyance for analog
data. But it is the primary source of error in digital data communication.

C. What are the types of guided media that can be used for data transmission?

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

o Cheap and easy to install.

o Comes in two types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP).
 2. Coaxial Cable:

o Has a central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer jacket.

o Provides better bandwidth and noise resistance than twisted pair.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

o Uses light signals for transmission.

o Has extremely high bandwidth and can carry data over long distances with
minimal loss.

o Immune to electromagnetic interference.

D. Define the following terms in wireless Transmission:

1. Wavelength (λ):

o The physical length of one complete cycle of a wave.

o It is inversely related to frequency:

➢ Wavelength (λ) = Speed of Light (c) / Frequency (f)

o Long wavelengths travel farther but carry less data.

2. Frequency:

o The number of wave cycles that pass a point per second.

o Measured in Hertz (Hz).

o Higher frequency means more data can be transmitted, but range is typically
shorter.

3. Amplitude:

o Refers to the strength or height of the wave.

o Determines the signal’s power or intensity.

o Higher amplitude usually means a stronger signal, but may require more power.
4. Any form of Data communication requires the use of LAN and WAN devices. The
selection of these devices depends upon factors such as cost, flexibility and performance.
Moreover, there are several types of WAN connections that can be used for transmitting
data.

I. Explain the functions of the following devices and how they work?
A. Network Interface Card (NIC)
Function:
➢ A Network Interface Card (NIC) allows a computer or other device to connect to a
network.
How it works:

• It is either built into the motherboard or added as an expansion card.

• Each NIC has a unique MAC address.

• It converts digital data from the computer into signals (electrical, optical, or
wireless) that can be transmitted over a network and vice versa.

• It handles communication at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

B. Switches
Function:
➢ A switch connects multiple devices in a local area network (LAN) and enables them
to communicate efficiently.
How it works:

• It receives data packets and forwards them only to the specific device (port) they are
intended for.

• It uses a MAC address table to track which devices are connected to which ports.

• Operates at Layer 2 (Data Link), although some smart switches can work at Layer 3.

• Reduces unnecessary data traffic and improves network performance compared to

hubs.
C. Routers
Function:
➢ A router connects different networks together, such as a home network to the
internet.
How it works:

• It examines IP addresses in data packets to determine the best path to forward the
data.

• Routes data between networks using routing tables and protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF).

• Works at Layer 3 (Network) of the OSI model.

D. Access Points (APs)

Function:
➢ An Access Point allows wireless devices (like smartphones and laptops) to connect
to a wired network via Wi-Fi.
How it works:

• It connects to a router or switch through an Ethernet cable.

• Converts wired signals into wireless radio signals, enabling Wi-Fi coverage.

• Operates at Layer 2, similar to switches, but for wireless communication.

• Often used to expand the range of a wireless network in larger areas like offices or
schools.

II. What is Ethernet Technology?

➢ Ethernet is a widely used LAN communication standard that defines how devices in a
local network format and transmit data.
• It uses a wired medium (usually twisted pair or fiber-optic cables).
• It operates at high speeds (e.g., 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, or more).
• It uses protocols like CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) to manage data transmission and avoid collisions.
III. What is a Packet Switching Network?

➢ A Packet Switching Network is a method of data transmission where data is broken into
packets, sent independently, and reassembled at the destination.
• Each packet may take a different route to reach the destination.
• It is efficient, as it uses bandwidth only when needed.

6. Describe the function of the following command

A. PING

➢ The Ping command is one of the most widely used commands in the prompt tool. This
command sends four experimental packets to the destination host to check whether it
receives them successfully, if so, then, we can communicate with the destination host.
But in case the packets have not been received, that means, no communication can be
established with the destination host.
• Command to enter in Prompt - ping www.destination_host_name.com

B. NETSTAT

➢ The Netstat command as the name suggests displays an overview of all the network
connections in the device. The table shows detail about the connection protocol, address,
and the current state of the network.
• Command to enter in Prompt – netstat
 C. TRACEROUTE

➢ The TRACERT command is used to trace the route during the transmission of the data
packet over to the destination host and also provides us with the “hop” count during
transmission.
➢ Using the number of hops and the hop IP address, we can troubleshoot network issues
and identify the point of the problem during the transmission of the data packet.
• Command to enter in Prompt- tracert IP-address OR tracert
www.destination_host_name.com

D. HOSTNAME

➢ The HOSTNAME command displays the hostname of the system. The hostname
command is much easier to use than going into the system settings to search for it.
• Command to enter in Prompt – hostname
 E. IPCONFIG

➢ The IPCONFIG network command provides a comprehensive view of information

regarding the IP address configuration of the device we are currently working on.
➢ The IPConfig command also provides us with some variation in the primary command
that targets specific system settings or data, which are:
✓ IPConfig/all - Provides primary output with additional information about network
adapters.
✓ IPConfig/renew - Used to renew the system’s IP address.
✓ IPConfig/release - Removes the system’s current IP address.
• Command to enter in Prompt – ipconfig
 1. Find out information about the network in your lab and fill in the detail below
a) Total no computers in your lab
✓ There are around 60 computers.
b) Take detail of at least five computers and fill in the information below.
MAC address IP address LAN speed Subnet Mask Host name
1 00-E0-4C-36-09-97 [Link] 100.0 Mbps [Link] DESKTOP-VKRMBR2
2 30-24-A9-0F-5F-AB [Link] 100.0 Mbps [Link] DESKTOP-EKETKPR
3 84-A9-3E-A8-89-54 [Link] 100.0 Mbps [Link] DESKTOP-OI79LN7
4 88-AE-1D-58-AA-B7 [Link] 100.0 Mbps [Link] DESKTOP-R66J7K2
5 F4-39-09-E2-48-43 [Link] 100.0 Mbps [Link] DESKTOP-I909PQ8

c) Are the IP addresses assigned to the machines statically or dynamically?

✓ Statically
d) Are the IP addresses Private IP address or Public IP address?
✓ Private IP address
e) Does the network have a DHCP server?
✓ No, the network does not have a DHCP server.
i. If yes, what is the address of the server?
✓ Not applicable, since DHCP is not enabled.
f) Cables used in the network
i. What type/types of cables are used:
Is it coaxial / twisted pair or fiber optic cable?
✓ Twisted Pair Cable
ii. How much is the cable bandwidth?
✓ Cat 6- speeds up to 10 Gbps at 250 MHz
iii. What is the maximum cable length limit that is supported?
✓ 100 meters
iv. What type of connector is used?
✓ RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) -standard Ethernet connector
g) Draw the Network Topology (show how machines and servers are connected
using connectivity devices)