TRANSFORMER EXAM NOTES (20 MARKS)

UNIT 1: BASICS OF AC CIRCUITS - SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (10 MARKS)

1. TRANSFORMER FUNDAMENTALS
Definition: A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction.

Working Principle:

Based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction

Mutually coupled coils: primary and secondary

When AC flows through primary, it creates alternating flux in core

This flux links with secondary winding and induces EMF

EMF Equation:

E₁ = 4.44 f N₁ Φₘ (Primary EMF)

E₂ = 4.44 f N₂ Φₘ (Secondary EMF)

Where: f = frequency, N = turns, Φₘ = maximum flux

Turns Ratio (K):

K = N₂/N₁ = E₂/E₁ = I₁/I₂

Step-up: K > 1 (N₂ > N₁)

Step-down: K < 1 (N₂ < N₁)

2. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Exact Equivalent Circuit:

Primary side: R₁, X₁ (resistance and reactance)

Secondary side: R₂, X₂

Core loss represented by R₀ (parallel)

Magnetizing current by X₀ (parallel)

Referred to Primary:

R₂' = K² R₂
X₂' = K² X₂
 Total resistance: R₀₁ = R₁ + R₂'
Total reactance: X₀₁ = X₁ + X₂'

Equivalent impedance: Z₀₁ = √(R₀₁² + X₀₁²)

Referred to Secondary:

R₁' = R₁/K²
X₁' = X₁/K²

Total resistance: R₀₂ = R₂ + R₁'

Total reactance: X₀₂ = X₂ + X₁'

3. PHASOR DIAGRAMS
No-Load Condition:

V₁ leads I₀ by angle (90° - φ₀)

I₀ has two components: Iₘ (magnetizing) and Iw (core loss)

E₁ lags flux by 90°

On-Load Lagging Power Factor:

Primary: V₁ = E₁ + I₁(R₁ + jX₁)

Secondary: V₂ = E₂ - I₂(R₂ + jX₂)

Load current I₂ lags V₂ by angle φ₂

On-Load Leading Power Factor:

Load current I₂ leads V₂ by angle φ₂

4. OPEN CIRCUIT (OC) TEST

Purpose: Determine no-load parameters and core losses

Connection:

LV side connected to rated voltage

HV side kept open

Wattmeter, voltmeter, ammeter on LV side

Calculations:

Core loss (iron loss): W₀ = Wattmeter reading

 No-load current: I₀ = Ammeter reading

Power factor: cos φ₀ = W₀/(V₁ I₀)

Working component: Iw = I₀ cos φ₀

Magnetizing component: Iₘ = I₀ sin φ₀

R₀ = V₁/Iw = V₁²/W₀

X₀ = V₁/Iₘ

5. SHORT CIRCUIT (SC) TEST

Purpose: Determine copper losses and equivalent impedance

Connection:

HV side supplied with low voltage (5-10% rated)

LV side short-circuited

Wattmeter, voltmeter, ammeter on HV side

Calculations:

Copper loss at full load: Wcu = Wattmeter reading

Short circuit current: Isc = rated current

Impedance: Z₀₁ = Vsc/Isc

Resistance: R₀₁ = Wcu/Isc²

Reactance: X₀₁ = √(Z₀₁² - R₀₁²)

6. EFFICIENCY
Formula: η = (Output Power / Input Power) × 100% η = [Output / (Output + Losses)] × 100%

Losses:

1. Copper Loss (Variable): Wcu = I₂²R (proportional to load)

2. Iron Loss (Constant): Wi = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss

Efficiency at any load:

η = (x × Full Load kVA × cos φ) / (x × FL kVA × cos φ + Wi + x² Wcu) × 100%

Where x = fraction of full load

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

 Iron losses = Copper losses

Wi = x² Wcu

Load at max efficiency: x = √(Wi/Wcu)

All-Day Efficiency:

η = (Output in kWh for 24 hrs) / (Input in kWh for 24 hrs) × 100%

Used for distribution transformers

7. VOLTAGE REGULATION
Definition: Change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load

Formula:

% Regulation = [(E₂ - V₂) / V₂] × 100%

% Regulation = [(V₂₀ - V₂) / V₂] × 100%

Approximate Formula:

% Reg = (I₂R₀₂ cos φ₂ ± I₂X₀₂ sin φ₂) / V₂ × 100%

Use (+) for lagging pf, (-) for leading pf

Per Unit Regulation:

ε = (R₀₂ cos φ₂ ± X₀₂ sin φ₂) / V₂

Zero Voltage Regulation Condition:

Leading power factor load

When: tan φ₂ = R₀₂/X₀₂

8. NUMERICAL ON TURNS RATIO

Example Type 1: Basic Turns Ratio Given: V₁ = 2200 V, V₂ = 220 V Find: Turns ratio Solution: K =
N₂/N₁ = V₂/V₁ = 220/2200 = 0.1 or 1:10

Example Type 2: Current Calculation Given: Turns ratio 10:1, I₂ = 50 A Find: I₁ Solution: I₁/I₂ = N₂/N₁ =
1/10, I₁ = 5 A

Example Type 3: With Efficiency Given: Input = 10 kW, η = 95%, K = 0.1 Find: Primary and secondary
currents if V₁ = 2000 V Solution:

Output = 10 × 0.95 = 9.5 kW

 I₁ = 10000/2000 = 5 A

V₂ = 2000 × 0.1 = 200 V

I₂ = 9500/200 = 47.5 A

UNIT 2: THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER (10 MARKS)

1. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER BASICS

Types:

1. Bank of three single-phase transformers

2. Single three-phase transformer unit (more economical)

Advantages of 3-Phase Transformers:

More economical

Less space required

Better efficiency

Single unit is easier to transport

Phase and Line Relationships:

Star: VL = √3 Vph, IL = Iph

Delta: VL = Vph, IL = √3 Iph

2. CONNECTION CONFIGURATIONS

A. STAR-STAR (Y-Y) CONNECTION

Features:

Neutral available on both sides

VL(primary) = √3 Vph(primary)
VL(secondary) = √3 Vph(secondary)

Voltage Ratio:

K = (VL)secondary / (VL)primary = N₂/N₁

Advantages:

Neutral point available

 Insulation requirement less (phase voltage)

Disadvantages:

Third harmonic problem

Unbalanced operation difficult

Requires neutral grounding

B. DELTA-DELTA (Δ-Δ) CONNECTION

Features:

No neutral point

VL = Vph on both sides

Circulating current for harmonics

Voltage Ratio:

K = (VL)secondary / (VL)primary = N₂/N₁

Advantages:

No third harmonic distortion

Can operate with one transformer failed (V-V or open delta)

Stability under unbalanced loads

Disadvantages:

No neutral point
Higher insulation cost

C. DELTA-STAR (Δ-Y) CONNECTION

Features:

Most common for step-up

Primary in delta, secondary in star

Used in power generation stations

Voltage Ratio:

K = (VL)secondary / (VL)primary = (√3 N₂)/N₁

Phase Shift: 30° (secondary leads or lags primary)

Advantages:

Secondary neutral available

Good for stepping up voltage

Handles unbalanced loads well

D. STAR-DELTA (Y-Δ) CONNECTION

Features:

Primary in star, secondary in delta

Common for step-down

Voltage Ratio:

K = (VL)secondary / (VL)primary = N₂/(√3 N₁)

Phase Shift: 30°

Advantages:

Less insulation on primary

Step-down applications

Neutral on primary side

3. SCOTT CONNECTION (T-T CONNECTION)

Purpose: Convert 3-phase to 2-phase or vice versa

Components:

Two transformers: Main and Teaser

Main transformer: Uses 100% winding, center-tapped

Teaser transformer: Uses 86.6% (0.866 or √3/2) winding

Connection Details:

Teaser primary connected to midpoint of main primary

Each secondary gives single phase
Two secondaries are 90° apart
Applications:

Two-phase furnace operation

Electric railways
Phase conversion systems

Voltage Relationships:

V₂₋phase = (N₂/N₁) × V₃₋phase / √3

4. EFFICIENCY OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

Formula: η = (Output / Input) × 100% η = (√3 VL IL cos φ) / (√3 VL IL cos φ + Total Losses) × 100%

Total Losses:

Iron losses: Wi (constant) × 3 (for three units)

Copper losses: 3 I² R (variable)

Maximum Efficiency:

Occurs when: Wi = Wcu

For 3-phase: 3 × Wi(per phase) = 3 × x² × Wcu(per phase)

Numerical Approach: Given: Rating, voltage, losses Find: Efficiency at given load and pf

Example:
Rating = 100 kVA, cos φ = 0.8 lagging, Wi = 1 kW, Wcu(FL) = 1.5 kW
At full load:

Output = 100 × 0.8 = 80 kW

Total losses = 1 + 1.5 = 2.5 kW

η = 80/(80 + 2.5) × 100% = 96.97%

5. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

Formula (Per Phase Basis): % Reg = [(E₂(ph) - V₂(ph)) / V₂(ph)] × 100%

Approximate Formula: % Reg = [(Iph R cos φ ± Iph X sin φ) / Vph] × 100%

For Different Connections:

Star-Star:

Calculate per phase

 Use phase values

Delta-Delta:

Calculate per phase

Use phase values (VL = Vph)

Delta-Star:

Primary: Delta (use VL)

Secondary: Star (use VL/√3 for calculations)

Star-Delta:

Primary: Star (use VL/√3)

Secondary: Delta (use VL)

6. NUMERICAL PROBLEMS - SAMPLE APPROACHES

Problem Type 1: Turns Ratio with Connections

Given: Star-Delta, VL(primary) = 11 kV, VL(secondary) = 400 V, N₁ = 1000 Find: N₂

Solution:

Primary phase voltage: 11000/√3 = 6351 V

Secondary phase voltage: 400 V (delta)

N₂/N₁ = 400/6351

N₂ = 1000 × 400/6351 = 63 turns

Problem Type 2: Efficiency Calculation

Given: 3-phase, 500 kVA, Wi = 4 kW, Wcu(FL) = 6 kW, Load = 75%, pf = 0.8 Find: Efficiency

Solution:

x = 0.75

Output = 500 × 0.75 × 0.8 = 300 kW

Copper loss at 75% load = 0.75² × 6 = 3.375 kW

Total loss = 4 + 3.375 = 7.375 kW

η = 300/(300 + 7.375) × 100% = 97.6%

Problem Type 3: Voltage Regulation

Given: Star-Star, 100 kVA, 11000/400 V, R = 0.02 Ω, X = 0.08 Ω per phase, pf = 0.8 lagging Find:
Voltage regulation

Solution:

Vph(secondary) = 400/√3 = 231 V

Iph = (100 × 1000)/(√3 × 11000) = 5.25 A (referred to primary)

Or Iph(sec) = (100 × 1000)/(√3 × 400) = 144.3 A

cos φ = 0.8, sin φ = 0.6

% Reg = [(144.3 × 0.02 × 0.8 + 144.3 × 0.08 × 0.6)/231] × 100%

% Reg = [(2.31 + 6.93)/231] × 100% = 4%

Problem Type 4: Scott Connection

Given: 3-phase supply 400 V, N₁/N₂ = 2 Find: 2-phase output voltages

Solution:

Main transformer secondary: V = (400/2) = 200 V

Teaser transformer: Uses 86.6% tap

Both secondaries give 200 V at 90° phase difference

7. IMPORTANT FORMULAS SUMMARY

Turns Ratio:

Y-Y or Δ-Δ: K = N₂/N₁

Δ-Y: K = (√3 N₂)/N₁

Y-Δ: K = N₂/(√3 N₁)

Efficiency:

η = (Output)/(Output + Wi + x² Wcu) × 100%

Max efficiency at: x = √(Wi/Wcu)

Regulation:

% Reg = (IphR cos φ ± IphX sin φ)/Vph × 100%

Scott Connection:

Teaser winding = 0.866 × Main winding

EXAM TIPS
1. Always write given data clearly

2. Draw circuit diagrams for transformer connections

3. Show phasor diagrams for regulation problems

4. Remember √3 factor for star-delta conversions

5. Unit conversion is critical (kW to W, kV to V)

6. For efficiency: distinguish between iron and copper losses

7. Sign convention: (+) for lagging, (-) for leading pf in regulation

8. Scott connection: Remember 0.866 factor

END OF NOTES